May 2017, Vol. 91, No. 5, Rs. 100. 72 pages.

THE INDIAN CONCRETE JOURNAL

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CD on Concrete Bridges
An Icj Compilation

Concrete Bridges have been one of ICJ’s interest areas, and the Ninety-two papers have been divided into
journal has published several papers on this topic during the 13 categories, namely, Bridge construction,
critical period when the sophistication of bridge technology Bridges across major rivers, Rail and road
and construction were on the rise. bridges across Thane creek, Bridges on
Konkan Railway, Design and optimization
ICJ has now compiled important papers published in the
of bridges, Cable-stayed bridges, Pamban
last few decades on a CD showcasing bridge projects in the
bridge, First-of-its-kind bridges, Condition
country.
monitoring and rehabilitation of bridges,
The compilation has been done with the purpose of focusing on Seismic design of bridges, Integral bridges,
technological trends and archiving information. It is expected High performance concrete for bridges and
that this compilation will help provide a compact, ready Delhi Metro.
reference on various facets of concrete bridges.

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 Founded in 1927
THE INDIAN CONCRETE JOURNAL
May 2017, Volume 91, Number 5

Published by ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near

Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400604.
The contents of this journal are contributions
of individual authors, and reflect their
independent opinions, findings, conclusions and
recommendations and do not necessarily imply TECHNICAL PAPERS
that they reflect the views of the Publisher, ACC
Limited. The Publishers are not liable for any
damage or inconvenience, caused to anyone who
Correlation between rapid visual survey score and possible
may have acted on the information contained in
the publication. 12 damage of a building
Ajay K. Sreerama, Chenna Rajaram and R. Pradeep Kumar
The Indian Concrete Journal, ISSN 0019-4565
Copyright © 2017 ACC Limited.
ACC Limited - Registered Office – Cement House,

24
121, Maharshi Karve Road, Mumbai 400 020. Seismic performance of masonry infilled reinforced concrete structures
The copyright, database rights and similar rights Arshad K. Hashmi and Alok Madan
in all materials published in The Indian Concrete
Journal are owned by ACC Limited. None of
this material may be used for any commercial
or public use, other than for the purpose of fair
Investigations on the effect of gradual cooling on the properties of fly
dealing, research or private study, or review of the
contents of the journal, in part or in whole, and
may not be reproduced or stored in any media for
47 ash concrete subjected to sustained elevated temperatures
Shweta Patil and K.B. Prakash
mass circulation without the prior written consent
of the publisher.

54
Durable concrete by packing density method
S.K. Dhawan, Itihas Dhareppagol and B. Bhattacharjee
PUBLISHING / EDITORIAL /
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04 EDITORIAL

Editor: Ashish Patil

Editorial Team:
06 NEWS & EVENTS

Ulhas Fernandes
S.M. Abbas POINT OF VIEW: Environmental clearance Acts
34 and Rules - Evolution and experience
Ajit K. Sinha and K.N. Jha

May 2017, Vol. 91, No. 5, Rs. 100. 72 pages.

THE INDIAN CONCRETE JOURNAL

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Cover image source:
www.linkedin.com/trinh-nguyen
60
Cover May 2017 FINAL MAN ===.indd 1 25/04/2017 7:23:17 AM
POINT OF VIEW: Effect of different aspect ratio of steel fiber on
mechanical properties of high strength concrete
S.S. Kadam and V.V. Karjinni

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 3

 EDITORIAL

EDITORIAL

From the Editor’s Desk...

We close this year with the issue of demonetisation of safety and remaining life expectancy. In order to have an
Rs.1000/- currency and replacement of old Rs.500/- accurate and reliable assessment, an arch dam in South
denomination with new currency. This has affected most India was undertaken as a case study to understand

T
construction sites where
he heat wave payments
in some States tooflabourers
India is are made
affecting the properties
clearances along of with
concrete
some in dams.
case Possible
studies causes by
are covered of
in cash. While companies will have to manage arranging
normal life and also construction activity. Concrete displacement and cracking in
the authors in this Point of View. arch concrete dam were
smaller denomination currency at sites in the interim period, identified in this study.
made under these hot temperature conditions has to factor
many companies are employing innovative methods of Concrete is a composite material with each having different
this and necessary precautions have to be taken to ensure
paying their workmen. Load bearing walls, compound walls, retaining walls,
that the concrete is durable. These and many more topics thermal characteristics. Concrete properties under elevated
dams, chimneys, bridge piers, as masonry structures are
are covered in this issue. temperature are studied and the feasibility of fly ash to be
Computer aided programs are available to analyse shear- quite popular. Because of its low tensile strength, masonry
adopted as partial replacement to cement is investigated
wall frame in high rise buildings. However, a simple and components are designed to resist mainly compressive
Evaluating seismic vulnerability on existing building isthe
a in this paper.
time saving numerical methodology for choosing forces. Need for conservation of heritage structures has
technically complex and expensive procedure and can
preliminary dimensions of a shear wall system is not there. motivated researchers to evaluate the seismic resistance of
only be performed on asuggest
limitedthe
number It is a challenge to achieve high standards of durability
The authors in this paper same! of buildings. unreinforced masonry structures.
Based on the survey of over 1500 buildings, authors use in practice. Distress in many structures is witnessed after
the Rapid over
Estimated Visual
60Screening method
Million houses are where
required thetoselected
be built aFrictional
few years of construction.
resistance of the soilToaround
ensurethe
proper qualitya
pile plays
in rural and
buildings are urban areas
modelled as analysed
and per the Ministry
throughofnumerical
housing. control
critical of
rolethein raw
the material remainsbearing
pile’s ultimate a big challenge for
capacity and
AffordableIthousing
approach. – cost
is observed effective
that aroundand fast dwelling
70-80% units
of reinforced the
this engineers and the
directly affects technicians.
constructionThe quality
author ofreviews the
composite
are the need of the hour. Glass Fibre Reinforced
concrete buildings suffer some damage in this region. Gypsum factors that make
piles, i.e., the concrete
reinforced concretedurable starting from
pile inserting into the
soil
(GFRG) panels offer an innovative solution that addresses cement
mix mixed
design pile. to
process Although composite
the selection piles are
of suitable applied
materials,
construction
Lot speed
of research at area
in the less cost. The authors
of masonry in reinforced
in-filled this paper in practical engineering, the
mixing, and compaction till curing. theory of the characteristics of
have constructed
concrete model apartments
frame structures to demonstrate
indicates that this
buildings built vertical bearing capacity of the pile is inconsistent and not
with minimal steel requirement and minimal involvement perfected.
The effect This paper in
of aspect ‘Point
ratio andof volume
View’ suggests
of steela fibre
practical
on
devoid of in-filled masonry in ground floor is a reason
of labour! and simple formula to calculate vertical bearing
mechanical properties of high strength concrete is studied capacity of
for severe damage to the structure in the event of an
the composite pile. The second
in this paper featured in Point of View.paper under in PoV studies
earthquake. In this study, seismic vulnerability curves are
Can bond strength (between steel and concrete) applied the effect of high temperature on normal and high strength
developed for representative masonry in-filled RC frame
as per the IS code for standard grade of concrete be used RC with
Trust and
these without
papers willsteel fibres.
enrich your knowledge further.
structures simulated with the various distributions of
also for high strength concrete? As design parameters for
masonry infill panels
bond strength over
for high the frame
strength elevation.
concrete is not defined in Wewrite
hopetoIndia manages to put behind the currency crises
Do us with your feedback!
the IS code, investigation to evaluate bond strength of high and leaps forward to a New Year!
There is substantial
strength time and cost
concrete is conducted overrun
which revealsona account of
correlation Best Regards,
delay
of bondin strength
granting with
environmental
compressiveclearances in concrete
strength of project. Write to us with your views and suggestions.
Detail on Environmental
and diameter Impact Assessment and Forest
of reinforcements. Ashish Patil
Wishing you all A Very Happy New Year!
There are many dams that are over 50 years old. These
Best Regards,
‘age old dam’ can be characterized with an increase in
4 structural deterioration
The Indian Concrete resulting
Journal May 2017 in impaired structural Ashish Patil
 NEWS & EVENTS
NATIONAL CONVENTION ON
FERROCEMENT
FS-2017, The 4th National Convention on ferrocement on
the theme of ‘Innovative applications’ will be held during May
12-14, 2017 at Peroor, Kottayam, Kerala. For more details,
visit their website.
Ferrocement Society
p: 8086065566, 8589997181
e: ferrocement@gmail.com
w: www.ferrocementindia.com
Rehabilitation and Strengthening of
Structures
A Two-Day Professional Development Program on
‘Rehabilitation and Strengthening of Structures’ will be held
during 19th & 20th May, 2017 at CETTM, Hiranandani
Gardens, Powai, Mumbai.
This Program has been approved by Engineering Council of
India (ECI) and Construction Industry Development Council
(CIDC). It will be particularly beneficial to civil/ structural
engineers, consultants and contractors as well as faculty and
students of academic institutions.
Technoesis is accredited by Consultancy Development Centre,
DSIR, Ministry of Science & Technology, Government of India
for providing professional training in construction industry.
Dhargalkar Technoesis (I) Pvt. Ltd.
p: (022) 28461500/ 28461317 / 28463012, 9819732195
e: technoesis@gmail.com
w: www.technoesis.co.in
twin events Municipalika and capex
Municipalika Smart and Sustainable Cities 2017 is being
organised during May 18 - 20, 2017 at CIDCO Exhibition
Centre, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, co-located with CAPEx,
6 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
trade show focusing on construction, architecture, planning
and engineering.
The twin-event will be the only one of its kind in India,
focusing on sustainable built-environment and good urban
governance. The three-day conference and exhibition
is targetted at mayors, municipal commissioners, senior
urban development officials from the Central and State
Governments, Urban Local Bodies and Housing Agencies
from all over India, built environment professionals, architects,
planners, and engineers.
Good Governance India Foundation / Fairfest Media Ltd
p: (22) 4555 8555 / (91)(22) 4555 8555
e: contact@municipalika.com / capex@fairfest.com
w: www.municipalika.com / www.capex.co.in
AKC’s May 2017 Programs
The May 2017 programs of Ambuja Knowledge Centre
include the following.
AKC Andheri
• T echnical Lecture on “Manufactured Sand” on 05th
May’2017 (Speaker: Er. Suhash Dhuri, Director,
E Cube Consultants)
• T echnical Lecture on “Design & Execution of
High Performance Concrete” on 26th May’2017
(Speaker: Er. Manish Mokal, AGM QA/QC, Afcons)
• “ Basics of RCC Design & Concept” workshop - 04th
& 05th May’2017.
AKC (Thane) along with ‘Centre of Excellence’, ACC Thane
• T echnical Lecture on “Challenges in Concrete at
RMC” on 26th May,17 (Speaker Er. Sadanand
Govilkar, Technical Head, ACC Limited)
• “ Basics of RCC Design & Concept” Workshop on
25th& 26th May’2017.
AKC Belapur
• “ Repair/ Rehabilitation & Waterproofing” Workshop
on 18th& 19th May’2017.
AKC – North Mumbai
• “ Basics of RCC Design & Concept” Workshop on
23rd& 24th May’2017.
Ambuja Cements Ltd., Mumbai
p: ++91 22 40667620 / 8291885509 / 9167334813
e: foundations.mumbai@ambujacement.com
w: www.foundationsakc.com
 NEWS & EVENTS
Andhra Pradesh Construction
Expo 2017
Andhra Pradesh Construction Expo 2017 will take place
during 2-4 June 2017 at Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh.
It aims to provide lasting synergies within the industry by
creating solid forecasts and imparting tangible take-homes
for all stakeholders.
The New capital of Andhra Pradesh ‘Amaravati’ is just nearby
to Vijayawada city. The new capital will be built with complete
infrastructure and basic amenities. Many construction
companies and Government bodies have to play key role
in building the new capital in near future. The capital region
spread across 7,420 sq.km. The seed capital region covers
8 sq km. Huge buildings in large number have to come up
and many bridges have to built across the Krishna River to
connect the capital with other areas.
Expectations on the new capital city are obviously running high
with active participation of Singapore and Japan governments.
The AP Government, under the dynamic leadership of
Sri. N. Chandrababu Naidu, Hon’ble Chief Minister of the
state is to leave no stone unturned to build a historical capital.
The capital city Amaravathi will stand as testimony for a world
class city. Massive transformation of technology in likely to
take place with building of New capital.
Andhra Pradesh Construction Expo 2017
p : +91-866 - 6539879
e: constructionexpoap@gmail.com
w: www.apconstructionexpo.com
Suppliers to Construction Chemical
Industry to India
The Construction Chemicals Manufacturers Association
(CCMA) the body, mind and soul of the construction
chemicals industry in India will be hosting the 3rd Edition
of International Conference of suppliers to the Construction
Chemical Industry of India will be held at Mumbai during July
4th-5th, 2017 as a two-day event.
The conference would focus on: Raw materials for
construction chemical industry; manufacturing technologies
and equipment; packaging materials and equipment;
application tools, techniques and equipment; communication
tools; formulations of construction chemicals; construction
chemicals market trends.
The event is targetted at: Suppliers to construction chemicals
industry & dry mix mortar and other allied construction
material manufacturers; formulators of construction
chemicals (R&D); marketing teams of construction chemicals
companies; procurement managers of construction chemicals
companies; quality control professionals of construction
chemicals industry
The conference will have focus sessions on various
technologies and presentations by experts from leading
national and international suppliers. CCMA shall provide
brief presentation on the opportunities and challenges faced
by the industry.
Construction Chemicals Manufacturers Association
p: 022 - 2403 6410 / +91-9323551522 / 7875565563
w: www.ccmaindia.com
International Construction
Chemicals Conference (C3)
The Construction Chemicals Manufacturers Association
(CCMA) the body, mind and soul of the construction
chemicals industry in India will be hosting the sixth edition of
The International Construction Chemicals Conference during
July 6th-7th, 2017 at the Lalit, Sahar Airport Road, Mumbai.
Emphasis of this international conference is improvements at
the time of construction, repairs, strengthening, rehabilitation
and protection from future deterioration.
An exciting line-up of industry captains, research scholars
and industry veterans will disseminate vital information on the
emerging materials, methods and practices that are taking
shape in the construction chemicals sector today. Delegates
to C3 will benefit from an insightful program balanced with
an opportunity to create an ideal networking opportunity
that is bound to unite the industry together in its quest for
excellence.
Construction Chemicals Manufacturers Association (CCMA)
p: 022 - 2403 6410 /+91-9323551522 / 7875565563
w: www.ccmaindia.com
The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 7
 NEWS & EVENTS
Structural Engineers World
Congress-SEWC 2017
The Structural Engineers World Congress (SEWC) is organising
an International Colloquium on Architecture-Structure
International for Sustainable Built Environment during July 13
to 15, 2017 at NIMHANS Convention Centre, Hosur Road,
Bengaluru. The special focus is ‘Why Concrete’.
The SEWC Colloquium 2017 in Bengaluru plans to discuss
/ deliberate on today’s issues of global concern and aims to
initiate a dialogue on the idea of creating a sustainable built
environment. An outstanding galaxy of international experts
in the field will deliver keynote addresses in this colloquium.
The colloquium presents a unique and excellent opportunity
to learn more about current practices and trends for the
future.
SEWC 2017
p: +91-9900415386 / 9449767454
e: kumar@sundaramarchitects.com
w: www.sewc-international.org
8 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
ILCC 2017
Indian Institute of Technology Madras (IIT Madras) in
association with Institute for Lean Construction Excellence
(ILCE) is organising ILCC 2017 during July 28-29, 2017 at
IIT Madras.
Adopting Lean concepts has enabled several construction
projects around the world to experience significant
improvements in productivity and profitability. Internationally,
Lean Construction is becoming more and more popular to
solve the many ailments of conventional project delivery.
Today these concepts are also being implemented in the
Indian Construction arena and many leading players have
come forward to implement Lean Concepts in some form or
other.
The main objective of ILCC 2017 Conference is to provide
a platform where Lean construction practitioners - owners,
contractors, consultants, coaches, academics, etc can share
their experiences and go further on the path of successfully
applying Lean concepts to construction. In addition, the
conference will also provide an opportunity for academics
to present their ongoing research findings in the construction
field and interact with industry practitioners to enable industry-
academic collaboration in this field.
The conference will comprise International and Indian keynote
and invited presentations, academic paper presentations and
industrial case-studies on Lean principles across planning,
engineering, procurement and construction. The conference
is organized along the lines of IGLC (International Group
for Lean Construction) and LCI (Lean Construction Institute)
conferences which have been key events in the international
arena and which have enabled wider adoption of Lean
concepts in construction. A pre-conference Workshop will
focus on practical implementation aspects with sessions from
leading Lean coaches and practitioners.
The keynote speakers are:
• Prof. Iris D.Tommelein, Ph.D. University of
California, Berkeley, USA
• Dr. Bhargav Dave, Ph.D. University of Aalto, Finland
• Mr. Anup Mathew, Sr. Vice President & Business
Head - Godrej Construction
• Mr. Lauri Merikallio, Vison Alliance Partners Ltd.,
Finland
ILCC 2017
IIT Madras, Chennai
w: http://www.web.iitm.ac.in/ilcc2017/index.html
NEWS & EVENTS

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 9

 NEWS & EVENTS
CONCRETE 2017
The Indian Concrete Institute is organising Concrete 2017
during July 14-15, 2017 at Hotel Royal Plaza, Ashoka Road,
New Delhi. The theme is ‘Underground Structures’
An architect’s, urban planner’s and visionary’s preference
goes to making infrastructure underground and keep the
ground available for other uses. And, as the time goes by,
more and more underground structures are coming in vogue.
Although, more expensive compared to elevated structures,
underground structures help retaining the cityscape.
One of the finest examples of underground structures is
Paris Metro, wherein everything within the city has been
made underground. Similarly, a 15 km long underground
arterial expressway was constructed in Boston, with the
idea to demolish the elevated arterial expressway. With the
advancement of latest technologies Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai,
Chennai, Bangaluru, Jaipur etc. have also be contributing
underground metro projects. Several long and short vehicular
underpasses have been constructed in various parts of India
and other countries. A multi-storeyed building, today, can’t be
imagined without 2-3 levels below ground for parking.
Underground structures pose varied challenges to the
planners, designers and constructors. An underground
structure has to be located in a way to keep away from
existing as well as future underground structures and utilities.
Stabilising the substrata, dealing with varying rock conditions
etc pose different levels of design challenges. Constructing
diaphragm wall in rock requires expensive trench cutters.
Large diameter piles (3 m diameter and above) are becoming
popular for speedy construction and better seismic resistance,
especially in liquefiable sub-strata. Use of rock anchors,
rock nailing, rock grouting etc are essential ingredients of
an underground construction. Dewatering and waterproofing
find a special importance in underground construction.
Design and construction of Tunnels using TBM and NATM
technologies have their intricacies, which need to be
10 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
addressed suitably. Selection of TBM for different types of sub-
strata requires a very careful planning. For this reason, a more
elaborate geotechnical Investigation is a must. Construction
of cross-passages find their own challenges of temporary/
enabling works. For more details contact the following.
Concrete 2017
p: 9650607824
e: anjali@cimglobal.net
w: www.icindc.org
RILEM WEEK and ICACMS-2017
IIT Madras is hosting the International Conference on Advances
in Construction Materials and Systems (ICACMS-2017)
during September 3 to 8, 2017 at IIT Madras and Hotel Leela
Palace Chennai.
The conference covers several themes related to construction
materials and systems, with the objective of providing the
state of the art coverage on cement and asphalt concrete,
heritage materials, and building systems. Several participants
from the industry, both local and international, are expected,
who will also set up a large exhibition of construction material
related products. The interactions and discussions at the
conference are expected to significantly contribute to the
process of infrastructure development that is currently in full
swing in India.
Besides the conference, it will also host the RILEM Week at
Chennai, where all the standing committees and some of the
active technical committees will meet.
The keynote speakers are:
• Hussain Bahia, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
• Herve di Benedetto, Univ. of Lyon, France
• Robert Flatt, ETH-Zurich, Switzerland
• Douglas Hooton, Univ. of Toronto, Canada
• J Murali Krishna, IIT Madras, India
• Paulo Lourenco, Univ. of Minho, Italy
• Harald Muller, KIT-Karlsruher, Germany
• Peter Richner, EMPA-Zurich, Switzerland
• Karen Scrivener, EPFL-Lausanne, Switzerland
• Chandra Sekhar, NUS, Singapore
• L P Singh, CBRI-Roorkee, India
 NEWS & EVENTS
• David Trejo, Oregon State Univ., USA maintenance and always neglected a lot. The delay that
happens during the construction has its impact on flooring
• Maria Rosa Valuzzi, Univ. of Padova, Italy
schedules and chances are there that, this pressure to complete
• Jason Weiss, Oregon State Univ., USA the flooring within shorter time has its own impact on quality of
flooring which in turn proves to be nightmare for maintenance
RILEM WEEK and ICACMS-2017 department.
e: iitmconcrete@gmail.com
w: www.rilem2017conference.org
However, with changing economic scenario, more information
flow and awareness among the various stake holders in the
International Flooring Conference field, India has been witnessing the silent but sure revolution
Western Region in the area of commercial and industrial flooring. The pressure
increase the industrial growth, focus of lowering maintenance
CII is organising a conference on flooring during September
breakdowns, increased cost of maintenance to increase the
11 to 13, 2017 at The LaLit Mumbai Sahar Airport Road,
Mumbai. overall productivity, are all responsible for industry to also
focus on flooring and its importance.
Flooring is one area in the construction industry that has been
witnessing rapid changes over the past two decades. The
advent of several new technologies and the increasing use of
specialized machinery have meant that the field has changed
beyond recognition, especially with reference to the industrial
and commercial flooring sectors Today industrial floorings
play a very vital role in productivity, safety & housekeeping
which has gradually with time changed from the conventional
cement flooring, tiles etc., to dust free monolithic floors.

In recent years, the safety of concrete floors has been an

essential component especially in Industrial buildings.
The main purpose to provide protection to the slab from
deterioration or contamination, and also not to overlook,
to provide some added benefit such as, wear and tear,
antiskid, chemical resistance, easy maintenance, physical
performance, aesthetics etc. It is quite obvious that no other
surface in a building takes more abuse than floors, regardless
of the type of building, be it industrial or commercial or public.
Though there have been lots of technological advancements
in construction industry, since late last century, flooring
caught up with rest of construction industry little late and it
is witnessing rapid changes over the past two decades. With
the introduction of newer flooring technologies supported by
the increasing use of specialized machinery have meant that
the field has changed beyond recognition, especially with
reference to the industrial and commercial flooring sectors.
The industrial and commercial flooring segments have been
maintaining a healthy pace of growth in the recent few years,
with India emerging as a key market for newer technologies
The Inside Story: Concrete flooring is not given much
importance in terms of its design, durability and cost of
The Outdoor Factor: At the same time, in any industry, the
external flooring consisting of Roads, Walkways, and Pavements
within the factory premises is another nightmare since it has
direct impact on look and movement of vehicles. Though
traditionally bitumen was the most common material used for
external roads, the use of concrete for external applications is
increasing due to its durability and lower maintenance cost.
Another material which is gaining popularity for external road
/ walkway is paver blocks, which can be used both roads as
well as walkways within factory premises and has advantage
of providing varied designs while being laid. For more details
contact the following.
Confederation of Indian Industry
p: 91-22-24931790/3332/0565/0996
e: saurabh.rajurkar@cii.in
w: www.cii.in

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 11

TECHNICAL PAPER

Correlation between rapid visual survey score

and possible damage of a building
Ajay K. Sreerama, Chenna Rajaram and R. Pradeep Kumar

In recent past due to rapid growth of Indian cities, there is a tremendous increase on housing industry, especially in seismic
Zone IV & V. As most of these constructions are without earthquake resistant measures, the built environment in these
zones has been found seismically vulnerable. Detailed seismic vulnerability evaluation is a technically complex and expensive
procedure and can only be performed on a limited number of buildings. The present paper highlights the use of Rapid
visual screening (RVS) method for seismic assessment of reinforced concrete (RC) buildings in Himachal Pradesh state. A RVS
survey has been carried out on 1540 RC buildings, out of which 6 buildings are selected for detailed analysis. The selected
buildings are modeled and analyzed through numerical approach. A correlation graph has been constructed between peak
ground acceleration (PGA) and, RVS, indicating different damage states of a building. Around 80% of RC buildings located in
Zone V of Himachal Pradesh will suffer moderate damage and around 73% of RC buildings located in Zone IV will suffer slight
damage in the event of earthquake with PGA prescribed as per IS 1893.

Keywords: Rapid visual screening; pushover analysis; fragility curves; vulnerability assessment.

INTRODUCTION The most commonly observed damage to RC structures was

cracking and falling of infill walls. The infill walls were very
Structural damages in buildings during an earthquake are
vulnerable and damage to these walls resulted in significant
accepted constructively by majority of seismic codes in
economic loss and human casualties. Many multi-storey
the world, given that there is no human loss. Many new
reinforced concrete buildings collapsed in major cities in
constructions were unaffected by the improvements of
India due to the effect of earthquake. Those buildings had
codes, but the earthquake safety of existing buildings is
ground floors left open for parking with few or no filler
under question. In case of Indian subcontinent, it faces
walls, which resulted in a top-heavy and soft ground-floor
serious earthquake threat due to rapid growth of urban
system. Figure 1 shows damage of RC buildings during past
population, wherein nearly 60% of landmass in India is part
2001 Bhuj earthquake. So, there is urgent need to perform
of moderate-to-severe earthquake prone area. However,
the seismic vulnerability assessment of buildings and
over 80% of population is living in this 60% of the land [1].
suggest possible solutions to retrofit them. Since the detailed
In last decade, India has witnessed around 25 moderate to
assessment of buildings is a complex and expensive task, it
severe earthquakes like 2001 Bhuj earthquake (M7.7), 2004
cannot be performed on all the buildings in an area.
Sumatra earthquake (M9.3), 2005 Kashmir earthquake
(M7.6), 2009 Andaman Islands (M7.5), and 2011 Sikkim
Many studies have been conducted in different cities around
earthquake (M6.8). Around 4.25 lakh casualties and property
the world viz. Tehran, Iran [4,5,6], Dehradun, India [7], Basel,
loss were caused by the above earthquakes (Ref. Table 1).
Switzerland, Kanpur, India [8], Zeytinburnu, Turkey [9],
The Indian Concrete Journal, May 2017, Vol. 91, Issue 5, pp. 12-23. Gandhidham, India [10], and Nanded, India [11]. It exposed

12 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

TECHNICAL PAPER

Table 1. Major earthquake in India [2]

S.No Date Epicenter Location Mw Casualties

1 1818 Jun 16 (23.60, 68.60) Kutch,Gujarat 8.0 2000

2 1869 Jan 10 (25.00, 93.00) Nearcachar, Assam 7.5 Unknown
3 1885 May 30 (34.10, 74.60) Sopor, J&K 7.0 Unknown
4 1897 Jun 12 (26.00, 91.00) Shillong plateau 8.7 1500
5 1905 Apr 04 (32.30, 76.30) Kangra, HP 8.0 19000
6 1918 Jul 08 (24.50, 91.00) Srimangal, Assam 7.6 Unknown
7 1930 Jul 02 (25.80, 90.20) Dhubri, Assam 7.1 Unknown
8 1934 Jan 15 (26.60, 86.80) Bihar-Nepal border 8.3 10700
9 1943 Oct 23 (26.80, 94.00) Assam 7.2 Unknown
10 1950 Aug 15 (28.50, 96.70) Arunachal Pradesh-China Border 8.5 1526
11 1956 Jul 21 (23.30, 70.00) Anjar, Gujarat 7.0 Unknown
12 1967 Dec 10 (17.37, 73.75) Koyna, Maharashtra 6.5 177
13 1975 Jan 19 (32.38, 78.49) Kinnaur, HP 6.2 Unknown
14 1988 Aug 06 (25.13, 95.15) Manipur-Myanmar border 6.6 1000
15 1988 Aug 21 (26.72, 86.63) Bihar-Nepal border 6.4 1004
16 1991 Oct 20 (30.75, 78.86) Uttarkashi, UP 6.6 2000
17 1993 Sep 30 (18.07, 76.62) Latur-Osmanabad, Maharashtra 6.3 9748
18 1997 May 22 (23.08, 80.06) Jabalpur,MP 6.0 38
19 1999 Mar 29 (30.41, 79.42) Chamoli Dist, UP 6.8 100
20 2001 Jan 26 (23.40, 70.28) Bhuj , Gujarat 7.7 20023
21 2004 Dec 26 (03.34, 96.13) Off West Coast of Sumatra 9.3 283106
22 2005 Oct 08 (34.48, 73.61) Kashmir 7.6 74500
23 2009 Aug 10 (14.01, 92.92) Andaman Islands, India region 7.5 Unknown
24 2011 Sep 18 (27.7, 88.2) Sikkim Nepal border 6.8 Unknown

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 13

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 2. Distribution of major earthquakes in HP from Table 3. District-wise area under seismic zones V and IV
1900-1963 [24] of HP and district-wise number of earthquakes from 1800-
S.No Date Magnitude District 2008 (>M4.0) [24]
1. 04 April 1905 8.0 Kangra S.No District Area under Area under Number of
seismic seismic earthquakes
2. 28 February 1906 7.0 Kullu Zone V (%) Zone IV (%)
3. 09 October 1914 6.1 Chamba
4. 11 May 1930 5.5 Mandi 1. Kangra 98.8 1.2 39

5. 22 June 1945 6.5 Chamba 2. Mandi 97.4 2.6 53

6. 10 July 1947 6.2 Chamba 3. Hamirpur 90.9 9.1 2
7. 12 August 1950 5.5 Chamba 4. Chamba 53.2 46.8 186
8. 15 September 1962 5.5 Kangra
5. Kullu 53.1 46.9 19
9. 12 April 1963 5.4 Kinnaur
6. Una 37.0 73.0 0
7. Bilaspur 25.3 74.7 1
Lahul and
8. 2.14 97.86 99
Spiti
the amount of structural deficiencies and construction 9. Shimla 0.38 99.62 49
practices to be considered for new buildings, but the detailed 10. Solan 1.06 98.94 4
evaluation for the existing buildings is under question. A
11. Sirmaur -- 100 8
few international practices have been quoted the importance
12. Kinnaur -- 100 93
of detailed structural assessment to understand the seismic
behavior of existing structures[12,13,14,15].

The seismic vulnerability assessment of buildings has been

first carried out in early 1970’s through empirical methods, most deadly and devastating disasters of all time in India.
where structural damage is provided as a function of An earthquake of 8.0 magnitude having epicenter at 32
0

intensity[16,17,18]. In 2005, the intensity has been changed 0

from MSK scale to MCS intensity scale [19]. On other
side, an approach called Vulnerability Index Method has
been extensively used in Italy[20]. Alternative empirical
vulnerability functions have also been proposed using normal
or lognormal distributions, which do not use macro-seismic
intensity or PGA to characterize the ground motion but are
related to the spectral acceleration or spectral displacement
at the fundamental elastic period of vibration [21,22,23].
In this study, an attempt has been made to understand the
damage index of reinforced concrete buildings by correlating
its observed RVS scores in the state of Himachal Pradesh.
For this purpose, 1540 RC buildings are surveyed and RVS
scores are calculated, out of which 6 selected buildings have
been evaluated in detail. A qualitative study of seismic
assessment of RC buildings is done for a region.
STUDY AREA OF HIMACHAL PRADESH (HP)
Himachal Pradesh state is located 31.103°N, 77.172°E and lies
in the Himalayan Mountains. The seismic activity of this area
is closely associated with the active faults and the regional
tectonic features which include Main Boundary Thrust
(MBT) and Main Central Thrust (MCT) running parallel to
Himalayas. As it is located in the western Himalaya, it has
experienced major earthquakes in the past shown in Table 2.
The beginning of the 20th century was marked by one of the
16’ N and 77 15’ E that occurred on 4 April 1905, caused
widespread damages in the state and other parts of north-
west India. An earthquake of magnitude 7.0 on the Richter
scale occurred on 28 February 1906 at 320 00’ N and 770 00’
E in Kullu valley. The other high-intensity earthquakes
(magnitude above 6) occurred in the years 1914, 1945 and
1947. There were four earthquakes of medium intensity
(magnitude 5–5.9) that occurred in 1930, 1950, 1962 and 1963.
The entire state is at risk of being affected by a severe seismic
event. About 32% of the total geographical area of HP falls
in the very high seismic zone V, while the rest (68%) lies
in the high seismic zone IV. Ten out of 12 districts fall in
the very high seismic zone. Three districts have over 90%
of their geographical area prone to very high seismicity.
Two districts have more than 50% of the geographical area
with the severest seismic intensity: Chamba (53.2%), and
Kullu (53.1%). During 1800–2008, about 70% of earthquakes
occurred in three districts, namely, Chamba, Lahul and Spiti,
and Kinnaur. Three districts, Solan, Hamirpur and Bilaspur,
have less than 1%, whereas in Una district, no earthquake
has ever been recorded during this period [24]. Table 3
shows the distribution of seismic area of HP under IV and V
and number of occurrence of earthquakes (>M4.0). Figure 2
shows the seismicity and the location of fault map of the
state of Himachal Pradesh.

14 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 4. General information and geometry details of selected
RC buildings
Specification Building I Building II Building III

General building information

Location Mandi Mandi Hamirpur

Latitude 31˚32’02’’ N 31˚32’4’’ N 31˚40’80’’ N

Longitude 76˚54’13’’ E 76˚53’23’’ E 76˚31’473’’ E

Year of construction - - 2005

Storeys G+1 G+1 G+1

Seismic zone V V IV

RVS score 61 95 125

Structural details

Length (m) 10.05 12.85 13.5

Width (m) 6.6 8.7 10.7

Figure 2. Seismicity and location of faults of Himachal Pradesh
Storey height (m) 3 3 3
200 Column dimension (m ) 2
0.3x0.3 0.23x0.46 0.25x0.34
Bilaspur
2
Chamba Beam dimension (m ) 0.3x0.3 0.23x0.46 0.23x0.22
Hamirpur
150 Kangra
Slab thickness (m) 0.1 0.125 0.25
Kullu External wall thickness (m) 0.23 0.23 0.23
No. of RC Buildings

Lahul
Mandi Internal wall thickness (m) 0.1 0.1 0.1
100 Shimla
Sirmur
Solan
Una Specification Building IV Building V Building VI
50
General building information

Location Shimla Shimla Hamirpur

0
0 50 100 150 200 Latitude 31˚05’39’’ N 31˚40’58’’ N -
RVS Score
Longitude 77˚10’36’’ E 77˚10’10’’ E -
(a)
800 Year of construction - - 2000

700 Storeys G+1 G+1 G+1

Seismic zone V V IV
600
No. of RC buildings

RVS score 135 115 115

500
Structural Details
400
Length (m) 25.7 10.55 11.4
300 Width (m) 6.35 7.23 9.4

200 Storey height (m) 3.6 3.0 3.0

100 Column dimension (m2) 0.40x0.45 0.30x0.30 0.30x0.30

2
Beam dimension (m ) 0.40x0.50 0.30x0.30 0.23x0.22
0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Slab thickness (m) 0.25 0.25 0.25
RVS score
(b) External wall thickness (m) 0.23 0.23 0.23

Internal wall thickness (m) 0.1 0.1 0.1

Figure 3. Normal distribution of RC buildings surveyed in Himachal
Pradesh (a) district wise and (b) HP state

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 15

TECHNICAL PAPER

Figure 4. General view of selected RC buildings

DETAILED ANALYSIS OF RC BUILDINGS Figure 4 and the geometry details are shown in Table 4. M25
grade of concrete and Fe415 steel are used in this analysis. A
Over 9099 buildings have been surveyed, which consists
discrete approach called Applied Element Method (AEM)
of different typology of buildings. Out of which 1540 are
has been used to model selected buildings. The numerical
RC buildings and 6 among them have been selected from
method and its mathematical formulation are described
various districts for the purpose of detailed analysis. The
in the following section. Soil-structure interaction analysis
selection of buildings is mainly based on RVS score, and year
has not been considered in this analysis. The base of the
of construction. The normal distribution of RC buildings in
building is assumed to be fixed. The numerical modeling of
the state of Himachal Pradesh as per district wise and state
all buildings is shown in Figure 5.
is shown in Figure 3. The selected buildings are shown in

Building-I Building-II Building-III

Building-IV Building-V Building-VI

Figure 5. Numerical modeling of RC structures

16 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER
MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION is replaced by the reinforcement bar and the coordinates
of the springs representing the reinforcement bars are
Modeling of RC
defined by the nearest spring. The general stiffness matrix
For the purpose of this study Applied Element Method components corresponding to each degree of freedom are
is used [25]. It is a discrete method in which the elements EdT and the forces
GdT
Kn 
determined by assuming unit displacement ; Ks 
are connected by pair of normal and shear springs which are at the centroid of each element. Theaelement stiffnessa
are distributed around the element edges. These springs matrix size is 6x6. The stiffness matrix components diagram
represents the stresses and deformations of the studied is shown in Figure 6. S  k sin 2 (   ) 
11 n k
element. The elements motion is rigid body motion and the
internal deformations are taken by springs only. The spring The stiffness matrix is shown below. S 22  k s sin (   ) 
2

stiffness is determined as,

S33  k nl 2 cos 2 ( )  k s
 S11 S12 S13  S11  S12 S16 
EdT GdT S12  0.5(sin 2(   ))
Kn 
; Ks 
S
 12 S 22 S 23  S 21  S 22 S 26 
(1) ...(1) S13  k s l sin( ) cos( 
a a  S13 S 23 S 33  S 31  S 32 S 36 
  S 23  k nl cos( ) cos( 
S11distance
where ‘d’ is the 2
(   springs,
 k n sinbetween ‘T’2 (is the
)  k s cos  thickness
)  S14 S 24 S 34 S11 S12 S 46 
 S16  S11dy  S12dx 
of the element and ‘a’ is2 the length of the2 representative  S15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 22 S 
S 22 are
 k sthe (   )and
sinYoung’s  kshear (   ) of the
n cos modulus  S 26  S12dy  S 22dx 
56
area, ‘E’ and ‘G’ 
2
case(
S 33  k nl Incos
material, respectively. 2
 k s l sin ( )the area (dT)
2 2
of)reinforcement,
 S16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S66  S36  S13dy  S 23dx 
 S11  S12 S16 
S12  0.5(sin 2(   ))(k s  k n ) S 46 S11dy  S12dx  S
 S 21  S 22 S 26  S 56 S12dy  S 22dx  S
S13  k s l sin( ) cos(   )  k nl cos( ) sin(   )
 S 31  S 32 S 36  S 66  S16dy  S 26dx 
 S 23  k nl cos( ) cos(   )  k s l sin( ) sin(   ) (2)
S11 S12 S 46 
 S16  S11dy  S12dx  S13
S 45 S 22 S  x ax
 S 26  S12dy  S 22dx  S 23 2 b  c
56

S 46 S 56 S66  S36  S13dy  S 23dx  S33 a a

S 46 S11dy  S12dx  S13
2
S 56 S12dy  S 22dx  S 23 1   2    2  2
S 66  S16dy  S 26dx  S36
p    1  
2  2 
x ax
2 b  c fb f
 t' 
1
a a (3)
'
fb ft

2 V   .S aW ;
1   2    2  2
p    1   PF .SD. ro
 roof 
2  2  (4)
 roof
fb f
SD 
'
 t' 
1 (5) PF . roof
fb ft

V   .S aW ;
PF .SD. roof ;
 roof 
(6)
 roof
SD 
PF . roof

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 17

 EdT GdTPAPER
n  TECHNICAL
; Ks  (1)
a a
of the springs subjected to tension is assumed to be zero.
S11  k n sin (   )  k s cos (   )
2 2
For reinforcement, bi-linear stress strain relationship is
assumed. After yield of reinforcement, steel spring stiffness
S 22  k s sin 2 (   )  k n cos 2 (   )
is assumed as 0.01 of initial stiffness. After reaching 10% of
S  k l 2 cos 2 ( )  k s l 2 sin 2 ( ) strain, it is assumed that the reinforcement bar is cut. The
2 S16  33 n force carried by the reinforcement bar is redistributed force
S12  0.5(sin 2(   ))(k s  k n )
2 S 26  to the corresponding elements in reverse direction. The
S13  k s l sin( ) cos(   )  k nl cos( ) sin(   ) material models[25] for concrete, both in compression and
S 36 
 S 23  k nl cos( ) cos(   )  k s l sin( ) sin(   )
2 tension and the reinforcement bi-linear model are shown in
(2)
S 46  ... (2) Figure 7.
 S16  S11dy  S12dx  S13
S56 S

 26  S12dy  S 22dx  S 23 Failure Criteria
S66 S  S dy  S dx  S To determine the principal stresses at each spring location,
36 13 23 33

S 46 S11dy  S12dx  S13 the following technique is used in this analysis. The shear
and normal stress components at point A are determined
S56 S12dy  S 22dx  S 23 from the normal and shear springs attached at the contact
S 66  S16dy  S 26dx  S36 point location shown in Figure 8.

x Howevera  xthe global stiffness matrix is generated by summing

 bupall the local
 c stiffness matrices for each element. p
1

a a (3)
c
2 (B)
Material Model (A)

The material model

2 used in this analysis is Maekawa vo
  2 compression
  1   2model
 [25].2 In this model, the tangent modulus
b
is calculated
    to the strain at the spring location.
according
uo

2  peak
After
2 stresses,
 spring stiffness is(4)assumed as a
Contact point ro

minimum value to avoid having a singular matrix[25]. The Initial D.O.Fs

fb difference
ft between spring stress and stress corresponding a
 strain
to 1 at the spring location are redistributed in(5)each
 (a) (b)
f b' ft '
increment in reverse direction. For concrete springs are
subjected to tension, spring stiffness is assumed as the initial Figure 8. (a) Principal stress determination and (b) Redistribution of

V  .S W ;
stiffness till ait reaches crack point. After cracking, stiffness spring forces at element edges

PF .SD. roof ;
 roof 
(6)
 roof
SD 
PF . roof

18 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

 16 11 12 13
S 45 S 22 S 
 S 26  S12dy  S 22dx  S 23
56

S 46 S 56 S
66 
 S36  S13dy  S 23dx  S33
TECHNICAL
 S 46PAPER
S11dy  S12dx  S13
S 56 S12dy  S 22dx  S 23
The secondary stress σ2 from normal stresses and at point B MODELING OF BRICK MASONRY
and C can  S 66  Sby
be calculated 16dy  S 26the
using dxequation
 S36 given below:
In brick modeling, each brick unit is represented by a
set of square elements, where mortar joints lie in their
x ax corresponding contact edges. In spring level, springs that
2 b  c
a
a ...(3)
(3)
lie within one unit of brick are termed as ‘unit springs’.
For those springs, the corresponding domain material is
The principal stress is calculated as: brick as isotropic nature and they are assigned to structural
2 properties of brick. Springs those accommodate mortar joints
1   2  1   2  2
p      are treated as ‘joint springs’. They are defined by equivalent
2  2  properties based on respective portion of unit and mortar
(4)
...(4) thickness. The configuration of brick units, joints and their
representation is shown in Figure 9.
fb f
'
 t'  1 (5)
The value off bprincipal
ft stress σp is compared with the tension Where Eb and Gb are Young’s modulus and shear modulus of
resistance of the studied material. When σp exceeds the critical brick unit, respectively, whereas Em and Gm are Young’s modulus
value of tension 
V resistance,
 .S aWthe; normal and shear spring and shear modulus of mortar, respectively. Thickness of wall and
forces are redistributed in the next increment by applying mortar are denoted as ‘T’ and ‘th’. A composite material model is
the normal and shear  PFforces
roof spring .SD.in roof ; 
the reverse direction. considered which takes into account both brick and mortar. Brick
These redistributed forces are transferred to the element (6) are assumed to follow principal stress failure criteria with
springs
center as a force and moment, roofand then these redistributed linear elastic behavior. Once there is splitting of brick reaching
SD 
forces are applied to the structure in the next increment. A elastic limit, normal and shear stress are assumed not to transfer

PF . roofof brick masonry is given
brief description about modeling
below.

Inside a brick : element springs

T:Wall thickness
At mortar interface : joint springs
a

1 n a-th th th
Kn eq
=
axT ( Eb
+
Em
(
Kn = Eb x T 1 n a-th th
n
Kn eq
=
axT ( Gb
+
Gm
(
Ks = Gb x T 'n' springs
n 'n' springs

Figure 9. Discretization of brick masonry in AEM

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 19

 x ax
2 b  c
a a (3)

TECHNICAL PAPER 2
1   2  1   2 
 cracked surface
through  2 state. The brick spring’s failure
 intensile displacement control is used till complete collapse of the
2 2
criterionis based on a failure envelope given by, building. The base shear vs roof displacement plots for
(4)
buildings are shown in Figure 10. For each roof displacement,
fb ft base shear is calculated as the summation of horizontal forces
'
1
 ' 
...(5) (5) at the bottom of each column. The pushover curve pattern
fb ft
mainly depends on three parameters i.e., initial stiffness,
strength, and ductility. From the analysis, it is observed that
Where Vfband .fSt aare
Wthe 
; principal compression and tensile all buildings have same initial stiffness except building-1.
stresses, respectively, and f’b and f’t are the uni-axial
 roof and
compression
 PFtensile strengths,

.SD. roof ; respectively. The failure Building-4 has high strength compared to strength of all
(6) buildings. The length of building-4 is around four times the
criterion of mortar joint is explained in detail by Bishnu [26]
 roof
width and the aspect ratio is 0.243 in X direction and 0.95 in
SDA nonlinear pushover analysis has been done to
in 2004. Y direction, respectively. The amount of force required to
evaluate the capacity  roof
PF . of selected RC buildings. push the building along low aspect ratio direction is higher
compared to other direction. Later, the analysis has been
NONLINEAR STATIC PUSHOVER ANALYSIS
carried out to calculate damage of the building through
Pushover analysis is mainly to evaluate the capacity of fragility curves. The description about fragility curves is
existing buildings and retrofit them. It can also be applied given in the following section.
for new structures. It is necessary to know the performance
of any building and collapse pattern. For the purpose of FRAGILITY CURVES
study, non-linear static pushover analysis is quiet helpful. It Fragility curves are the plot of damage parameter against
is an incremental static analysis used to determine the force- spectral acceleration. The damage parameter is calculated
displacement relationship. The analysis involves applying using energy principles[27,28,29]. The total energy
horizontal loads, in a prescribed pattern, onto the building dissipation of building during application of lateral
incrementally and plotting the total applied lateral force and displacement is the area under pushover curve. The elastic
associated lateral displacement at each increment, until the and inelastic energies of the building are calculated at each
building achieves collapse condition. A plot of the total base displacement. The schematic diagram represents calculation
shear versus roof displacement of a building is obtained of damage from pushover curve shown in Figure 11.
from this analysis that would indicate any premature failure
or weakness. The damage parameter (D) is denoted as the ratio of inelastic
energy to the total energy of building. The dissipated energy
In this analysis, pushover analysis is done for all selected at point ‘i’ is inelastic energy in damage calculation. The
RC buildings. The building is pushed either load control dissipated energy till collapse gives rise to total energy in
or displacement control to obtained base shear vs roof
displacement curve for a building. In this analysis

Linear Ei
behavior Inelastic Di = ;
Emax
Base shear (kN)

1600 energy
Building-1 E
1400 Building-2 Di+1 = Ei+1
i+1 max
Building-3
i
1200 Building-4
Building-5
1000 Building-6
Base shear (kN)

Non-linear
800 behavior
600
Elastic
400 energy
Roof displacement (m)
200

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 Total/max energy
Roof displacement (m)

Figure 11. Schematic diagram represents base shear vs roof

Figure 10. Pushover curves for selected RC buildings displacement of building for calculating damage

20 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

 EdT GdT
; Ks 
 TECHNICAL
a PAPER
n (1)
a
S11  k1n sin 2 (   )  k s cos 2 (   ) 0.9
0.9 Collapse
k s sin (   )  k n cos (   )
S 22  0.8 2 2
0.8
Damage parameter (d)

S  0.7k l 2 cos 2 ( )  k s l 2 sin 2 ( ) 0.7

Severe damage
2 S16  33 0.6n 0.6
0.5(sin 2(   ))(k s  k n )
S12  0.5
S 26 

PGA (g)
2 Building-1 0.5
S13  k s l sin( ) cos(   )  k nl cos( ) sin(
0.4
  )
Building-2
Moderate damage

S 36  0.3 Building-3 0.4

2
k nl cos( ) cos(   )  k s l sin( ) sin(
 S 23  0.2   )
Building-4 (2) Slight damage
S 46  0.1
Building-5 0.3
 S16  S11dy  S12dx  S13 Building-6
S  0 0.2

 S 26  S12dy  S 22dxSpectral
 S 23
56 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0.1 No damage
S66 S  S dy  S dx  S
acceleration (g)
36 13 23 33 0
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
S 46 12.
Figure
S11dy  S dx  S
Fragility12curves for13RC buildings RVS Score
S 56 S12dy  S 22dx  S 23
S 66  S16dy  S 26dx  S36 Figure 13. Generalized damage state of building w.r.t RVS score
and PGA for RC buildings
damage calculation. With these damage values, fragility
x curvea hasx generated which is in terms of displacement.
 bFigure 12
  c fragility curves for all buildings. It is
a shows
a necessary to convert displacement (3)into acceleration. building in an area through fragility curves is difficult
Following is the procedure: task. The RVS score of buildings can be easily calculated
2 in an area. In this study an attempt has been made done
  2 Step-1:
  1 Spectral
  2  accelerations
2 (Sa) are calculated using
4π(SD)/T
 2  
. Where SD=spectral displacement and T=time
to correlate the damage state of a building with RVS score
2  2  and PGA value of a region. Figure 13 shows the generalized
period. (4) damage state of building w.r.t RVS score and PGA for RC
buildings. The damage state of building can be said, if RVS
f t The spectral displacement (SD) values are calculated
f b Step-2: score of the building and location of building. The safety of
  1 shear relation
from base (5)
f b' f t' the building is dependent on high RVS score of the building.
According to IS-1893(part1):2002 [30], the zone factors for
V   .S aW ; Zone-IV and V are 0.24 g and 0.36 g, respectively. A RC
building, whose RVS score is 100, experience slight damage
PF .SD. roof ;
 roof  in Zone-IV and moderate damage in Zone-V. The damage
(6) values are calculated for 1540 RC buildings in the state of
...(6)
 roof Himachal Pradesh and found that 80% of RC buildings
SD  located in zone-V of will suffer moderate damage and 73%
PF . roof of RC buildings located in zone-IV will suffer slight damage.

Where, V-base shear, W-seismic weight of structure, PF-
participation factor.
Step-3: Fragility curve can be drawn with acceleration and
corresponding damage.
The damage states of the building were defined as no damage
(D<0.2), slight damage (D<0.4), moderate damage (D<0.6),
severe damage (D<0.8) and complete collapse (D>0.8). From
the above study, it is observed that building-1 experience
complete collapse, if the building is subjected to PGA of
0.24 g. The building-3 does not experience any damage for
the same PGA value. Measuring the damage state of each
CONCLUSIONS
A correlation has been done on damage parameter with RVS
score of a building and PGA of a region. For this purpose, 1540
RC buildings are surveyed and RVS scores are calculated.
Out of which 6 buildings have been evaluated in detail. A
nonlinear pushover analysis has been done to calculate the
capacity of buildings. The damage parameters are quantified
for buildings using energy based approach. A relation has
been proposed to quantify the damage parameter of a
building using PGA of a region and RVS score of a building.
Around 80% of RC buildings located in Zone-V of Himachal
Pradesh will suffer moderate damage and around 73% of RC
buildings located in zone-IV will suffer slight damage.

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 21

TECHNICAL PAPER
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16. Whitman, R.V., Reed, J.W. and Hong, S.T., Earthquake Damage
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delle Costruzioni, 1984, Vol. 149, No. 1, pp. 66-74.
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in Himalayas: the case of Himachal Pradesh, India, Geomatics,
Natural Hazards and Risk, 2010, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 69-84.
25. Hatem, T. D., A New Efficient Method for Nonlinear, Large
Deformation and Collapse Analysis of Structures, Ph.D Thesis,
Civil Engg. Dept., University of Tokyo, September, 1998.
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behavior under in plane lateral loading using applied element
method, The 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
2004, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
27. Pradeep, R. K., and Murty, C. V. R., Critical Review of Indian
Seismic Code; IS:1893-2002, Proc. of International Colloquium
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Development, 2013, New Delhi. 
28. Rajaram, C., Pradeep, R. K., Singh, A. P., Mohan, K., and Rastogi,
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based Approach, Journal of Indian Society of Structural Engineers
(ISSE), 2014, Vol.16, No.4, pp.13-24.
29. Vimala A., Expended Energy Based Seismic Damage Assessment
Method for RC Bare Frames, Ph.D Dissertation, Earthquake
Engineering Research Centre, International Institute of
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Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
TECHNICAL PAPER

Sreerama Ajay Kumar holds an M.Tech from IIIT Hyderabad; pursuing another master’s in Earthquake
Engineering at ROSE School, Italy. He has contributed his research in the field of earthquake engineering
which are published in technical papers in national and international Journals. His areas of interest in
research are seismic safety of irregular buildings with mass and stiffness irregularities.

Chenna Rajaram holds a PhD degree from International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad
(IIIT-H). He is an Assistant Professor at RGMCET, Nandyal, AP. He has published over 25 papers in
national and international journals and conferences. His research interests are earthquake engineering and
structural dynamics, analytical and numerical simulation of ground motions, and applied element method.

R. Pradeep Kumar, holds a Ph.D degree from University of Tokyo, Japan. He is a Professor and Head of
Earthquake Engineering Research Centre (EERC) at IIIT Hyderabad. His research interests are numerical
modeling of faults and tectonic plates, collapse simulation of buildings, seismic evaluation and strengthening
of buildings and concrete codes in India. He is a panel member of IS 456 and IS 1343 (CED2). He is also a
panel member of IS 1893, and IS 13920 (CED39).

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 23

TECHNICAL PAPER

Seismic performance of masonry infilled

reinforced concrete structures
Arshad K. Hashmi and Alok Madan

Inspite of intense research in the area of masonry infilled reinforced concrete (RC) frame structures in recent past,
displacement-based non-linear analyses of masonry infilled RC frames with explicit consideration of infill panels as
structural elements is far from common practice in earthquake resistant design of structures. This is mostly due to the
analytical complexity in modelling the infill panel realistically. The present paper is based on an analytical study of
the seismic performance of typical planar masonry infilled RC frames considering the effect of distribution of masonry
infill panels over the elevation of the RC frame using rational displacement based analysis methods such as non-
linear dynamic time-history analysis and non-linear static force-displacement (push-over) analysis based on realistic
and efficient hysteretic models of the structural elements. The objective of the present study is to develop seismic
vulnerability curves for representative masonry infilled RC frame structures with the various commonly implemented
seismically undesirable and corresponding preferred distributions of masonry infill panels over the frame elevation.

Keywords: Seismic performance; seismic vulnerability; seismic demand; pushover analysis; capacity spectrum method; performance based
seismic engineering.

INTRODUCTION earthquake (1999). In 1897 Shilong, north-eastern Assam

Major stock of multi-storey buildings in urban India and,
in general, Asia is constructed as reinforced concrete (RC)
framed structures with masonry infills for architectural,
functional and economic reasons. Presently there is no
statistically viable observational database available on the
post-earthquake seismic damage of building structures
surveyed by experts in India. However, it is observed
that the buildings in which the masonry infill panels are
discontinued above the base for reasons of functionality to
create an open storey for parking, commonly known as a
‘soft’ and / or ‘weak’ storey at the base of the buildings have
suffered severe damage and in some cases complete collapse
in the recent Nepal earthquake (2015), Bhuj earthquake
(2001) in Gujarat (India) and in Adapazari (Turkey)
The Indian Concrete Journal, May 2017, Vol. 91, Issue 5, pp. 24-33.
in India has experienced an earthquake of Richter scale
magnitude 8.6, one of the great ground shaking recorded
anywhere in the world. The seismologist reported that there
is a substantial evidence to expect that one or more of such
great earthquakes may be overdue in the Himalayan arc
threatening millions of people, of the Indo-Gangetic plains
of India and surrounding countries of India [1].
In the disaster preparedness and response planning, the
regional seismic hazard and loss assessment of structures
are essential information, which can be provided in terms
of seismic vulnerability curves for structures [2]. The
seismic vulnerability curves predicts the proportion of the
exposed building stock in each damage state in the event
of an earthquake of given severity. Seismic vulnerability
curves may be defined as functions that relate the multiple

24 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

TECHNICAL PAPER
performance limit states of a structure to a parameter of
the severity of the ground motion. The vulnerability curves
may thus be considered as a graphical representation of
seismic risk. The performance limit state may be quantified
in many ways such as the maximum inter-storey drift, the
top displacement of the structure and a related damage state
of the structure. The three performance limit states that are
considered most important are immediate occupancy (IO),
life safety (LS) and collapse prevention (CP) [3]. The severity
of the earthquake ground motion may be represented
by spectral ordinates such as the spectral displacement
(Sd), velocity (Sv) and acceleration (Sa) or ground motion
intensity (I) or simply the peak ground acceleration (pga)
of the earthquake. Thus there are different methodologies
for development of vulnerability curves depending upon
different analysis procedure, structural model, damage
model and seismic hazard.
The analytical methods for derivation of probabilistic
vulnerability functions are computationally intensive and
time-consuming, as a large number of analyses are generally
required to fully represent the uncertainties associated with
the material properties, structural parameters and ground
motion [4]. Lang and Bachmann (2004) represented the
seismic vulnerability in a deterministic format by plotting
the displacement demand on the structure as a function
of the spectral displacement of the earthquake [5]. The
displacement demand was quantitatively related to a
measure of structural damage called damage grade [5]. The
damage grades, which can be qualitatively interpreted based
on a classification of the observed physical damage, were
identified on the plot of the displacement demand versus
spectral displacement [6]. The alternative deterministic form
of vulnerability curves proposed by Lang and Bachmann [6]
can be derived with substantially lesser computational effort
and will be termed as seismic demand curves in the present
study.
There is no formal scientific database on the seismic damage
observed in the masonry infilled RC framed building stock
during the past earthquakes in India. The methodical
collection of extensive long-term homogenous observation-
based damage data from post-earthquake disaster sites
requires a large-scale and coordinated research program
in collaboration with other institutions in different regions,
which is not easily feasible at the present juncture in India
due to limited resources for disaster management. In the
context of the present scenario, an analytical approach is a
more feasible initiative as a first step towards the derivation
of seismic vulnerability curves for the typical population of
masonry infilled RC framed building construction in India.
The present study focuses on the analytical investigation
of seismic vulnerability of the populations of typical
medium-rise masonry infilled reinforced concrete (RC)
framed buildings constructed in the present decade in
urban India. An important objective of the present study is
to develop seismic vulnerability curves for representative
configurations of medium-rise masonry infilled RC frame
structures considering the effect of the distribution of
masonry infill panels over the frame elevation on the seismic
performance of the RC frame. The seismic vulnerability
curves that are developed in deterministic terms are termed
as seismic performance and seismic demand curves in the
present study and provide useful tools for predicting the
seismic performance in the event of a future earthquake.
SEISMIC PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF
MASONRY INFILLED RC FRAMED BUILDING
STRUCTURES
The present study endeavours to provide prediction tools
for seismic hazard assessment of the generic populations
of medium-rise masonry infilled reinforced concrete (RC)
framed building structures. The study is based on the
analytical development of seismic performance and demand
curves for practical multi-storey masonry infilled RC frame
structures with the commonly implemented seismically
undesirable as well as functionally preferred distributions
of the masonry infill panels over the frame elevation using
rational displacement-based analysis techniques within
the performance-based framework. Based on a review
of architectural plans and structural framing schemes
of masonry infilled RC framed buildings constructed in
practice, some representative planar masonry infilled RC
frame configurations were identified for the analytical
investigation of seismic performance and demand of the
building stock of interest. The analytical investigation was
performed for the following six multi-bay multi-storey
geometries of planar RC frames with different number of
bays and or different bay lengths:
1. Fourteen storeys (ground + 13) three bay frame with
a bay length of 3.0 meters,
2. Fourteen storeys (ground + 13) three bay frame with
a bay length of 6.0 meters,
3. Fourteen storeys (ground + 13) five bay frame with a
bay length of 3.0 meters,
The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 25
TECHNICAL PAPER
4. Fourteen storeys (ground + 13) five bay frame with a
bay length of 6.0 meters,
5. Seven storeys (ground + 6) three bay frame with a bay
length of 3.0 meters,
6. Seven storeys (ground + 6) five bay frame with a bay
length of 3.0 meters.
The following practically relevant cases of distribution
of masonry infill panels along the elevation of a planar
masonry infilled RC frame were identified for the analytical
evaluation:
beams. The structural frame elements were designed using
the limit state method of design (strength or capacity
design). It may be noted that the format and model of the
latest revision of Indian seismic design code [7] as well as the
underlying seismic design philosophy are similar to those of
the Uniform Building Code (now IBC) of America [8]. For
purposes of comparison, the design horizontal seismic base
shear coefficient for a number of practical masonry infilled
RC framed buildings was computed using the revised
Indian seismic design code [7] criteria as well as IBC 2000 [8]
code provisions. It was found that the revised Indian seismic
design code is more conservative in estimating the design
earthquake loads than IBC 2000.

a. Completely infilled RC frame [Figure 1 (a)],

b. Infilled RC frame without infill panels in the first

(ground) storey (‘soft / weak storey’ at ground
level corresponding to building supported on stilt
columns) [Figure 1 (b)],

c. Infilled RC frame with partially infilled first (ground)

storey (‘soft / weak storey’ at the ground level with
some frame panels infilled with masonry) [Figure 1
(c)],

d. Bare RC Frame [Figure 1 (d)].

The masonry infilled RC framed building structures with the

representative configurations were designed in accordance
with the current Indian Standard (IS) code of practice for
earthquake resistant design IS 1893:2002 (Indian seismic
design code) using the good computer program [7]. The
design earthquake loading for the RC framed buildings
were computed using the response spectrum method for
equivalent static 3-D analysis in accordance with the Indian
seismic design code [7]. Assuming that the structural system
of the buildings is a moment-resisting RC frame with ductile
detailing, the response reduction factor (force reduction
factor) was specified as 5.0 to account for the inherent
capability of the frame to undergo inelastic deformations
without loss of strength or stiffness. Following the standard
design practice, the contribution of the masonry infill panels
was ignored in the structural analysis for code-based design
of the RC frame members. However, the time period of the
masonry infilled RC framed building for obtaining the design
earthquake loads was calculated using the more stringent
formulation specified for such buildings with brick infills by
the latest revision of the Indian seismic design code [7]. The
dead weight of the masonry infill panels was assumed to act
as a uniformly distributed gravity load on the supporting

26 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

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The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 27

TECHNICAL PAPER
Figure 2 shows a typical multi-bay multi-storey masonry
infilled planar R/C frame in a representative masonry
infilled RC framed building structure with 14 storeys
(ground+13) and five bays in the weak direction designed
in accordance with the current Indian seismic design code.
The figure also presents the material properties assumed in
the design of the 14 (ground + 13) storeys building with five
bays in the weak direction. The typical design dimensions
and reinforcement details for different structural frame
members are also summarized in Figure 2.
Methodology of Seismic Performance
Assessment
The seismic performance and demand of masonry infilled
RC framed building structures is assessed by performing
non-linear dynamic analysis of the representative planar
masonry infilled RC frame configurations identified in
the previous section of the paper under the action of some
artificially generated earthquake ground motions The
synthetic earthquake ground motions were generated for
ascending peak ground accelerations in the range of 0.1g
to 1.0 g. The non-linear dynamic analysis of the masonry
infilled RC frame was performed in the present study using
rational and realistic hysteretic models of the structural
elements including masonry infill panels [9-10]. The results
of the non-linear analyses are used to provide a graphical
representation of the seismic performance and demand of
the selected building stock in two different practically useful
formats: (i) seismic performance curves that relate the seismic
damage of the RC frame to the peak ground acceleration
(pga) of the earthquake, and (ii) seismic demand curves that
depict the relationship between the seismic displacement
demands (top storey displacement or first inter-storey
drift) on the RC frame and the spectral displacement of the
earthquake including correlation of the seismic displacement
demand with the performance limit states.
Seismic Performance and Demand
Curves for Masonry Infilled RC Framed
Building Structures
For sake of brevity, the seismic performance and demand
curves for the two most vulnerable representative planar
multi-bay multi-storey RC frame geometries (i.e. 3 and 6)
identified after nonlinear dynamic analysis are presented
herein. Figures 3 (i) and (ii) illustrates the analytically obtained
seismic performance curves of the planar frame geometries
3 and 6, respectively. Each figure shows the variation of
the quantitative overall damage index of the representative
planar RC frame with respect to the peak ground acceleration
28 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
of the earthquake for the different practically relevant
distributions (a), (b), (c) and (d) of masonry infill panels
over the frame elevations that were identified in a previous
section of the paper. The overall damage index, which is
selected as a measure of the seismic performance of the
RC frame, is evaluated by performing non-linear dynamic
analysis of the frame under synthetic earthquake ground
motions using the modified Park and Ang damage model for
quantification of seismic damage[11]. Figure 3 also mentions
the performance limit states corresponding to the linguistic
interpretation of increasing overall damage index [10]. The
peak ground acceleration (pga) of the earthquake ground
motion may be considered as a measure of the severity of the
earthquake in the seismic performance curves presented in
Figure 3(i & ii). It is apparent from Figure 3(i & ii) that the
presence of a ‘soft’ storey at the ground level due to partial or
complete absence of infill panels in the ground storey impairs
the seismic performance of the RC frame. The impairment in
seismic performance of the RC frame is more pronounced
for moderates to severe earthquakes with a pga larger than
0.4g. It may be noted from the comparison presented in
Figure 3 (i & ii) is that the seismic performance of the
completely infilled frame is superior to that of the bare frame.
Figures 3 (iii) and (iv) illustrate the analytically obtained
seismic demand curves of the planar frame geometries 3
and 6 respectively identified in a previous section of the
paper. Each figure displays the variation of the seismic
displacement demand at the top storey of the representative
planar RC frame with respect to the spectral displacement
of the earthquake for the various practically relevant
distributions (a), (b), (c) and (d) of masonry infill panels
over the frame elevation that were identified in a previous
section of the paper. It is apparent from Figures 3 (iii) and
(iv) that the seismic displacement demand at the top storey
of the frame is marginally affected by the distribution of the
masonry infill panels over the frame elevation for all the
representative frame geometries considered in the present
study. The seismic demand curves presented in Figure 3 (iii)
illustrate that seismic vulnerability of the RC frame with
the representative frame geometry 3 interpreted in terms of
the displacement demand at the top storey of the frame is
inconsistent with the seismic damage predicted by Figure 3
(i) for e.g., bare frame is depicted to be seismically more
vulnerable in Figure 3 (iii) than the masonry infilled frame
without any infill panels in the first (ground) storey (i.e.
with a ‘soft’ storey at the ground level). The observation
suggests that the maximum inter-storey drifts show a better
correlation with the seismic damage than the top storey
displacements.
TECHNICAL PAPER

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TECHNICAL PAPER
Figures 3 (v) and (vi) present the variation of the first
(ground) storey deformation demand with respect to the
spectral displacement of the earthquake for the planar frame
geometries 3 and 6 respectively. Each figure depicts the
seismic demand curves expressed in terms of the seismic
inter-storey drift demand at the ground level i.e. the ground
(first) storey deformation for the representative planar RC
frame with the different practically relevant distributions
(a), (b), (c) and (d) of masonry infill panels over the frame
elevation that were identified in a previous section of
the paper [Figure 1]. Figures 3 (v) and (vi) also highlight
the global acceptance criteria defined by ATC-40 and
FEMA-356 for different performance limit states of
immediate occupancy (IO), life safety (LS) and collapse
prevention (CP) in terms of the maximum inter-storey drifts
of 1%, 2% and 4% respectively [12-13]. A brief inspection
30 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
of the seismic performance and demand curves presented
in Figure 3 indicates that the seismic demand expressed in
terms of the inter-storey drift demand is a more realistic
measure of the seismic performance of the frame elements
in case of masonry infilled RC frames with seismically
vulnerable distributions of masonry panels over the frame
elevation.
Capacity Spectrum Method using
Pushover Analysis for Verification of
Seismic Demands
Pushover or non-linear static analysis methods have gained
considerable popularity, as they can be employed to assess
the seismic demands on building structures while avoiding
the complexities and difficulties associated with non-linear
dynamic time-history analysis. A class of equivalent static
TECHNICAL PAPER
analysis procedures that employ the pushover analysis
in conjunction with the response spectrum concept for
predicting the seismic demands on a building structure
is popularly known as the capacity spectrum method [14-
15]. The capacity spectrum method using non-linear static
(push-over) analysis and inelastic demand spectra was
implemented in the present study to verify the seismic
demands predicted by the non-linear dynamic analysis
for four recorded ground motions due to Bhuj (2001),
El-Centro (1940), Chile (1985) and San-Fernando (1971)
earthquakes[11]. Details of the application of capacity
spectrum procedure using pushover analysis and inelastic
demand spectra for masonry infilled RC frames may be
found elsewhere [14,16]. Figures 4 and 5 display the capacity
and demand curves both in acceleration-displacement
response spectrum (ADRS) format determined for RC frame
geometries 3 and 6, respectively, with the various practically
relevant distributions of masonry infill panels identified
previously [Figure 1] for the four recorded earthquake
ground motions mentioned above. It should be noted that
the spectral displacements and spectral accelerations in the
ADRS representation of the capacity and demand curves
are expressed in non-dimensional percentage terms by
normalizing them with respect to the total height of the
building and acceleration due to gravity g, respectively.
Thus, the non-dimensional spectral displacement and
spectral acceleration represent, respectively, the top (roof)
displacement (drift) normalized with respect to the total
height of the m.d.o.f. building structure in percentage and
the horizontal base shear normalized with respect to the
total weight also in percentage. The point where the demand
curve of the earthquake intersects capacity curve of the
building in the ADRS form is termed as the performance
point and defines the seismic demand of the earthquake on
The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 31
TECHNICAL PAPER
the structure. The non-dimensional structural displacement
and force demands corresponding to the performance points
are highlighted as circumscribed by ellipses in Figures 4
and 5.
The seismic demands obtained from the non-linear
dynamic analysis are reproduced in non-dimensional
terms of percentage circumscribed in rectangular boxes in
Figures 4 and 5 for ready comparison. The comparison shows
that the seismic displacement and force demands predicted
by the simpler capacity spectrum method agree reasonably
well with the corresponding seismic demands predicted by
the non-linear dynamic analysis for all the distributions of
masonry infill panels and earthquake records considered in
the study with a few exceptions such as the case of frame
geometry 6 under the action of San Fernando earthquake
and bare frame with - 6 under the action of Chile earthquake.
It may be remarked from Figures 4 and 5 that the case of
the bare frame in general displays substantially larger
top displacement for lower base shear coefficient than the
masonry infilled frame without any infills in the first storey
(i.e. ‘soft’ ground storey). Similar results were illustrated in
Figure 3 (iii & iv). The observation may be explained by the
fact that the infills of the masonry infilled RC frame above
the first storey increase the overall lateral stiffness of the
frame, thus resulting in lesser displacement at the top in
comparison to the bare RC frame.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The present paper is based on performance-based seismic
evaluation of planar masonry infilled RC frame structures
with vertical layout of infill panels that are commonly
constructed in the field and are particularly vulnerable to
earthquakes, such as the layout in which the infill panels
are discontinued at the ground level thus resulting in a ‘soft’
and/or ‘weak’ storey at that level. The results of the present
study establish that the seismic vulnerability as well as the
horizontal seismic base shear of masonry infilled RC frames
is significantly influenced by the density and distribution of
the masonry infill panels in the RC frame, an effect that is
disregarded by the present generation of the seismic codes.
The study focuses on the development of region-specific
seismic performance and demand curves for typical
configurations of practical medium rise masonry infilled
multi-storey RC framed structures considering the various
commonly implemented distributions of masonry infill
panels over the frame elevation. The seismic performance
and demand of masonry infilled RC framed building
32 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
structures is assessed through non-linear dynamic analysis
of representative planar masonry infilled RC frame
geometries subjected to artificially generated earthquake
ground motions. The results of the vulnerability assessment
establish that the seismic performance of a code-compliant
masonry infilled RC frame is substantially superior to that
of a corresponding bare RC frame, provided any soft storey
effect at the ground storey is sufficiently compensated by
partially infilling the soft ground storey with masonry
panels or designing the columns in the soft storey to resist
the surplus base shear due to the masonry infills.
References
1. Bilham, R., Gaur, V. K., and P. Molnar, P. (2001) “Himalayan
Seismic Hazard.” Science, 293(5534), 1442-44.
2. Rossetto T. and Elnashai A. (2003). “Derivation of Vulnerability
Function for European- Type RC Structures Based on Observational
Data.” Engineering Structures, 25(10), 1241-1263.
3. Kwon,O.S., and Elnashai A.( 2006). “ The Effect of Material and
Ground Motion Uncertainty on the Seismic Vulnerability Curves
of RC Structures.” Engineering Structures, 28(2), 289-303.
4. Rossetto T. and Elnashai A. (2005). “A New Analytical Procedure
for the Derivation of Displacement Based Vulnerability Curves for
Population of RC Structures.” Engineering Structures, 27(3), 397-409
5. Lang K. and Bachmann H. (2004). “On the Seismic Vulnerability of
Existing Buildings: A Case Study of the City of Basel. ” Earthquake
Spectra, 20(1), 43-66.
6. Lang K. and Bachmann H. (2003). “On the Seismic Vulnerability
of Existing Unreinforced Masonry Building.” Journal of Earthquake
Engineering, 7(3), 407-426
7. ______Indian standard criteria for earthquake resistant design of
structures, Part 1 - General provisions and buildings, IS 1893:2002
(Part 1), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
8. ICC IBC 2000, “2000 International Building code ”, International
Code Council, Washington D.C.
9. Madan A, Reinhorn AM, Mander JB, Valles R.( 1997). “Modeling of
Masonry Infill Panels for Structural Analysis.” Journal of Structural
Engineering, 123; 1295 - 1302.
10. Valles, R. E., Reinhorn, A. M., Kunnath, S. K., Li, C., and Madan,
A. (1996). “IDARC Version 4.0 - A Program for the Inelastic
Damage Analysis of Buildings.” Technical Report NCEER-96-0010,
SUNY/Buffalo.
11. Park YJ, Reinhorn AM and Kunnath, S. K.( 1987). “IDARC:
Inelastic damage Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Frame–Shear
Wall Structures.” Technical Report NCEER-87-0008, National
Center for Earthquake Engineering Research, SUNY Buffalo.
12. ATC-40 (1996).“Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Concrete
Buildings.” Report SSC 96-01, California Seismic Safety
Commission, Applied Technology Council, Redwood, CA, USA.
TECHNICAL PAPER

13. FEMA-356 (2000), “Prestandard and Commentary for Seismic
Rehabilitation of Buildings”, Federal Emergency Management
Agency (FEMA), Washington D. C., USA.
14. Fajfar P. (1999). “Capacity Spectrum Method Based on Inelastic
Demand Spectra.” Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics,
28; 979-93.
15. Kunnath, S. K. (2006), “Performance-based Seismic Based Design
and Evaluation of Building Structures.” Earthquake Engineering
for Structural Design, ed. Chen, W. F. and Lui, E. M., CRC press,
© 2006 by Taylor and Francis Group, Oxfordshire, England.
16. Madan, A and Hashmi A.K. (2008). “Analytical prediction of
Seismic Performance of Masonry Infilled Reinforced Concrete
Frames Subjected to Near-Field Earthquakes.” Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE; 134 (9); 1569-1581.

Arshad K. Hashmi holds a PhD in Structural Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi. His
areas of research interest are earthquake engineering;performance based seismic engineering, structural
optimization.

Alok Madan holds a PhD in Structural Engineering from State University of New York at Buffalo. Presently
he is a Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi. His area
of research includes research on structural engineering, nonlinear structural dynamics, concrete structures,
computing in structural engineering, structural masonry.

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 33

 POINT OF VIEW
Environmental clearance Acts and
Rules - Evolution and experience
Ajit K. Sinha and K.N. Jha
Many of the infrastructure projects, specially in the
transportation sector, (Railways, Ports, Roads, / Highways
and Airports) have had time and cost overruns on account
of delay in grant of environmental clearance also in
addition to delay in obtaining other approvals/clearances.
Though, prior to 1985, forest related legislations / Acts /
Rules existed but in isolated and exclusive domains. With
the notification of the Environment (Protection) Act 1986
followed by the Environment Impact Assessment, Rules,
2006, the related stipulations, regulatory norms started
getting formalized and evolving. Herein, the legislative
history of the Acts/Rules at different times in India and
across the World has been stated. Chronologically, the
USA (NEPA legislation) and European countries have an
edge over other regions. Grant of forest clearance (FC)
which comprises approval for diversion of forest land, if
that be the case of the project, took much longer time
than it took for grant of environmental clearance in case
of roads/highways projects in India. Use of technological
advancements can be very helpful in mapping of roads
and railway line alignments, extent of forest cover getting
affected adversely by the proposed projects etc. Satellite
imaging techniques etc. can be used extensively for
evaluating the extent of human habitats getting displaced,
submerged, and affected.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Government of India vide its policy and regulatory
functions, ensures protection and improvement of the
34 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
environment of India. The Constitution of India vide the
42nd amendment, has detailed and outlined this onus and
responsibility on the Government of India in Articles 48A
and 51A (g) of the Indian Constitution. These articles provide
that:
i. the state will protect and improve the environment
and safeguard forests and wildlife of the country
(Article 48A), and
ii. every citizen is bound to protect and improve the
natural environment and to have compassion for
living creatures [ Articles 51A (g)].
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), since
then, has been renamed as Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change, and is the nodal regulatory body of
Government of India. Primarily, it is mandated to formulate
policies, laws and rules related to environment, and issuing
environmental clearance (EC) for any developmental
project, as in the Schedule of the Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) Notification, dated 14 September 2006 [1]
under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986. With the
increase in number and sector specific infrastructure projects
entailing substantial private investment, several Acts, Bills
and their respective Amendments to ensure improvement
in quality of environment, were legislated in India.
Forest Conservation Act,1980, Environment (Protection)
Act,1986,the Coastal Regulation Zone,1991(notification)
and the National Appellate Authority Act,1997 are some
of the critical laws that need to be complied with by the
POINT OF VIEW
proponents (applicants seeking environment clearance)
for the projects. The Environment (Protection) Act (EPA)
1986 was notified soon after the Bhopal gas tragedy (1984).
This Act is all encompassing in its mandate and empowers
the Government of India to effect measures for improving
and protecting the quality of environment. The said Act
mandates the Government of India to set standards for
effluent discharge and emission as well as regulating
location of industries.
2.0 ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)
Consequent to the Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro in
1992 the EIA was notified in 1994 in India, based on the
EPA 1986 and has seen further amendments in 1997, 2006
and 2007. The updated processes and stages for getting the
environmental clearance in terms of the provisions of the
EIA Act are illustrated in Figure 1. Screening, scoping, public
consultation, and appraisal are the four cardinal stages in
the EIA process.
The EIA notification of 1994 was further improved upon with
the more detailed notification of 2006. The latter provided
for significant and elaborate arrangement for effectively
carrying out EIA. The provision comprised categorization
of projects in terms of set out parameters. The clearance
process was decentralized with some categorized as ‘B2’
projects falling within the competency of the concerned State
Governments for the purpose of granting environmental
clearance. In fact the process was democratized and the
2006 provisions further ensured closer interaction between
the State Governments and the Central Government. The
improvements have been summarized in Table 1.
2.1 Structure and other aspects of eia in
india
The EIA system, being multidimensional and
interdisciplinary in nature, is concerned with identifying
and evaluating direct and indirect impacts of a project on the
environment. These impacts are addressed by appropriate
environmental protection and enhancement measures
and it needs to be ensured and should form an integral
part of the proposal. The EIA system supports project
proponents in incorporating environmental considerations
in project planning. The project cost should also account
for implementing measures for environment upkeep and
cost for complying with the conditions accompanying the
environmental clearance granted by the regulator. Onus
for determining and disclosing all relevant inputs needed
for a methodical assessment of environmental impacts of
their proposed projects lies with the project proponent.
Review of an EIA by Central Regulatory Authority/
State Environmental Impact Assessment Agency (SEIAA)
is guided by the following criteria: (a) environmental
considerations are integrated into overall project planning;
and (b) the environmental impact assessment is sound,
and the proposed environmental mitigation measures
are effective. An effective regulatory review of an EIA
depends on timely, full, and accurate disclosure of relevant

Table 1. Salient improvements in GoI’s EIA Notification of 2006 over EIA Notification of 1994
EIA Notification 2006 EIA Notification 1994
(including amendments)

Clearance process simplified - Previously all the projects figured in Schedule 1

required environmental clearance. Now, the projects have been categorized as “A”
& “B” and ‘B’ has further been bifurcated into B1 and B2 category. B2 projects Project proponents were required to seek clearance for all
would not required EIA report. Category B projects would be cleared by the the projects under Schedule 1 from the Central Government
respective State Governments.

Screening and scoping processes. The screening process has been specifically
detailed and the responsibility for carrying out scoping has been entrusted to
It was the project proponent who decided the TOR as well
the Expert Appraisal Committee. [EAC]. Scoping comprises freezing of Terms
as conducted the EIA study either by himself or through
of Reference [TOR] and the TOR is required to be displayed on the websites of
consultants.
State/ Union Territory Environmental Impact Assessment Authority [S/UEIAA].

Public consultation comprising public hearing :All projects categorized as ‘A’

& ‘B1’ are mandatorily required to undertake the public consultation. Some Provisions existed but the methods to be adopted weren’t
projects e.g. extension of road and highways, those that do not require any further that transparent and all encompassing.
acquisition of land etc. are exempt from carrying out public consultation.
Responsibility lies with the State PCBs/ UTPCBs.

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 35

 POINT OF VIEW

Project Conception

Initial Screening by Project Proponent

Screening EIA Not Needed
in case the Project falls under
Category A or Category A/B

Preliminary Assessment

Regulatory Screening of CategoryA/B

Projects by MoEF/Regulatory
Authority. EIA Required Regulatory Scoping of
Category A Projects by
MoEF/Regulatory Authority
Category B
Scoping

Further Screening at State Level

(to determine Category B1/B2 Public Consultation
Impact Analysis

Project feasibility, EIA

Mitigation studies and publichearing

Category B1 Category B 2

Reporting

EC process Decision on EC
similar to that based on the Review by SPCB Public Hearing
for Category A, information
(at State Level) provided.

Review by MoEF

Not Approved Decision Making Approved

Redesign and Resubmit Implementation and Monitoring

Figure 1. Environmental approval process & EC project classification scheme

36 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

POINT OF VIEW
information in the EIA by project proponents to project
stakeholders. An effective public participation in course of
preparation of EIA report plays a very important role
and it facilitates assessment of application, seeking EC.
With a view to achieving an effective implementation and
further clarifying the processing principles involved,
Government of India updated its EIA Notification in
September 2006.
2.2 Public consultation process
The public consultation shall ordinarily have two
components [1] comprising:
i. a public hearing at the site or in its close proximity-
district wise, to be carried out in the manner prescribed
for ascertaining concerns of local affected persons.
ii. obtaining responses in writing from other concerned
persons having a plausible stake in the environmental
aspects of the project or activity.
The public hearing at, or in close proximity to, the site(s) in all
cases shall be conducted by the State Pollution Control Board
(SPCB) or the Union Territory Pollution Control Committee
(UTPCC) concerned in the specified manner and the minutes
of the proceedings shall be forwarded to the regulatory
authority concerned within 45 (forty five) days of a request
to the effect, from the applicant. In case the State Pollution
Control Board or the Union Territory Pollution Control
Committee concerned does not undertake and complete
the public hearing within the specified period, and/or does
not convey the proceedings of the public hearing within
the prescribed period directly to the regulatory authority
concerned as above, the regulatory authority shall engage
another public agency or authority which is not subordinate
to the regulatory authority, to complete the process within a
further period of forty five days.
If the public agency or authority nominated above, reports
to the regulatory authority concerned that on account of the
prevailing local situation, it may not be possible to conduct
the public hearing in a manner which will enable the views
of the concerned local persons to be freely expressed, it shall
report the facts in detail to the concerned regulatory authority,
which may, after due consideration of the report and other
reliable information that it may have, decide that the public
consultation in the case need not include the public hearing.
For obtaining responses in writing from other concerned
persons having a plausible stake in the environmental aspects
of the project or activity, the concerned regulatory authority
and the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) or the Union
Territory Pollution Control Committee (UTPCC) shall invite
responses from such concerned persons by placing on their
website the summary EIA report prepared in the format as
specified in EIA Notification, 2006 and further amendments,
by the applicant along with a copy of the application in the
prescribed form, within seven days of the receipt of a written
request for arranging the public hearing.
2.3 Public consultation - worldwide
Directive 2003/25/EC [2] governs issues related to the
‘public hearing’ [EIA] in respect of Member States. The
EIA Directive does not define ‘reasonable time-frames’ and
leaves a margin of discretion for Member States to determine
‘reasonable time-frames’ within their jurisdiction. The time
frames adopted by the Member States in the consultation
phase, range from 14 days as the shortest time frame
(Bulgaria, Estonia) to 60 days as the longest time frame
(Italy) [2]. Most Member States have adopted a time frame
of 30 days for the public consultation process to conclude.
2.4 EIA as a regulatory tool
After the project is subjected to an EIA and the application
for clearance is submitted and approved, MoEF issues an
environmental clearance (EC). The EC normally lists down
a set of conditions for it to be valid. The EC is accompanied
by conditions under which the project shall operate and
clearance has been granted. This is how the MoEF is able
to regulate the operations of all environmentally critical
projects and projects within environmentally critical areas.
The site of a project (e.g., in ecologically sensitive areas) is an
important factor which decides whether an EC is required.
Ecologically sensitive areas include coastal areas (protected
by the Coastal Regulatory Zone notification (CRZ), forests
(protected by the Forest Conservation Act), various areas
notified by the MoEF as Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZs),
for example, Doon valley, Taj Trapezium etc. to wetlands,
deserts, national parks, sanctuaries, corals, etc. (which are not
protected by any specific Notification). In case of industries,
the Environmental Guidelines for Siting of Industry (framed
in 1985) and the Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects)
Rules, 1999 have to be complied with.
The following categories of projects/activities are exempt
from public consultation as notified by EC notification dated
14 September 2006: (i) modernization of irrigation projects
(ii) all projects or activities located within industrial estates
or parks approved by the concerned authorities, and which
are not disallowed in such approvals; (iii) expansion of roads
and highways which do not involve any further acquisition of
land; (iv) maintenance and dredging provided the dredged
The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 37
 POINT OF VIEW
material shall be disposed within port limits; (v) all building
or construction projects or area development projects (which
do not contain any category A projects and activities) and
townships (vi) all category B2 projects and activities; and
(e) all projects or activities concerning national defence
and security or involving other strategic considerations as
determined by the central government.
2.5 Specified requirements for environmen-
tal clearance
Thresholds in respect of roads/highways, ports and airports
and other stipulations / governing criteria etc. for processing
and grant of environment clearance for projects in these
sectors are spelt out in Table 2.
2.5.1 General condition (GC)
Any project or activity specified in category B will be
treated as category A, if located in whole or in part within
10 km from the boundary of: (i) protected areas notified
under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972; (ii) critically
polluted areas as notified by the Central Pollution Control
Board from time-to-time; (iii) eco-sensitive areas as notified
under section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986,
such as Mahabaleshwar, Panchgani, Matheran, Pachmarhi
Dahanu, Doon Valley, and, (iv) inter-State boundaries and
international boundaries, provided that the requirement
regarding distance of 10 km of the inter-state boundaries can
be reduced or completely done away with by an agreement
between the respective states or Union Territories (UTs)
sharing the common boundary in case the activity does not
fall within 10 km of the areas mentioned at item (i), (ii) and
(iii) above.
2.5.2 Specific condition (SC)
If any industrial estate/complex/export processing zone/
special economic zone/biotech park/leather complex
with homogeneous type of industries, such as chlor-alkali
industry, leather /skin / hide processing industry, petro-
chemical based processing units and synthetic organic
chemicals industry located outside industrial area for
category ‘A’ projects and located within industrial area for
category ‘B’ projects or those industrial estates with pre-
defined set of activities (not necessarily homogeneous),
obtains prior environmental clearance, individual industries
including proposed industrial housing within such estates/
complexes will not be required to take prior environmental
clearance, so long as the terms and conditions for the
industrial estate/complex are complied with. Such estates/
38 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
complexes must have a clearly identified management with
the legal responsibility of ensuring adherence to the terms
and conditions of prior environmental clearance, and must
indicate the authority to be held responsible for violation of
the same throughout the life of the complex/estate.
2.6 Important legislations regulating the
environmental clearances in india
i. One of the earliest legislation in this direction was
the Indian Forest Act, 1927 which provided for
consolidating acquisition of common property such
as forest. The nodal agencies for the purpose are the
respective State Governments and Forest settlement
officers.
ii. The Air (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act,1981
further amended in 1987 was legislated with the
mandate to the Government for ensuring prevention
and control of Air pollution including noise pollution.
The Government was further mandated to set up and
constitute pollution control boards at Central and
State Government level. No one could establish or
operate any industry without the concerned Board’s
clearance.
iii. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974 and further amended in 1988 mandated the
Government to ensure prevention of degradation
of quality of water, restoration of water quality.
No industry can be established or operate without
clearance from the respective Pollution Control
Boards. No developer is permitted to discharge
sewage or industry effluents in any river/stream.
iv. The Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972 and further
amended in 1993 stipulates that any industry or
other developmental activities (including road and
highway projects) requiring prior EC in terms of the
thresholds detailed in the EIA notification, Sept 2006
shall have to obtain Wildlife Clearance if the project
is proposed to be located inside of 10 kms of any
National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary.
v. The Forest Conservation Act,1980 and further
amended in 1988 aimed to empower the Central
Government to ensure prevention of depletion of
forest area. It prevents de-reservation of forest land
and to ensure that forest land is not used for non-
forest purposes without the express approval of the
Central Government.
POINT OF VIEW
Table 2. Categorisation and conditions for accord of environmental clearance
Project or Activity Category with threshold limit Conditions if any

A B

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

1 Physical infrastructure including environmental services

Note: air strips, which do not involve

All projects including air strips
1a Air ports bunkering /refueling facility and or air
which are for commercial use.
traffic control, are exempted.

General condition shall

apply
Note:
(i) Capital dredging
inside and outside the
< 5 million TPA of
ports or harbors and
>5 million TPA of cargo handling
Ports , harbours, channels are included.
cargo handling capacity and/or
1b breakwaters, and (ii) Maintenance
capacity (excluding ports/ harbours
dredging dredging is exempt
fishing harbours) >10,000 TPA of fish handling
provided it formed part
Capacity
of the original proposal
for which Environment
Management Plan (EMP) was prepared
and environmental
clearance obtained.

(i) new national highways, and

(i) all new state
(ii) expansion of national
highways projects,
highways greater than 30 km, General condition shall
and
involving additional Apply
1c Highways (ii) state highways
right of way greater than 20m Note: highways include
expansion projects in hilly terrain
involving land acquisition and Expressways
(above 1000m AMSL) and or
passing through more than
ecologically sensitive areas.
one state.

2 Construction/Township/Commercial Complexes/Housing

The built up or covered

area on all the floors
put together including
Building and >50000 sq. m. and basement(s) and other
2a
construction projects <1,50,000 sq. m. of built-up area service areas, which
are proposed in the
building/construction
projects.

The built up or
covered area on all
the floors put together
Covering an area ++All projects under
including
>100 ha and / or built up area Item 8(b) shall be
2b basement(s) and
>1,50,000 sq. appraised as category
other service areas,
m. B1
which are proposed
in the building /
construction projects.

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 39

 POINT OF VIEW
vi. The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 further
amended in 1991 mandates ensuring prevention
of discharges or environment pollutants beyond
prescribed limits and also to ensure handling
of hazardous substances in accordance with the
standards and procedures set out by the respective
authorities.
vii. The above crucial Acts are summarized in Table 3. etc. Among researchers and authors there is unanimity
2.7 Exemption (relaxation) in clearances to
linear projects
MoEF on 19th March 2013 partially modified the provisions
of the Forest Conservation Act 1980 with a view to providing
for non-forest use of forest land. Provisions were made for
grant of EC to linear projects, of course subject to fulfillment
of additional conditions viz. work on non-forest land may
only be executed up to such point (to be selected by the user
agency) on either side of forest land. This was permitted
under explicit certification by the user agency that if approval
under the Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 for diversion of
forest land is declined, it is technically feasible to execute
the project along an alternate alignment without involving
diversion of forest land. Further, commencement of work on
non-forest land will not confer upon the user an assurance
for grant of final approval under the Forest (Conservation)
Act, 1980.
3.0 EVOLUTION OF THE EIA SYSTEM ACROSS
THE WORLD
The European countries started with the process of enacting
legislations for EIA as a follow up to the approval of the
European Directive on EIA in 1985. Regulatory framework
and guidelines on EIA were established in West Germany
(1974), France (1976), Canada (1973) and Australia (1975)
that in the year 1969 the U.S.A. was the first nation to
establish formally, legislation requiring EIA by way of
the U.S. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) [3].
Subsequently, Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) was
established by NEPA for assisting in the interpretation of
NEPA’s provisions and procedures. The broad mandate of
NEPA was to ensure creation of and maintaining conditions
conducive to harmonious existence of man and nature. In the
U.K. several laws got legislated that served as the foundation
stone for EIA, 1988 onwards. These legislations implemented
the European Commission Directives 85/337/EEC (CEC
1985) including its amendments. The directives itself grew
out of a concern for physical environment and preventing
its further deterioration. Provisions contained in Directive
85/337 [an offshoot of European Communities Act of 1972]
are the statutory documents which spell out the rules for
EIA to be carried out by the Member States. In terms of the
above Directive, EIA is mandatorily required for classes of
projects appearing in Annexure –I of the Directive, whereas,
projects figuring in Annexure-II provides for discretion
to authorities for carrying out EIA. Annexure-I projects

Table 3. Summary of key environmental acts in India

S. no. Name Scope and objective Operational agencies/key players

Mandates consolidation of acquisition of State Government, Forest

1. Indian Forest Act, 1927
common property such as forests Settlement Officers

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, Wildlife Advisory Boards, Central Zoo

2. To protect wildlife
amended, in 1993 Authorities
Constitutes provisions for the prevention and
Water (Prevention and Control of
3. of water pollution and enhancing the quality of Central and State Pollution Control Boards
Pollution) Act, 1974, amended in 1988
water

Forest Conservation Act, 1980, To halt India’s rapid deforestation and resulting
4. Central Government
amended in 1988 environmental degradation

Air (Prevention and Control of Details provisions for prevention, control and
5. Central and State Pollution Control Boards
Pollution) Act, 1981, amended in 1987 abatement of air pollution

To provide for the protection and Central Government, nodal agency MoEF,
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986,
6. improvement of the environment under an can delegate powers, State Departments of
amended in 1991
umbrella legislation Environment

40 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

POINT OF VIEW
primarily consists of those related to crude oil refineries,
coal / shale, thermal power station, nuclear power stations,
large scale projects for damps reservoirs pipelines for gas,
waste water treatment etc. Further, for identifying a
project figuring under Annexure-II, a combination of both,
1) thresholds and 2) a case by case approach is followed by
Member States. However, still, major variation in the
nature of thresholds used,exists among different Member
States e.g. in afforestation projects from an area of 30 hectares
in Denmark to 350 hectares in Portugal, triggers mandatory
EIA.
EIA procedures and legislations were finalized/adopted in
China in 1989 [13], in Cambodia in 1996, in Laos in 1999, in
Vietnam in 1993, and in Thailand in 2002. The EIA system
adopted/in existence worldwide, have a very comprehensive
objective of making the decision-makers fully aware of the
environmental consequences that will follow their decision
in the proposed action.
Despite the EIA law of 2002 enacted in China, wherein
public participation is enshrined under Articles 11 and 21,
researchers are of the view that initially public participation
in the EIA process was limited [12]. In many of the countries
several laws have been enacted since 2002 to mitigate
adverse environmental impact and for improving forestry
management. These laws/legislations were drafted/enacted
in response to and for complying with the conditions
regarding proper land use and progressive forest reforms,
laid down by the World Bank for the release of Structural
Adjustment Credit Loans.
4.0 DETAILS OF FOREST CLEARANCE
Protected areas like National Parks are completely free from
human activities and are notified under Forest Protection
Act (1980) and/or Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972 and their
respective amendments. Wildlife clearance is a prerequisite
to obtaining “Forest Clearance” if the project involves
forest land diversion in Protected Areas even for roads/
highway projects. In fact, all projects/developmental
activities including projects of roads/highways requiring
prior EC in terms of the thresholds notified under EIA
stipulations,2006, require Wildlife Clearance if the projects’
location falls within 10 kms of the geographical boundary of
any Wildlife Sanctuary/National park as per the provisions
of the Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972. The National Board
of Wildlife (NBWL) was constituted by the Government of
India as a follow-up to the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment
Act (2003).Prior clearance/approval from the NBWL and
the Supreme Court, Government of India, is essential for
obtaining wildlife clearance. However, Wildlife Clearance
is not a prerequisite for grant of “Prior Environmental
Clearance”(MoEF OM dated 2nd Dec 2009 ).
The Forest Clearance process comprises 2 stages: stage I and
st
II. The 1 stage constitutes in-principle approval in addition
to depositing money for Compensatory Afforestation. No
activity is allowed to be undertaken by the project-proponent
until stage II clearance (Final) is accorded. Stage II clearance
involves compliance of set out conditions under Stage-I
approval, followed by handing over of the land. Previously,
EC and FC were being sought independently, however, with
the MoEF notification dated 19.03.2013 Forest Clearance has
been delinked for linear projects (roads/highways,pipeline
projects etc.).
5.0 ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN
(EMP)
Environment impact assessment precedes formulation
of Environment Management Plan. In the process of the
said assessment the direct, indirect, intangible/induced
and short/long term environment impacts, their range and
scope, those that may cause risk to and adversely affect
the physical, socio-economic and biological resources, are
carried out in co-ordination with all the stakeholders and
affected people. The study also incorporates processing and
examining of “Alternatives” to the projects’ location, design
etc. with a view to avoiding adverse environmental effects
or at least minimize such risks. Such assessment studies also
cover the geographical “area of influence” of the project. The
likely risks and impacts on account of the proposed project
shall cover the whole project-cycle including at relevant i)
preconstruction, ii) construction, and (iii) operation and
maintenance stages.
The client/proponent has to prepare the EMP which
necessarily should comprise:
i. mitigation measures,
ii. implementation schedule, cost estimates, and
performance indicators, and
iii. contingency plan for quick response in case of
emergency situations and should have an in-built
detailed environment impact monitoring and
reporting mechanism.
The EMP must ensure that mitigation measures proposed
e.g.design, construction including O & M of any project is in
complete synergy with the extant and applicable Acts, Rules,
Laws, Notifications and regulatory provisions. Mitigation
The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 41
 POINT OF VIEW
Table 4. Projects where forest land required diversion & where wild life clearance was required (as on 29.09.2014).
S l . Name of Projects ENV. Clear- Forest Clear- Area for Wild life clearance
No. ance (Time) ance (Time) diversion (Time)
(ha)
7 8 . 0 1 +
1 Kishangarh-Udaipur – Ahmedabad section of NH-8 2 yrs 1 yr 8.5 mth NA
173.39 [*1]
Gomati Chauraha – Udaipur section of NH-8 (from Km 177/000 TO Km 260/100) in the
2 1 yr 3 mth 2 yrs 6 mth 267 NA
State of Rajasthan
3 Jhalawar – Biaora section of NH-12 in the State of Rajasthan 1 yr 10 mth 2 yrs 12.6 NA

Rehabilitation and upgrading to 2 Lane with paved shoulder of NH-232A (Unnao-Lal-

4 1 yr 5 month No data 66 NA
ganj Section) in the state of Uttar Pradesh

Rampur-Kathgodam Section from Km 0.000 (Km 190.000 of NH-24) to Km 88.000 of NH- 54.76+ 59.24
5 1 yr 10 mth 3 yrs 9 mth NA
87 in the States of Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand [*2]
Hospet - Chitradurga section of NH-13 from Km 299.000 to Km 418.600 in the State of
6 1 yr 7 mth 3 yrs 6 mth 53.6 NA
Karnataka
Hospet-Bellary-AP/KNT Border Section of NH-63 from Km.280.300 to Km.375.740 in
7 1 yr 9 mth 3 yrs 2 mth 12.9 NA
the State of Karnataka

MH-KNT Border to Sangareddy Section of NH-9 from Km.348.800 to Km.493.000 in the

8 1 yr 8 mth 2 yrs 7 mth 5.6+2.8 [*3] NA
State of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh

Shivpuri-Dewas Section of NH-3 from km.236.000 to km. 566.450 in the State of Madhya
9 1 yr 3 yrs 6 mth 39.63 NA
Pradesh
10 Sultanpur-Varanasi Section of NH-56 in the State of Uttar Pradesh 11 mth 11 mth 133.22 NA

Varanasi-Indo-Nepal border of NH-233 ( Varanasi-Indo-Nepal border, Pkg-II, Ghaghra

11 1 yr 8 mth 1 yr 7 mth 50.51 NA
bridge section)
Agra – Etawah Bypass Section of NH-2 from Km. 199.660 to Km. 323.525 in the State of
12 1 yr 1 mth 2 yrs 6 mth ## NA
Uttar Pradesh
2 Lane with paved shoulder of NH-231 (Raebareilly – Jaunpur Section) and NH-232
13 1 yr 2 mth 2 yrs 6 mth ## NA
(Ambedkar Nagar – Banda Section) in the state of Uttar Pradesh

14 Pratapgarh–Padi section of NH-113 FROM KM 80.00 TO KM 180.00 of NH-113 8 mth 2 yrs 6 mth 42.35 NA

2-lane with paved shoulders in Padhi –Dahod Section of NH-113 in the State of Rajasthan 4.42 + 1.5
15 1 yr 11 mth 1 yr 8 mth NA
& Gujarat (Length 87 Km): [*4]

For 4-laning of Amravati – Gujarat- Maharashtra District Border (in Km.167/000 to

16 1 yr 6 mth 3 yrs 2 mth 48.61 NA
Km.649.000) Section of NH-6 in the State of Maharashtra

Four Laning of ObedullaganjBetul Section of NH-69 From Km 2.800 to 8.300 and from
17 Km 20.700 to Km 137.000 (Excluding Wild Life Sanctuary from Km 8.300 to Km 20.700) 2 yrs 2 yrs 10 mth 153.54 NA
(Except 28+000 to Km 61+500 as Two Lane with Paved Shoulder) in the State Of MP

Four Laning of Rewa-Katni-Jabalpur Section of NH-7 From Km 242.3 to 465.5 in the State
18 1 yr 3 mth 3 yrs 5 mth 16.89 NA
Of MP as BOT (Toll) Project On DBFOT

19 Part-II (Panagar Bypass and existing Jabalpur Bypass) 1 yr 1 yr 4 mth 0.46

Four Laning of Gwalior-Shivpuri Section of NH-3 & 75 From Km 103 to 236 in the State
20 2 yrs 4 mth 3 yrs 4 mth ## 3 yrs 7 mth
of MP
Wild life clearance
Widening and improvement of existing 2- lane to 4 lane of Kiratpur - Bilaspur Section of
21 7 mth 2 yrs 3 mth ## involved but no
NH-21 in the State of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh(F.No.10-1228/2011.IA.III)
time data available
Wild life clearance
4 lane to 4 lane of Bilaspur- NerChowk Section of NH-21 from Km 134.500 to Km. 186.500
22 1 yr 4 mth 1 yrs 1 mth ## involved but no no
in the State of Himachal Pradesh
time data available
Four Laning of Solapur-MAH/KNT Border Section of NH 9 in Km. 249/000 to Km. 4.14 + 0.4
23 1 yr 11 mth 10 mth 2 yrs 2 mth
348/800 in the State of Maharashtra. [*5]
Four Laning of Solapur-Bijapur Section of NH-13 in Km. 0/000 to Km. 110/542 in the
24 1 yr 3 mth 7 mth 2.665 2 yrs 2 mth
State of Maharashtra and Karnataka
Sitar Ganj-Tanakpur Section from Km 0.000 to Km 52.200 of NH- 74 in the States of Uttar
25 2 mth 1 mth 36.47 NA
Pradesh and Uttarakhand
Kashipur-Sitar Ganj Section from Km 175.000 to Km 252.200 of NH- 74 in the States of
26 4 mth 4 mth 2.95 NA
Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand
## Data are not available
[*1] In the States of Rajasthan & Gujarat. [*2] In the States of Uttar Pradesh & Uttarakhand. [*3] In the States of Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh. [*4] In the States of
Rajasthan & Gujarat.[*5] 2 district in Maharashtra (Osmanabad & Solapur). Source :- http://www.nhai.org/Env.asp
Note: The time stated for EC, FC and wild life clearance in respect of the road in Table --- has been reckoned from the details of the concerned projects as available
in the “source “

42 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

POINT OF VIEW
measures shall be planned and designed in such a way so as
to ensure that “no net loss of biodiversity” is achieved (India
Infrastructure Finance Company Limited; IIFCL). Extent
of projects’ impacts and risks on biodiversity shall form an
integral part of the assessment process and the provisions of
the documented EMP must contain measures for preventing
degradation of: (i) modified habitats (where the natural
habitat has been altered on account of introduction of alien
plants and animals) and (ii) natural and critical habitat.
6.0 TIME-LINES FOR ACTIONS BY
CONCERNED AUTHORITIES FOR ACCORD OF
EC
Ministry of Environment & Forest, Government of India is
the regulatory authority at the Central Government level
and the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority
(SEIAA) at the state level for category ‘A’ and category ‘B’
projects described in the schedule. The time lines in regard
to prior environmental clearance are shown in Table 4. The
stage of “public consultation process” is normally the most
time consuming one. In case of many projects spanning
more than one state, arranging and concluding the public
hearing with stakeholders required tremendous patience
and continuous perusal.
7.0 CASE STUDIES – EC AND FC REGARDING
A snapshot of the details pertaining to the port, road, and
airport projects in India is given in the following paragraphs.
All the cardinal issues and time period taken in relation to
grant of environmental clearance and forest clearance are
spelt out.
7.1 Port projects
7.1.1 Dhamra Port Project (State of Odisha) –
The project entailed expansion of Dhamra Port project.
Environmental Clearances as well as clearances in terms
of the Coastal Regulatory Zone stipulations were required.
The process seeking the above two clearances was initiated
on 20.12.2012 by the Environment-cum-special Secretary
to the Government of Odisha starting with the sending of
the proposal to the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India (IA Division). The EIA comprised
addressing all issues pertaining to marine, terrestrial and
socio-economic aspects of the project including a hydro-
dynamic study of the effect of dredging. The said study
suggested that no significant impact on the shoreline
abutting the project shall take place.
A total of 23 Specific Conditions and 9 General Conditions
were spelt out and appended to the two clearances for
compliance. It is important to note that Appeal can be filed
against any EC granted within a period of 30 days in terms
of section 16 of the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010. The
EC and CRZ clearances were accorded on January 1, 2014
[4]. In other words it took simply one year to accord the EC
and CRZ Clearance.
7.1.2 Development of Southern Dock Complex and Oil
jetty at Paradip Port, Project (State of Odisha) –
This project comprised development of multipurpose
terminal for handling ‘clean cargo’ viz. containers and
steel exports from the existing green field steel industries.
The EC and CRZ clearances were issued by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Government of India on 13th July
2012 and the clearances comprised of 14 Specific Conditions
and 9 General Conditions to be complied with [5].
7.2 Roads/highway projects
A total of 6 Road/Highway projects located in the State of
Uttar Pradesh & Madhya Pradesh each, were taken up for
detailed case studies. All these projects involved diversion
of forest land. Further, it also involved conducting public
hearing in more than one district of the States. Similarly,
3 projects spanning the two States of Uttar Pradesh and
Uttarakhand as well as 2 projects spanning the two States
Rajasthan and Gujarat were analysedvis-a-vis the time
consumed for obtaining EC and FC. In all, 26 projects
were analysed and it was found that in nearly 14 of these
projects (53.85%), the time taken for grant of forest clearance
was either twice or more than two times the time taken for
granting EC. The input data for the case studies of the above
roads/highways projects have been gathered and collated in
the Table 5[10]. The Table also shows the time period taken
for grant of EC and FC for other road projects also. From the
Table 5 [only 26 road projects for which data in regard to EC
and FC is available], it is seen that an average of 16.04
months’ time has been consumed for grant of EC with the
highest being 28 months and the three lowest being 2,4 and
7 months. Similarly, in regard to forest clearance an average
of 25.74 months has been consumed for grant of the same
with the highest being 45 months and the lowest three being
1,4 and 7 months.
The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 43
 POINT OF VIEW
7.3 Airport projects
7.3.1 Greenfield International Airport at Shamshabad,
near Hyderabad
The environment clearance was based on the EIA study
comprising aspects covering environmental quality
monitoring, waste water management, green house guest
management and development of green belt, rain water
harvesting and water treatment etc. In fact the EMP too for
the above project covered the above aspects. The greenbelt
has been developed covering an area of 273 hectares and
971 hectares of natural greenery has been left undisturbed
as required in the details of the EMP [6]. This green cover
facilitated in removal of 124 tonnes of carbon dioxide
annually from the environment comprising the airport
and its surrounding areas. The mechanism for carrying
out environmental monitoring analysis covered various
parameters of the ambient air as well as stack, water, soil,
wastewater and noise, in and around the airport site.
MoEF has granted environmental clearance for expansion
of Hyderabad international airport at Shamshabad on 10th
April, 2007, Letter no. 10- 14/2006-IA-III.
7.3.2 Greenfield International Airport at Mopa, Goa
Ministry of Environment and Forests had constituted a High
Level Working Group (HLWG) under the Chairmanship
of Dr. K. Kasturirangan, Member (Science), Planning
Commission vide office order dated 17.08.2012 to study
the preservation of the ecology, environmental integrity
and holistic development of the Western Ghats in view of
their rich and unique biodiversity. The HLWG submitted
its report to the MoEF on 15th April 2013. The HLWG
identified 37% of natural landscape having high biological
richness, low forest fragmentation, low population density
and containing Protected Areas, World Heritage Sites and
Tiger and Elephant corridors as an Ecologically Sensitive
Areas (ESA) [7].
7.4 Worldwide projects – case study related
to environmental issues
7.4.1 Mekong river basin projects
Six countries are located in the Mekong River Basin. The river
starts from Tibet in the West and traverses through China,
Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam. As
such any water related project in the Basin area is certain to

Table 5. Time line for efficient and prompt action by authorities for speedy grant of EC
Sl.no. Activity Time line

Constitution of the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority within 30 days of the receipt of the names from the State Gov-
1
(SEIAA). ernment / Union Territory administration.
Scoping - This stage constitutes firming of “Terms of Reference”(ToR)
2 and while finalizing the ToR the ones proposed by the applicant is also within 60 days of receipt of the Form 1/Form 1A.
examined.
To be completed within a period of 45 days of a request to the
3 Public consultation-
effect from the applicant.

In case this does not get completed within the said period another au-
4 thority or agency can be engaged for the work for completing the public To be completed within a further period of 45 days.
hearing.

The appraisal of the application by the Expert Appraisal Committee To be completed within a period of 60 days from the receipt of
5
(EAC)/State Level Expert Appraisal Committee (SLEAC). the EIA report and other documents.

The EAC/SLEAC shall place their appraisal for final approval before the within a period of 15 days of completion of the appraisal by
6
competent authority. them.

within a period of 45 days from the date of receipt of the rec-

ommendations of the EAC/SLEAC or within 105 days of the
7 The regulatory authority shall convey its decision to the applicant.
receipt of the EIA report except in case of the regulatory author-
ity’s disagreement with the final EIA report.

44 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

POINT OF VIEW
have a trans boundary environmental, economic and social
impacts on the populace, flora-fauna, and other inhabitants/
species in the basin area [11]. Resultantly, it is very desirable
that the country specific laws, rules and policies related to
the fallout from the environmental impacts are framed and
implemented in a well coherent and co-ordinated manner.
Use of traditional mechanisms for gathering input data,
often leads to misleading information particularly with
regard to expanse of affected area. This happened in many
of the transboundary EIAs also known as TIAs, conducted
for Mekong river basin water-related projects. Resultantly,
only “selective impact area” instead of the “potential impact
area” got reflected and factored in the EIA. As such use of
advanced technological methods viz. satellite imaging for
mapping affected habitats as well as other geographical and
biological formations shall project a more realistic picture in
this regard. While legislating laws and their implementation
and decision making should not allow short term benefits
to trump other more related concerns. Power asymmetry is
manifest in the Mekong basin countries resulting in muted
resistance to related undue activities by the countries located
in the upstream.
8.0 WORLD BANK, ADB AND OECD –
PERSPECTIVE ON AID AND ENVIRONMENT
The aid agencies shall assess the environmental impact of
development assistance projects which because of their
nature, size and location could significantly affect the
environment [8]. The World Bank’s detailed guidelines to be
adhered to for evaluating the environmental impacts have
been published in Environmental Assessment Sourcebook (1991).
Planning and implementation process of the projects by the
WB hinges upon the central concepts of: (i) environmental
economics, (ii) sustainable development, and (iii) complete
project cycle. The Bank considers all these project specific
variables to be related.
8.1 Time and cost requirements for EIA
Determination/allocation of time for initial EIA is a difficult
process. The initial EIA is required to be carried out during
the planning phase of a project and as such, is a function
of the planning procedures and project characteristics. The
assessment is also contingent upon the availability of its
baseline data for conclusion of the process. Simultaneous
action during the EIA and planning process ensures use of
common data leading to a robust and much more efficient
EIA and that is in synergy with other aspects of the planning
process. Complexity and quantum of problems faced by the
proposed project govern the cost involved in undertaking
the EIA. The cost normally is of the order of 0.1 to 2.0 % of
the total investment [8].
8.2 Responsibility for EIA
The ultimate responsibility for design of the development
projects and their upkeep besides safeguarding the
environment in the respective developing countries lies
with the governments. The OECD further underscores the
need that the donors are to ensure that an EIA of the aid-
assisted project takes into account the environmental laws
and regulations of the recipient countries. Onus for EIAs to
be carried out and paid, lies with the developers, whereas, in
Belgium [9] the EIA is carried out by the experts engaged by
authorities responsible for environment matters.
9.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The Government of India’s concern for environmental
impacts started getting formalized with the setting up of
the Ministry of Environment and Forest in 1985. This was
followed by enactment of the Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986 in turn framing and notifying the Environment
(Protection) Rules,1986. An important milestone in the course
of enacting successive legislations by the Government of
India, is the Notification dated 14th September, 2006 wherein
the MoEF, Government of India has mandated seeking
“prior environmental clearance” in case of construction of
new projects and other activities appended as Schedule to
the said notification entailing capacity addition or change in
process or technology etc.
The assessment process of impacts on the environment and
affected people is very complicated, vast and varied as well
as interdisciplinary in nature. Further, it is very difficult
for, even experts in the field, who attempt at estimating the
costs and benefits of these impacts. The difficulty starts with
establishing the baseline values of the existing environment
as well as estimating the change in these values on account
of the project/activity.
From the Table 4 it is clear that EC for most of the roads/
highways projects took lesser time (significantly lesser time
in some of the projects) than the time taken for accord of
FC. However, as per the relevant rules and provisions, no
activity can be started till Stage-II clearance is given by
The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 45
 POINT OF VIEW
the MoEF. This becomes very time consuming wherever
diversion of Forest land is involved particularly if the project
is spread over more than one State geographically. Therefore,
appropriate level of co-ordination and cohesion between the
concerned line Ministry, proposing the project and the MoEF
is inevitably required. Though the regulator is the MoEF for
grant of EC there are numerous authorities/entities viz.
those associated with the (i) grant of Wild Life clearance
(ii) Coastal Regulatory Authority (iii) Agriculture Ministry
(iv) State Governments (when political considerations start
weighing upon the decision making process in India ). Still,
it’s on a healthy course in India, as the policies related to EC,
has been nearly very dynamic in nature and has come a long
way since 1985.
5. MoEF, (IA Division) GoI, letter bearing No. 11-117/2009-IA-III
dated 13.07.2012.
6. h t t p : / / w w w . a d b . o r g / s i t e s / d e f a u l t / f i l e s / p r o j e c t -
document/80396/47083-002-sddr-02.pdf accessed at 4:45 pm on
07.06.2016
7. http://environmentclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/EIA/210
42015OVLC0QNFOnlyEIAReport.pdf accessed at 02:15 pm on
10.06.2016
8. OECD (1992) Guidelines on Environment and Aid: Good
practices for Environmental Impact Assessment of Development
Projects. OECD, Paris. http://www.oecd.org/dac/environment-
development/1887592.pdf
9. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/eia/pdf/eia_study_
june_09.pdf

10. Environment/Forest/Wild/Life clearance (As on 29.09.2014)

http//www.Nhai.org/Env.asp accessed on 19.05.2015.
References
11. L i, Jennifer C. (2008) Environmental Impact Assessments
1. MoEF Notification dated 14.09.2006.-Environment (Protection)
in DevelopingCountries: An Opportunity for
Rules, 1986.
GreaterEnvironmentalSecurity.Working Paper No. 4.
2. Euro. Comm Directive 85/337/EEC(CEC 1985) http://www.
12. Wang, Ziuan and Dien Sue Liang, (2005) Public participation in
ecolex.org/ecolex/ledge/view/RecordDetails?index=docume
environmental impact assessment (EIA) Law of China- http//
nts&id=LEX-FAOC018644 accessed at 12:50 pm on 13.05.2016
www.riel.whu.edu.cn/show.asp- quoted by Jennifer C. Li-
3. NEPA-https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary- working paper No.4, (2008) EIA in Developing Countries: An
national-environmental-policy-actaccessed at 12:50 pm on opportunity for greater Environmental Security.
04.05.2016
13. Wenger, B.,Robert and Xiaoying, MA Huadong Wang (1990)
4. MoEF, (IA Division) GoI, letter bearing No. 11-117/2009-IA-III “Environmental Impact Assesment in the People’s Republic of
dated 01.01.2014. China”. Environment Management Vol.14 No.4 pp 429-439.

Ajit K. Sinha holds a B.Tech (Civil) from IIT BHU; M.Tech from IIT Delhi; pursuing his PhD with IIT Delhi.
He is a Superintending Surveyor of Works (Civil)-III. He has worked with the Civil Construction Wing,
All India Radio for nearly 30 years. His areas of interest are arbitration and issues related to public private
partnership projects. He has overseen many projects of All India Radio and Doordarshan executed in the
North East region of India.

Dr. Kumar Neeraj Jha is with the Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi. He started his career with
Larsen and Toubro Ltd and was instrumental in successful completion of a number of construction projects
of national importance. He has published more than 50 papers in a number of national /international
journals and conference proceedings. He has supervised three PhD students and more than 50 M.Tech.
students. His books on Construction Project Management published by Pearson Education and Formwork
for Concrete Structures published by Tata McGraw Hill are considered as one of the text books in different
universities.

46 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

TECHNICAL PAPER

Investigations on the effect of gradual cooling

on the properties of fly ash concrete subjected to
sustained elevated temperatures
Shweta Patil and K.B. Prakash

Fly ash is the waste from the coal industries and poses serious problems of disposing. This present study focuses on utilization
of fly ash which replaces cement in proportions of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30% and subjected to elevated temperatures
o
like 200°C, 400°C, 600°C, 800°C and 1000 C followed by gradual cooling. The various strength parameters were studied as
per IS. Studies indicate that better strength characteristics in concrete were obtained at 25% replacement of cement by fly ash
o
and subjected to room temperature of 200°C, 400°C, 600°C, 800°C and 1000 C followed by gradual cooling. Therefore it is
feasible to adopt fly ash as a partial replacement of cement when it is exposed to elevated temperature with gradual cooling.

Keywords: Fly ash; sustained elevated temperature; gradual cooling; strength characteristics.

1. Introduction The fire resistance capacity of concrete is very complicated

In designing concrete structures subjected to high
temperature environments, for example cooling towers in
power plants, furnaces and reactors, pre-stressed concrete
pressure vessels in nuclear industries and reinforced
concrete skyscrapers, the information about fundamental
properties of concrete such as strength, stiffness, toughness,
and brittleness under highly elevated temperature is very
often required. The mechanical properties such as strength,
modulus of elasticity and volume stability of concrete are
significantly reduced during these exposures. This may
result in undesirable structural failures. Therefore, the
properties of concrete retained after a fire are of importance
for determining the load carrying capacity and for reinstating
fire-damaged constructions.
The Indian Concrete Journal, May 2017, Vol. 91, Issue 5, pp. 47-53.
because not only is concrete a composite material with
components having different thermal characteristics, it also
has the properties that depend on moisture and porosity[1].
The studies have shown that the high strength concrete has
a poor resistance to fire as compared to normal strength
concrete [2,3].
High temperature effect on concrete is one of the most
important physical deterioration processes that affect the
durability of the structure. This effect may decrease the
expected service life of the structure due to permanent
damage. It is possible to minimize the effect of high
temperature by taking preventive measures such as choosing
the right material and proper insulation methods.

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 47

TECHNICAL PAPER
When exposed to high temperature, the chemical composition
and physical structure of the concrete change considerably.
The dehydration such as the release of chemically bound
water from the calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) becomes
significant above about 110OC. The dehydration of the
hydrated calcium silicate and the thermal expansion of the
aggregate increase internal stresses and from 300OC micro-
cracks are induced through the material[4].
Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], which is one of the most
important compounds in cement paste, dissociates at
around 530oC resulting in the shrinkage of concrete. The
fire is generally extinguished by water and CaO turns into
[Ca(OH)2] causing cracking and crumbling of concrete.
Therefore, the effects of high temperatures are generally
visible in the form of surface cracking and spalling. Some
changes in colour may also occur during the exposure.
The alterations produced by high temperatures are more
evident when the temperature surpasses 400OC. Most
changes experienced by concrete at this temperature level
are considered irreversible. CSH gel, which is the strength-
giving compound of cement paste, decomposes further
above 600OC. As a result, severe microstructural changes are
induced and concrete loses its strength and durability [4].
But literature is either scarce or silent in respect of fly ash as
an alternative material for replacement of cement in concrete
subjected to elevated temperature with varying methods of
cooling. The present research attempts to study the behavior
of fly ash concrete at elevated temperature with gradual
cooling.
2. Research Significance
The rate of cooling plays an important role in the residual
strength characteristics of concrete when the concrete is
subjected to elevated temperatures. In real time situations,
the concrete may be subjected to sudden cooling when fire-
fighting engine start impinging water on concrete structure
which is on fire. Sometimes, the concrete may be subjected to
gradual cooling as in case of chimneys etc. or even sometimes,
the concrete may be subjected to intermittent cooling as
in case of some fire fighting devices. In all such situations
the concrete is subjected to different rates of cooling and
this certainly affects the residual strength characteristics
48 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
of concrete. Therefore the study of concrete subjected to
different rates of cooling becomes an important parameter
of study. In the present investigation concrete subjected to
elevated temperatures and gradual cooling is studied.
3. Materials and Methods
Ordinary Portland cement of 43grade (IS 8112)[5] with
specific gravity 3.01 was used in making the concrete. Fine
aggregate used was of zone I and its specific gravity was
2.57 [6]. Coarse aggregates used in the experimentation were
20m and down size and their specific gravity was found to
be 3.1 [6]. Class F fly ash used in this experimentation was
obtained from Raichur Thermal Power Plant Karnataka. The
specific gravity of fly ash is found to be 2.1. To improve the
workability a reputed superplasticizer was used. The dosage
of superplasticizer used was 0.2% by weight of cement. Mix
proportion used for M25 concrete (control concrete) was
1:2.5:4.0 with w/c = 0.45 (IS 10262:2009)[7]. Slump test was
carried out to assess the workability in fresh state. Specimens
were cast by replacing cement in proportions of 5%, 10%,
15%, 20%, 25%,30%.Cubes of size 150x150x150mm, cylinders
of size 150 mm diameter and 300mm length, beams of size
100mmx100mmx500mm , cylinders of size 150mm diameter
and 60mm length were cast. All the specimen were cured for
90 days. After 90 days of curing, the specimens were weighed
accurately. The specimen were then transferred to an oven
and subjected to temperatures of 200°C, 400°C, 600°C, 800°C
and 1000°C for 4 hours. They were then allowed to cool in the
furnace and later taken out for testing. They were visually
observed for change in colour and cracks. After cooling they
were weighed again accurately for loss in weight. After this
they were tested for their respective strengths. The cubes
were tested for compressive strength, the beams were tested
for flexural strength the cylinders of length 300mm were
tested for split tensile strength and cylinders of length 60mm
were tested for impact strength.[8], [9].
4. Results And Discussions
The results of compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural
strength and impact strength are presented in Tables 1,2,3
and 4. Variation of compressive strength, tensile strength,
flexural strength and impact strength are shown in the form
of graph in Figures 1,2,3 and 4 respectively.
TECHNICAL PAPER

Table 1. Comparative results of compressive strength when Table 2. Comparative results of tensile strength when
subjected to gradual cooling subjected to gradual cooling
Percentage Compressive strength (MPa) when subjected to Percentage Tensile strength (MPa) when subjected to
replacement replacement
of cement 35°C 200°C 400°C 600°C 800°C 1000°C of cement by
by fly ash (Room fly ash 35°C 200°C 400°C 600°C 800°C 1OOO°C
temp.) Room
0% 25.85 20.98 20.41 20 6.67 1.2 temp.
5% 27.07 21.04 20.62 20.27 7.11 1.5 0% 3.8 3.54 3.21 2.93 1.86 1.7
5% 3.94 3.63 3.28 3.2 2.24 1.9
10% 28.44 26.18 25.67 20.67 8.67 2.1
10% 4.15 3.7 3.66 3.42 2.77 2.1
15% 29.32 28.83 27.63 27.2 8.89 2.6
15% 4.27 3.92 3.71 3.59 2.85 2.8
20% 33.11 32.68 32.07 31.78 9.6 3.3 20% 5.02 4.15 3.93 3.69 3.31 2.8
25% 36.07 35.56 34 32.67 9.88 4 25% 5.37 4.27 4.19 3.93 3.59 3.1
30% 34.74 33.85 33.16 31.91 9.78 3.5 30% 5.23 3.54 3.13 2.85 2.8 2.6

The test results indicate that the compressive strength of
concrete increases as the percentage replacement of cement
by fly ash goes on increasing upto 25% (Table 1). Beyond
25% replacement level the compressive strength shows a
decreasing trend. Thus the higher value of compressive
strength is obtained at 25% replacement level of cement
by fly ash and its value is 36.07MPa (Table 1). A similar
observation is made in tensile strength, flexural strength
and impact strength with their value as 5.37MPa, 6.87MPa,
and 947.48N-m respectively (Tables 2, 3 and 4 respectively).
This is attributed for the higher pozzolanic reaction at 25%
replacement level. Therefore 25% replacement of cement by
fly ash can result in better strength characteristics of concrete.
It is observed that the concrete when subjected to 200oC
and with gradual cooling shows an increasing trend of
compressive strength as the percentage replacement of
cement by fly ash goes on increasing upto 25%. Beyond
25% replacement level the compressive strength shows
a decreasing trend. At 25% replacement a compressive
strength of 35.56MPa is observed which yields 70% increase
in the compressive strength with respect to reference mix.
A similar trend is observed for tensile strength, flexural
strength and impact strength where in the percentage
increase in the strength are 20%, 25% and 125% respectively.
Also it is found that at 25% replacement level when subjected
to 200oC and with gradual cooling the residual compressive

Table 3. Comparative results of flexural strength when Table 4. Comparative results of impact strength for final
subjected to gradual cooling failure when subjected to gradual cooling
Percentage Flexural strength (MPa) when subjected to Percentage Impact strength (N-m) for final
replacement replacement failure when subjected to
of cement of cement
by fly ash 35°C 200°C 400°C 600°C 800°C 1OOO°C by fly ash
Room 35°C 200°C 400°C 600°C 800°C 1000oC
temp. (Room
temp.)
0% 5.13 4.47 4.2 3.67 3 2.5
0% 435.7 414.96 290.47 228.23 186.73 166
5% 5.27 4.87 4.67 4.27 3.47 2.7 5% 712.34 684.68 435.7 373.46 311.22 290.5
10% 5.53 4.93 4.8 4.4 3.6 3.2 10% 740 726.17 497.95 394.21 352.71 332
15% 5.93 5.13 4.93 4.6 3.87 3.3 15% 781.5 767.67 746.92 518.7 394.21 352.7
20% 6.6 5.27 5.27 4.93 4.67 4.2 20% 885.24 871.41 829.91 601.69 414.96 394.2
25% 6.87 5.6 5.40 5.13 4.93 4.7 25% 947.48 933.65 892.16 726.17 663.93 643.2
30% 6.47 5.53 5 5 4.67 4.5 30% 864.49 850.66 622.43 580.94 456.45 421.9

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 49

 TECHNICAL PAPER

35oC (Room temp.) 400oC 800oC

200oC 600oC 1000oC
6

5
Tensile strength, MPa

0
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Percentage replacement of cement by fly ash

Figure 2. Variation of tensile strength of flyash concrete when

subjected
50 ThetoIndian
various temperatures
Concrete for 42017
Journal May hrs and with gradual
cooling
TECHNICAL PAPER
strength, residual tensile strength, residual flexural strength
and residual impact strength are found to be 98.59%, 79.5%,
81.5% and 98.5% respectively .This is again attributed to the
fact that higher pozzolanic reaction can take place at 25%
replacement level. Therefore 25% replacement of cement by
fly ash can result in better strength characteristics in concrete
when subjected to 200oC and with gradual cooling.
It is observed that the concrete when subjected to 400oC
and with gradual cooling shows an increasing trend of
compressive strength as the percentage replacement of
cement by fly ash goes on increasing upto 25%. Beyond
25% replacement level the compressive strength shows
a decreasing trend. At 25% replacement a compressive
strength of 34MPa is observed which yields 67% increase
in the compressive strength with respect to reference mix.
A similar trend is observed for tensile strength, flexural
strength and impact strength where in the percentage
increase in the strength are 31%, 26% and 207% respectively.
Also it is found that at 25% replacement level when subjected
to 400oC and with gradual cooling the residual compressive
strength, residual tensile, residual flexural strength and
residual impact strength are found to be 94.26%, 78.03%,
78.6% and 94.2% respectively. This is again attributed to the
fact that higher pozzolanic reaction can take place at 25%
replacement level. Therefore 25% replacement of cement by
fly ash can result in better strength characteristics in concrete
when subjected to 400oC and with gradual cooling.
It is observed that the concrete when subjected to 600oC
and with gradual cooling shows an increasing trend of
compressive strength as the percentage replacement of
cement by fly ash goes on increasing upto 25%. Beyond
25% replacement level the compressive strength shows
a decreasing trend. At 25% replacement a compressive
strength of 32.67MPa is observed which yields 64% increase
in the compressive strength with respect to reference mix.
A similar trend is observed for tensile strength, flexural
strength and impact strength where in the percentage
increase in the strength are 34%, 40% and 218% respectively.
Also it is found that at 25% replacement level when subjected
to 600oC and with gradual cooling the residual compressive
strength, residual tensile strength, residual flexural strength
and residual impact strength are found to be 90.57%, 73.2%,
74.7% and 76.6% respectively. This is again attributed to the
fact that higher pozzolanic reaction can take place at 25%
replacement level. Therefore 25% replacement of cement by
fly ash can result in better strength characteristics in concrete
when subjected to 600oC and with gradual cooling.
It is observed that the concrete when subjected to 800oC
and with gradual cooling shows an increasing trend of
compressive strength as the percentage replacement of
cement by fly ash goes on increasing upto 25%. Beyond
25% replacement level the compressive strength shows
a decreasing trend. At 25% replacement a compressive
strength of 9.88MPa is observed which yields 49% increase
in the compressive strength with respect to reference mix.
A similar trend is observed for tensile strength, flexural
strength and impact strength where in the percentage
increase in the strength are 93%, 64% and 256% respectively.
Also it is found that at 25% replacement level when subjected
to 800oC and with gradual cooling the residual compressive
strength, residual tensile strength, residual flexural strength
and residual impact strength are found to be 27.39%, 66.9%,
71.8% and 70.1% respectively. This is again attributed to the
fact that higher pozzolanic reaction can take place at 25%
replacement level. Therefore 25% replacement of cement by
fly ash can result in better strength characteristics in concrete
when subjected to 800oC and with gradual cooling.
It is observed that the concrete when subjected to 1000oC
and with gradual cooling shows an increasing trend of
compressive strength as the percentage replacement of
cement by fly ash goes on increasing upto 25%. Beyond
25% replacement level the compressive strength shows
a decreasing trend. At 25% replacement a compressive
strength of 4.0MPa is observed which yields 234% increase
in the compressive strength with respect to reference mix.
A similar trend is observed for tensile strength, flexural
strength and impact strength where in the percentage
increase in the strength are 82%, 88% and 288% respectively.
Also it is found that at 25% replacement level when subjected
to 1000oC and with gradual cooling the residual compressive
strength, residual tensile strength, residual flexural strength
and residual impact strength are found to be 11.09%, 57.7%,
68.4% and 67.9% respectively. This is again attributed to the
fact that higher pozzolanic reaction can take place at 25%
replacement level. Therefore 25% replacement of cement by
fly ash can result in better strength characteristics in concrete
when subjected to 1000oC and with gradual cooling.
The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 51
TECHNICAL PAPER
The test results clearly indicate that as the sustained
elevated temperature is increased there is a decrease in all
the strength properties. The drastic reduction in the strength
characteristics occurs when the temperature reaches 800oC.
The concrete looses most of its strength when it reaches an
elevated temperature of 1000oC. At a temperature of 400oC
the interlayer calcium silicate hydrate, water and some of the
combined water from calcium silicate hydrate and sulpho
alumino hydrate will evaporate. At 400oC the first visible
crack start occurring. As the temperature increases to 600oC
a series of reactions in the hardened cement paste will start
occurring resulting in decomposition of hydration products
and destruction of C-S-H gels. The decomposition of calcium
hydroxide Ca (OH)2 may start occurring at 400oC. A slight
colour change and hairy cracks are observed at 400oC. At
600oC the colour turns to reddish and spalling of concrete in
small quantities is observed. At 800oC and 1000oC the colour
turns to blackish with lot of spalling characteristics. Drastic
deteriorating changes in fly ash concrete start occurring at
600oC.
The concrete with different percentage replacement of
cement by fly ash has shown some resistive properties to high
temperature as compared to concrete without fly ash. It was
clearly observed that either the colour change or the cracks
or spalling characteristics were less in concrete containing
fly ash when subjected to sustained elevated temperatures
with gradual cooling.
Higher resistive properties to sustained elevated
temperatures are observed when 25% of cement is replaced
by fly ash. This is probably due to the fact that the detrimental
effect of Ca(OH)2 can be eliminated by pozzolanic rection
of fly ash thereby reducing the amount of Ca(OH)2. Thus
it can be concluded that the use of fly ash in concrete have
a beneficiary results with respect to sustained elevated
temperatures. Better strength characteristics, normal colour
change properties, less spalling characteristics and less
surface cracks are some of the characteristics of fly ash
concrete, when subjected to sustained elevated temperatures
and with gradual cooling.
5. Conclusions
Following conclusions may be drawn based on the
observations made on the behavior of fly ash concrete
subjected to sustained elevated temperatures with gradual
cooling.
52 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
1. 25% replacement of cement by fly ash can result
in better strength characteristics in concrete when
subjected to 200oC and with gradual cooling. The
residual compressive strength, tensile strength,
flexural strength and impact strength are found to be
98.59%, 79.5%, 81.5% and 98.5% respectively.
2. 25% replacement of cement by fly ash can result
in better strength characteristics in concrete when
subjected to 400oC and with gradual cooling. The
residual compressive strength, tensile strength,
flexural strength and impact strength are found to be
94.26%, 78.03%, 78.6% and 94.2% respectively.
3. 25% replacement of cement by fly ash can result
in better strength characteristics in concrete when
subjected to 600oC and with gradual cooling. The
residual compressive strength, tensile strength,
flexural strength and impact strength are found to be
90.57%, 73.2%, 74.7% and 76.6% respectively.
4. 25% replacement of cement by fly ash can result
in better strength characteristics in concrete when
subjected to 800oC and with gradual cooling. The
residual compressive strength, tensile strength,
flexural strength and impact strength are found to be
27.39%, 66.9%, 71.8% and 70.1% respectively.
5. 25% replacement of cement by fly ash can result
in better strength characteristics in concrete when
subjected to 1000oC and with gradual cooling. The
residual compressive strength, tensile strength,
flexural strength and impact strength are found to be
11.09%, 57.7%, 68.4% and 67.9% respectively.
6. Drastic deteriorating changes in fly ash concrete start
occurring at 600oC.
7. Use of fly ash in concrete have a beneficiary effect
with respect to sustained elevated temperatures.
Better strength characteristics, normal colour change
properties, less spalling characteristics and less
surface cracks are some of the characteristics of fly
ash concrete, when subjected to sustained elevated
temperatures and with gradual cooling.
TECHNICAL PAPER
Acknowledgements 8. ______Method of test for strength of concrete, IS 516:1959, Bureau
of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
The authors are immensely grateful to the Principal, Gogte
Institute of Technology, Belgaum, and to the authorities of 9. ______Splitting tensile strength of concrete method of test, IS 5816:1999,
J.N.T.U, Hyderabad for all the amenities provided and for Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
all the encouragements.

References
1. Min li, Chung Xiang Qian, Wei Sun “ Mechanical properties of
high strength concrete after fire”, Cement and Concrete Research,
Vol.34, 2004, pp. 1001-1005.
2. Sanjayan .G., Stocks..L.J, “ Spalling of high strength silica fume
concrete in fire”, ACI Material Journal, Vol. 90(2), 1993, pp. 170-
173.
3. Ali. F.A, O’Connor. Abu-Tair “ Explosive spalling of high strength
concrete columns in fire”, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol.
53(3), 2000, pp. 197-204.
4. Demirel B. and Keleştemur O., ‘Effect of elevated temperature
on the mechanical properties of concrete produced with finely
ground pumice and silica fume’, Fire Safety Journal, vol. 45, no.
6–8, pp. 385–391, 2010.
5. ______Specification for 43 grade ordinary portland cement, IS
8112:1989, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Bibliography
1. Malhotra H. L.“ Effect of temperature on the compressive strength
of concrete” Magazine of Concrete Research, 1956, 8 No. 23,pp.
85-94.
2. Potha Raju M., Shobha M., Rambabu K.,“Flexural strength of fly
ash concrete under elevated temperatures” Magazine of Concrete
Research, 2004, 56 No. 2, March, pp. 83-88.
3. Mohamedhbai G.T., G., “ The residual compressive strength of
concrete subjected to elevated temperatures” Concrete, 1983,
December, pp. 22 to 27.
4. Siddique R. “ Effect of fine aggregate replacement with class f fly
ash on mechanical properties of concrete” Cement and Concrete
Research, vol.33, 2003, pp. 539-547.
5. Rajamane N.P, Annie Peter, Ambily P.S, “ Prediction of compressive
strength of concrete with fly ash as sand replacement material”
Cement and Concrete Composite, Vol.29, 2007, pp. 218-223.

6. ______Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources 6. Bairagi N.K Modhera C.D, “Shear strength of fiber reinforced
for concrete, IS 383:1970, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. concrete.” ICI Journal, January -March 2001, pp. 47-53.

7. ______ Recommended guide lines for concrete mix design, IS 10262: 7. ______Method of tests for aggregates for concrete, IS: 2386 (Part-I,
2009, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. II, III and IV) -1963, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

Prof Shweta Patil received her B.E. (civil) and M.Tech Structural from Gogte Institute of Technology,
Belgaum, Karanataka; She is an Assistant Professor in Gogte Institute of Technology College, Belgaum. Her
research interests include study of properties of fly ash concrete at elevated temperatures

Dr. K.B. Prakash, B.E., M.Tech, PhD, is the Principal of Government Engineering College, Haveri,
Karnataka He has 27 years of teaching experience and two years of industrial experience. He has worked in
K.L.E Societies College of Engineering and Technology Belgaum, S.T.J Institute of Technology Ranebennur
and T.K Institute of Engineering and Tech, Warananagar in various capacities. His areas of interest are
concrete shrinkage, secondary and tertiary blended concrete, fibre reinforced concrete, ferrocement.

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 53

TECHNICAL PAPER

Durable concrete by packing density method

S.K. Dhawan, Itihas Dhareppagol and B. Bhattacharjee

Concrete is a widely used construction material. There has been phenomenal growth in research and development activities
to develop high performance concrete. However, high standards of durability are not being achieved in practice. We have a
witnessed large number of existing structures which after a few years of construction have started showing signs of distress.
This remains a big challenge for the engineers and technicians to ensure proper quality control of the raw material. This
paper suggests a few measures to make the concrete durable thereby to ensure improvement of the service life of Reinforced
Concrete Structures. This paper also gives an overview of the factors that make the concrete durable starting from the mix
design process to the selection of suitable materials, mixing, transporting, placing, compaction and efficient curing. Emphasis
needs to be given during process of concreting to obtain desired fresh and hardened properties of concrete by way of
conducting proper checks and trials.

Keywords: Durability; service life; mix design; packing density.

Introduction and workers or poor quality of design, construction and

maintenance carried out. Sometimes causes are of these
The normal economic life of a RCC structure in India is 75
individual factors or of the combination of two or more
years (CPWD Works Manual 2014). If the structure last for this
factors. Unawareness, lack of knowledge or lack of resources
lifespan or more it helps in reducing the depletion of natural
cannot be considered excuses for the durability distress.
resources and wastes. This reduces the environmental impact
and the cost of repairs and replacement. Hence durability
It is really alarming that some of the RCC structures which
has to be ensured in an RCC structure. Since environmental
were constructed 35-40 years ago are in very bad conditions
factors differ from place to place, durability is site specific.
and even at many places had to be pulled down due to safety
The ingredients of concrete, their mix proportion, interaction
requirements and large rehabilitation costs. Corrosion has
between the material, placing, compaction, curing and
been noticed in many structures. Reasons of corrosion due
external environment determine the durability and life of
to bad quality of construction without quality assurance
concrete.
and quality construction such as w/c ratio, quality cement,
chlorides in water, quality of reinforcement, cement content,
In construction of project if good practice is not adopted that
impurities in concrete and other factors related to the
would affect the durability. This would need regular repair
external environment such as moisture, oxygen, humidity,
and rehabilitation work and would also reduce the design
temperature, etc.
service life. Therefore such extra cost due to lack of quality
would consume more resources. Though cases of distress
Maintenance of structures is not given due importance in
may be many, broadly they are either the outcome of poor
the country whether buildings, flyovers, bridges or dams.
quality of education, research and training of engineers
Poor maintenance exposes RCC to the adverse atmospheric
The Indian Concrete Journal, May 2017, Vol. 91, Issue 5, pp. 54-59.
conditions and durability distress starts in such members.

54 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

TECHNICAL PAPER
Even in private buildings, occupants are very sensitive
to interiors and maintain interiors in good conditions but
external members which are more vulnerable to durability
considerations are not taken due care. Leakage and seepage
on RCC members and alternative drying and wetting make
such members less durable.
Concrete durability
Concrete durability has been defined by the American
Concrete Institute as its resistance to weathering action,
chemical attack, abrasion and other degradation processes.
Thus durability is the ability of concrete to last for a
service life without significant deterioration. Durability
is also defined as the continued ability of the structure to
withstand the expected wear and deterioration, performing
satisfactorily in the normal operating conditions throughout
its intended life without the need for undue maintenance.
Thus it is implied that certain degree of deterioration is built
in during the design but materials, process and placement
have to correspond to the design requirements for the
durability. To include the durability in the design, codes
specify the provisions for addressing factors affecting the
durability such as carbonation, chloride ingress, leaching,
sulphate attack, alkali silica reaction, freezing and thawing.
Durability of concrete gets affected due to following reasons:
a. Engineers or designers not possessing required
knowledge of design, specifications and construction
techniques.
b. Not following specified design criterion during
structural design.
c. Not following specified criterion of the design during
its execution i.e selection of materials, their mixing,
placement, compaction and curing.
d. Not following specified criterion of maintenance
required to maintain conditions of the construction.
e. Change of specified conditions and assumptions of
the design criterion either during its construction or
maintenance period.
A well designed, well executed construction and well
maintained concrete would be substantially water tight and
durable for the intended life of the structure.
Durability Distress
It has been observed that some RCC structures have
even shown distress within short period of say 15 years.
External symptoms of distress include cracking to spalling
of concrete mostly involving corrosion of reinforcement.
Such conditions normally are result of penetration of water
and aggressive chemical. Natural causes of deterioration of
concrete are said to be carbonation, leaching, sulphate attack,
alkali silica reaction and freezing thawing, though damages
may also occur due to fire or natural hazards, these are not
included here.
For deterioration process, various models are available. In two
stages model describing deterioration from environmental
effects, during the first stage of loading and weathering,
the voids and micro cracks in the interfacial zone between
the cement paste and coarse aggregate or reinforcing steel
become interlinked. When interlinked network of micro
cracks gets connected to any crack present in the concrete, it
provides the passage for fluid to the interior of concrete. In
the second stage water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and acidic
ions penetrate easily into the concrete due to availability of
passage into the concrete leading to cracking, spalling and
loss of mass, resulting into loss of durability of concrete.
From another model loss of durability is from three stages.
During the first stage, protective barrier breaks down such
as de-passivation of the reinforcement steel, or chloride
penetration. In second stage damage is initiated and during
third stage damage gets propagated. From yet another model
deterioration of concrete is described through water cement
ratio. Three principle elements included in the concept
are: interconnected porosity of cement paste, exposure to
aggressive chemicals and intermittent presence of water. All
three elements are essential for the damage of RCC.
Symptoms and causes of durability
distress
Cracking and spalling are easy symptoms of durability
distress in an RCC structure. Concrete spalling occurs due to
one or more of the following reasons:
a. Poor quality of concrete leading to porosity and
ingress of water/ moisture leading to corrosion in
RCC
b. Insufficient cover to the reinforcement
c. High w/c ratio used in concrete mix producing
porous concrete and less durable
The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 55
TECHNICAL PAPER
d. Finishing works done when concrete is green, and
cladding preventing water evaporation from the
concrete
e. In cold climates, non-provision of air entrained
materials in concrete subjected to freezing and
thawing
f. Providing corroded steel in RCC
g. Alternate wetting and drying of concrete surface
continuously
h. Poor maintenance of RCC structure like no painting
on exposed RCC surfaces
i. Poor compaction of concrete leading to porosity
j. Damaging RCC components for installation of coolers,
providing false ceiling, providing service installation
like electrical, telephone, dish TV antenna etc , in
case concrete cover is damaged or reinforcement is
exposed, water ingress starts and corrosion starts
k. Poor installation of service pipes, sewer lines etc in
concrete surfaces where water leakage starts
Concrete Mix Design by Packing Density
Method
Packing density is new kind of mix design method used to
design different types of concrete. To optimize the particle
packing density of concrete, the particles should be selected
to fill up the voids between large particles with smaller
particles and soon, in order to obtain a dense and stiff
particle structure. Higher degree of particle packing leads
to minimum voids, maximum density and requirement of
cement and water will be less. Total paste = c + w =
There are various methods of proportioning for various
Cement (c) =
types of concrete. Packing density method of mix design
is the only mix design method used for proportioning
Water (w) = 0.45*400 =180 kg/m3
normal concrete, high strength concrete, no-fines concrete
and self-compacting concrete. Volume
No adequate literature
of aggregates = 1 is
– 0.30547 = 0.69453 cc
available on this method. The subject of optimizing the
concrete composition by selectingRatiothe right amounts
of aggregates of
at maximum
various particles has already aroused interest for more than
a century.
Most of the early researchers, working on the packing of
aggregates, proposed methods to design an ideal particle
size distribution. Geometrically based particle packing
models can help to predict the water demand of concrete,
Total paste = c + w =
and thus the material properties.
=
Cement (c) =
= 0.3649
56 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
Water (w) = 0.45*400 =180 kg/m3
The cement paste has to fill up the voids between aggregate
particles and the “excess” paste will then disperse the
aggregate particles to produce a thin coating of paste
surrounding each aggregate for lubricating the concrete mix.
In general, the higher the packing density of the aggregate,
the smaller will be the volume of voids to be filled and larger
will be the amount of paste in excess of void for lubrication.
In IS code method of mix design we have curves to decide
the water cement ratio whereas in packing density method
we don’t have such type of correlation curves available.
Very less information is available regarding co-relation
between grade of concrete and water cementitious ratio,
paste content, in case of packing density.
Mix Proportioning
First we determined the void ratio of aggregates (20 mm,
10 mm, fine aggregates) as per IS 2386 part (3), from which
packing density was determined.
Proportioning was done by packing model only as a binary
mixture, so each time only two mixtures were taken to
determine the proportion. Trial and error method of varying
the proportion would help determine the proportion for
maximum packing.
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Proportioning 20 mm and 10 mm
aggregates
The void ratio measured experimentally for 20 mm aggregate
is 61.9% and for 10 mm aggregate is 69.1%.The calculation
from the empirical equation gave a value of 73.2% of 20 mm
= 0.767 c
aggregate and 26.8% 10 mm aggregate as the proportion at
which maximum packing could be achieved.
kg/m3
Proportioning of coarse aggregates
packing,
and fine ⁄
aggregates
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄
Applying model of binary mixes, now ⁄ as⁄ coarse aggregate
is proportioned between 20 mm and 10 mm aggregates, we
take this as a first mix and the fine aggregates as the second
mix. The void ratio of CA is 60.59% and FA is 52.22%.
Calculation gives the proportion at which best packing is
obtained as 67.4% CA and 32.6% FA.
= 0.767 c
kg/m3
 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
TECHNICAL PAPER
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Best packing of 72.23%was obtained. Total paste = c + w = = 0.767 c
Total paste = c + w = Total=paste
0.767=cc + w = = 0.767 c
Cement (c) = kg/m3
Total paste = c + w = = 0.767 c
Cement (c) = Cementkg/m 3
(w)(c)= =0.45*400 =180 kg/m3kg/m
3
Water
⁄Total
Hence we get the ratio ⁄= all
pasteof c + three
⁄
w = size of aggregates
⁄
= 0.767 c (c)as,=
Cement kg/m3kg/m
Water (w) = 0.45*400 =180 Water
3
Volume (w)
of = 0.45*400 =180
aggregates = 1 – kg/m 3
0.30547 = 0.69453 cc
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Cement (c) = kg/m
Water
3
Volume
(w)of= aggregates = 1 –Volume
0.45*400 =180 0.30547
kg/m 3 = 0.69453 cc
Ratio of aggregates
of aggregates = 1 – 0.30547
at maximum = 0.69453 cc
packing,
3
Packing Density, P.D. = 0.7223 g/cm
Ratio of
3 Ratio of aggregates at maximum
Water (w) = 0.45*400 =180 kg/mVolume aggregates
packing, at maximum packing,
of aggregates = 1 –Ratio
0.30547
of = 0.69453atccmaximum packing,
aggregates ⁄ ⁄ ⁄

Calculation of optimum = 1 –amount of cc ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄

+w= = 0.767Volume
c of aggregates 0.30547 = 0.69453
Ratio of aggregates at maximum packing, ⁄ ⁄
w= different
= 0.767 c materials
Ratio of aggregates at maximum packing,
Packingkg/m
Density,
3 P.D. = 0.7223 g/cm3 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
kg/m3 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
5*400 =180 kg/m
Void content
3 = 1 - 0.7223 = 0.2777 =
*400 =180 kg/m 3

regates = These
1 – 0.30547 =
voids= 0.69453
are to becc filled by the paste, take 10 % extra ==0.3649
gates = 1 paste,
– 0.30547 = 0.69453 cc
ates at maximum packing, = 0.3649 = 0.3649
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
tes at maximum packing, =
Hence, Paste⁄content = ⁄ 1.1 x 0.2777 = =
0.30547 ⁄ ⁄ Coarse aggregate (20 mm) = (795 kg/m3)
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
= 0.3649Coarse aggregate (20 mm)==0.3649
Coarse aggregate (20 mm) (795
= kg/m )
3
(795 kg/m3)

7c Coarse aggregate (10 mm) = (340 kg/m3)

Coarse aggregate (20 mm) = Coarse
Coarseaggregate
aggregate(20 mm)
mm) ==
(795
(10 kg/m3) (795(340
kg/m 3) 3
kg/m )
Coarse aggregate (10 mm) = (340 kg/m3)
m3
=
=
Table 1. Finalised mix proportions designed by packing density method Fine aggregate
[1] (4.75 mm) = (756 kg/m3)
= 0.3649
Grade of CoarseExcess
W/C aggregate (10 mm)
Water =3
content
(4.75 mm)(340
Cement content
Fine aggregate == kg/m
Wt. of )
fine aggregate
3 Wt. of 12 mm
(756 kg/m 3) Wt. of 20 mm
(kg/m ) Coarse aggregate
(kg/m3) (10 mm) Fine (340 kg/m
=Concrete
0.3649 3)
ratio paste aggregate
(kg/m3) (4.75 mm) = aggregate
Coarse Coarse aggregate(756 kg/m3)
0.69453 cc content 3
(kg/m ) (kg/m3)
(%)
ing, Admixture:0.25 % of cement content was added after mixture inspection.
Fine aggregate (4.75 194.9522
mm) 348.1289 772.2352
was added after 347.5058 810.8469
3= (756content
kg/m 3)
ate (20mm)
e (20 mm)= = (795 kg/m ) )
3 Admixture:0.25 % of cement mixture inspection.
⁄ M20 0.56 10⁄ (795⁄
kg/m
Fine aggregate (4.75 mm) =Admixture:0.25 % of cement content (756
was added 3after mixture inspection.
kg/m )
0.56 1 2.2182 0.9982 2.3292

201.1187 372.4420 756.7967 340.5585 794.6366

M25 0.54 15
Admixture:0.25 % of cement content was added after mixture inspection.
ate (10mm)
e (10 mm)= = (340
(3400.54 kg/m
kg/m 3) 3) 1 2.0320 0.9144 2.1336
Admixture:0.25 % of cement content was added after mixture inspection.
203.8259 407.6518 741.3583 333.6112 778.4262
M30 0.50 20
0.50 1 1.8186 0.8184 1.9095

(4.75mm)
4.75 mm)= = (756
(756 kg/m
kg/m
208.9378 3) 3) 435.2871 725.9199 326.6639 762.2159
M35 0.48 25
0.48 1 1.6677 0.7505 1.7511

209.7061 476.6047 710.4815 319.7167 746.0055

M40 0.44added 30
5%%ofofcement
cementcontent
contentwas
was3 addedafter mixture
after inspection.
mixture inspection.
0.44 1 1.4907 0.6708 1.5653
(795 kg/m )

(340 kg/m3)
The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 57
 ⁄
⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄
⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
⁄⁄ ⁄⁄ ⁄⁄ ⁄⁄
TECHNICAL
⁄ PAPER
⁄ ⁄ ⁄

Table 2. Finalised mix proportions designed by IS code method [1]

Grade of W/C Water content Cement content Wt. of fine aggregate Wt. of 12 mm coarse Wt. of 20 mm coarse
Total
Total paste
paste =
concrete = cc + w
w=
+ratio = =
= 0.767
0.767) cc
(kg/m
3
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) aggregate aggregate
Total paste = c + w = = 0.767 c 3
(kg/m ) (kg/m3)
c c++ww== Cement==(c) 0.767
0.767
= c c kg/m 3
= c + w = Cement (c) =
= 0.767 c kg/m3
Cement (c) = kg/m
192 3 349 669 609.7 609.7
WaterM20 kg/m
(w) =
kg/m 3 3 0.55
0.45*400 =180 kg/m 3
Water (w)kg/m = 0.45*400
3 =180 kg/m 0.55
3
1 1.9169 1.7470 1.7470
Water (w) = 0.45*400 =180 kg/m3
45*400 =180
0.45*400 Volume
=180 kg/m3of
kg/m
Volume 3 aggregates = 1 – 0.30547
of aggregates = 1 – 0.30547 192=
= 0.69453
0.69453 cc
cc 369.23 662.786 633.70 633.70
0.45*400 =180 kg/m
Volume
3
M25 of aggregates 0.52 = 1 – 0.30547 = 0.69453 cc
gregates ==1Ratio
ggregates of
of aggregates
1––0.30547
Ratio 0.30547 ==0.69453
0.69453
aggregates at maximum
atcccc packing,
maximum 0.52
packing, 1 1.7950 1.7162 1.7162
ggregates =Ratio
1 – 0.30547 = 0.69453
of aggregates cc
at maximum packing,
197 ⁄ ⁄ 410 ⁄ ⁄646 617 617
gates
egatesatatmaximum
maximum packing,0.48
M30 packing, ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
regates at maximum packing, ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄1.5756
0.48 1 1.5048 1.5048
⁄⁄ ⁄⁄ ⁄⁄ ⁄⁄
⁄ ⁄ 197 ⁄ ⁄ 428 638 610.5 610.5
M35 0.46
0.46 1 1.4907 1.4264 1.4264

197 469 625 598 598

M40 0.42 =
=
= 0.42 1 1.3326 1.2750 1.2750
== =
= 0.3649
0.3649
=
= 0.3649
==0.3649
0.3649
= 0.3649
Coarse
Coarse aggregate
aggregate (20
(20 mm)
mm) =
= (795
(795 kg/m
kg/m3))
3
then control of cracking and various methods of corrosion
Coarse aggregate (20 mm) = (795 kg/m3)
protection would prevent damage and deterioration
gate
gate(20
(20mm)
mm)== (795
(795kg/m
kg/m3)3)
egate (20 mm) = (795 kg/m3) process. The good structure with durable concrete would
have longer service life. This would reduce waste and the
Coarse
Coarse aggregate
aggregate (10
(10 mm)
mm) == (340
(340 kg/m
kg/m3)) environmental impacts of its repair during replacement.
3

Coarse aggregate (10 mm) = (340 kg/m3)

Construction and removal waste would also reduce. In case
gate (10 mm) =
gate (10 mm) = (340 kg/m 3)3
(340 kg/m 3)
egate (10 mm) = (340 kg/m ) the RCC structure do not last for its design life, this would
further pose a problem on environment, ecology, economy
Fine
Fine aggregate
aggregate (4.75
(4.75 mm)
mm) == (756
(756 kg/m
kg/m3)) and inconvenient to the citizens. Hence durability has to be
3

Fine aggregate (4.75 mm) = (756 kg/m3)

ensured in an RCC structure for the welfare of the society.
ete(4.75 mm) =
(4.75 mm) = (756 kg/m 3)3
(756 kg/m 3)
ate (4.75 mm) = (756 kg/m ) For the durability of RCC structure, concrete should be able
to resist weather action, chemical attack and abrasion while
Admixture:0.25
Admixture:0.25 %
Admixture:0.25 %%of cement
of of
cement content
content
cement was
was added
content was after
added after
addedmixture
afterinspection.
mixture inspection.maintaining its desired engineering properties.
Admixture:0.25
mixture % of cement content was added after mixture inspection.
inspection.
25
.25%%ofofcement
cementcontent
contentwas
wasadded
addedafter
aftermixture
mixtureinspection.
inspection.
.25 % of cement content was added after mixture inspection. Durability of concrete need major consideration while
Result designing, construction and maintenance of RCC structure.
Factors deteriorating durability include poor design,
For the above mix design 6 cubes of dimension 150 mm x
poor construction in terms of high w/c ratio, inadequate
150 mm were cast and tested for 28 days strength. Average
compaction, inadequate curing, inadequate cover, wrong
compressive strength noted was 33 MPa. Calculations are
placement of reinforcement, inadequate precaution of
shown in Tables 1 and 2.
chlorides, sulphates, use of reactive aggregate, use of poor
graded aggregate, use of hard water, not taking adequate
Conclusion precaution for shrinkage, thermal movements, deflection
Focus on producing durable concrete with proper and environmental factors. Engineering material required to
ingredients, mixing, placing, compacting, curing and be used should conform to the codal specification. We need

58 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

TECHNICAL PAPER
to take timely action during maintenance to prevent seepage and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE), Volume 11, Issue 2 Ver. I
and leakage affecting RCC. An integrated approach to good (Mar- Apr. 2014), PP 34-46.
quality in design, construction and maintenance would
make concrete durable and in turn would make structure
Bibliography
durable. IS 1026 (Concrete Mix Proportioning Guidelines)
enables to achieve good design of concrete mix through 1. Prof. B. Bhattacharjee, Construction Engineering Practices,
empirical methods. Lecture notes IIT Delhi.

2. Dr. K.M. Soni, Concrete and its Durability, International

The results were similar to when worked out based on
Congress on Durability of Concrete.
packing density method.
3. Glavind M. and Peterson, Packing calculations applied for
The results obtained from the packing density method were concrete mix design, University of Dundee, 1999.
in good agreement with values given in code IS 1026.
4. Fennis, S. A. A. M. and Walraven, J. C, Measuring the packing
density to lower the cement content in concrete, 2008.
Reference
5. ______Indian standard code of practice for Concrete mix proportioning,
1. Narasimha Raj, Suresh G Patiland B. Bhattacharjee, Concrete Mix
Design By Packing Density Method, IOSR Journal of Mechanical IS 10262: 2009, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

Sushil K. Dhawan holds a BE Civil Engineering from Institution of Engineers; M.Tech in Structural
Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi; pursuing his Doctoral Research in Structures from
IIT-Delhi. He is former Chief Engineer of the Central Public Works Department and has worked in planning,
design, and construction of roads, buildings and bridges in different parts of the country including North-
East and Southern India. His research interest includes advances in structural engineering, construction
and contract management. Currently he is engaged as an arbitrator and court commissioner appointed by
Delhi High Court.

Itihas Dhareppagol graduated in Civil Engineering from Vishveshwariya Technical University, Belgaum,
Karnataka; M.Tech in Construction Technology & Management from IIT-Delhi. His research interests
include advances in construction materials, fiber reinforcement in concrete, project management. He is a Sr.
Engineer in L&T Construction and engaged in planning and design of western dedicated freight corridor
(Railway Project).

Professor Bishwajit Bhattacharjee is working with the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi, New Delhi (India). His research interests pertain to the domains of cement and concrete
technology, building science, sustainable construction, and health monitoring of structures. His publications
in these areas are well cited. He is also a recipient of the Indian Concrete Institute’s Life Time Achievement
Award.

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 59

 POINT OF VIEW
Effect of different aspect ratio of steel fiber on mechanical
properties of high strength concrete
S.S. Kadam and V.V. Karjinni
In this paper, the effect of different aspect ratio (65 and
80) of steel fiber on mechanical properties of high strength
concrete are addressed. Mechanical properties of high
strength concrete investigated by varying positions of
steel fiber in concrete cubes and beams. Percentage of steel
fiber by volume was 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5%. A series of 78
specimens (39 cubes and 39 beams) of different aspect ratio
and varying positions of steel fibers were cast. Experimental
findings addressed that as volume of fiber increases, there
will be increase in flexural strength. More flexural strength
was observed at aspect ratio 80. In flexural strength test
more displacement was observed at one third depth than
randomly reinforced fibers. Steel fiber reinforced concrete
can be used for construction of pavement, industrial floors,
bridge deck slabs satisfactorily. For aspect ratio 80 it was
found that compressive strength increases in both positions
of steel fiber. Empirical equations for predicting basic
strength properties of concrete were presented based on
regression analysis.
1. INTRODUCTION
As compared to conventional flexible pavement, rigid
pavements were found to be more sustainable and durable.
It was well designed that steel fibers in concrete are effective
in bridging the cracks [1]. Fibers in a concrete helps to reduce
propagation of cracks. It was found that performance of CRCP
with steel reinforcement suggests the best performance has
resulted when the reinforcement is placed at about one third
the depth of slab measured from pavement surface. At this
location reinforcement is most effective in holding the cracks
together [2].
60 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
This paper presents the effect of different aspect ratio of
steel fiber and position of steel fiber on rigid pavement
construction. Various experimental tests are carried out
on concrete specimens to obtain compressive strength,
flexural strength, maximum deflection of beam under the
applied loads. Fly ash enhances the strength and shrinkage
of the concrete and reduces the heat of permeability and
porosity [3, 4]. Compressive strength and flexural strength
of concrete increases for HPSFRC compared to HPC [5].
Steel fiber enhances post cracking behavior, ductility,
load bearing capacity after cracking of concrete [6-11].
Abrasive resistance, impact strength, flexural strength of
rigid pavement is increased due to addition of steel scrap
fiber [12]. In the concluding section validation of strength
results were carried out with regression technique.
2. Materials and mix design
Sand passing through IS sieve 4.75 mm and retaining on IS
sieve 150 micron is used in the investigation. The sample
shall be brought to an air dry condition before weighting
and sieving. This may be achieved either by drying at room
temperature or by heating at a temperature of 100 to 110oC.
The air dried sample was weighed. It was sieved with a
sieves arranged in descending order of the openings of the
sieve. Sieve should clean before use (IS 2386: Part-I 1963)
[13]. In this experimental programme crushed aggregates
were used. For this study 12.5 mm coarse aggregates were
used. The physical properties of coarse aggregate like
specific gravity, impact value, bulk density, gradation and
fineness modulus are tested in accordance with IS 2386. Steel
POINT OF VIEW
Table 1. Steel fiber properties
Type Length Diameter Aspect Tensile Young’s
(mm) (mm) ratio strength modulus
(MPa) (GPa)

Dramix 35 0.55 65 1000 210

Dramix 60 0.75 80 1000 210

Ordinary portland cement of 53 grade confirming IS 4031:1988 used

for experimental work.
Figure 1. Steel fibers

fibres with properties as shown in Table 1 used for steel

fibre reinforced concrete having aspect ratio 65 and 80. It is
hooked end in shape and circular in cross section as shown
in Figure 1.
A high strength concrete was prepared to obtain cube
compressive strength higher than 60 N/mm2 after 28 days.
ACI method was used to prepare high strength concrete
mixture [14]. The mixture were prepared with proper
selection of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, W/C
ratio and admixture [15, 16]. Ordinary Portland cement of 53
grade confirming IS 4031:1988 used for experimental work.
The proportion of different ingredients are shown in Table 2.
3. Test Procedure
3.1 Workability
Workability is the measure of lubrication required for
handling the concrete without segregation, for placing
without loss of homogeneity, for compacting with the
amount of efforts forth-coming and to finish easily. The
results of workability test as shown in Table 3.
It was observed that as percentage of fiber increases
workability reduces. The reduction in workability is due
to more water required to lubricate more amount of fiber.
As amount of fiber increases less space is available for
movement of fiber.
3.2 Test for compressive strength of concrete
(IS 516:1959)
In this investigation plain cement concrete cubes and fiber
reinforced concrete cubes (with randomly reinforced and
1/3rd reinforced from top of the surface) were tested on
compression testing machine of capacity 3000 KN. The load

Table 2. Mix design

Components Mixtures
65SF0.5 65SF1.0 65SF1.5 80SF0.5 80SF1.0 80SF1.5
3
Cement (Kg/M ) 588 588 588 588 588 588
Fly ash (Kg/M3) 65 65 65 65 65 65
Coarse aggregate (Kg/M3) 1159 1159 1159 1159 1159 1159
Fine aggregate (Kg/M3) 527 527 527 527 527 527
Steel fiber (Kg/M3) 39 78 118 39 78 118
Water (Lit/M3) 183 183 183 183 183 183
Superplasticizer (Lit/M3) 5.23 5.23 5.23 5.23 5.23 5.23
W/C ratio 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31

Table 3. Workability test

Mixtures Controlled 65SF0.5 65SF1.0 65SF1.5 80SF0.5 80SF1.0 80SF1.5
concrete
Slump in mm 55 50 40 35 35 33 30

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 61

 POINT OF VIEW
Table 4. Compressive strength test
Type Test Position Mixture Average
compressive
strength
(N/mm2 )

Controlled
Cube Compressive -- 64.89
concrete
Cube Compressive Random 65SF0.5 63.77

Cube Compressive Random 65SF1.0 64.00

Cube Compressive Random 65SF1.5 75.55

Cube Compressive One third 65SF0.5 63.55

Cube Compressive One third 65SF1.0 64.22

Cube Compressive One third 65SF1.5 66.66

 Cube Compressive Random 80SF0.5 71.92

Cube Compressive Random

 80SF1.0 74.29

Cube 
Compressive Random 80SF1.5 71.33
     

Cube Compressive One third 80SF0.5 67.11
       
Cube Compressive One third 80SF1.0 73.55

Cube Compressive
   One third
 80SF1.5
 74.22           
 

number of specimen strength is calculated and it was taken
is
applied
 to opposite
 sides of specimen.
 The load 
  at which
 ascompressive strength
 of
 one set [14] as shown
 in 
Table
4.
concrete cube was failed, considered as ultimate load and
 

3.3 Test for flexural strength of concrete
noted as shown in Figure 2. The compressive strength was

obtained by formula
(IS 516:1959)

This test is carried out for finding out flexural strength

Compressive strength = of concrete. The number of beams tested for different

percentage of fiber content. The specimens were tested by

Here, P = Cube compressive load causing failure in N, using universal testing machine and results were obtained
A
= Cross sectional area of cube in mm. The average of as shown in Table 5. The load at which control specimen
 ultimately fails is noted. The displacement at maximum


Table 5. Flexural strength test

Type Test Position Mixture Average displacement Average maximum Average flexural

at failure (mm) displacement (mm) strength (N/mm2 )

Controlled
Beam   Flexural   ---       1.15
concrete  1.26 6.71
    

Beam  
Flexural  
Random  
65SF0.5   1.75   
6.70   
4.64

Beam     
Flexural Random  65SF1.0
  1.05     
8.75   7.15  

Beam Flexural Random 65SF1.5 2.80 12.35 7.79
                  
Beam Flexural One third 65SF0.5 1.15 13.75 5.40

Beam Flexural One third 65SF1.0 1.60 2.80 6.51

Beam Flexural One third 65SF1.5 1.60 7.75 6.80

Beam Flexural Random 80SF0.5 1.20 21.25 5.25

Beam Flexural Random 80SF1.0 2.20 16.60 6.08

Beam Flexural Random 80SF1.5 2.45 16.30 8.57
 Beam Flexural One third 80SF0.5 1.20 25.35 5.43
 Beam Flexural One third 80SF1.0 2.90 25.25 6.18
 Beam Flexural One third 80SF1.5 5.60 25.40 7.87

62  The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
                  

POINT OF VIEW



load and maximum displacement at ultimate failure was 4. Experimental results and discussion

measured with the help of computer connected to UTM.
The experimental results and discussions are given in

Displacement was measured on electronic universal testing
Figures 2 to 13 and Tables 4 to 7.

machine of capacity 1000 KN with straining speed at no

load is 0-150 mm per minute. This UTM can be hooked 5. Regression Technique

to any PC using communication port. Load is applied by
It is statistical technique used to explore linear relationship

hydrostatically lubricated ram. Main cylinder pressure is
between predictor and criterion variable. The equations
transmitted to the pressure transducer housed in the control

obtained from linear regression technique for compressive
panel. The transducer gives the signal to the electronic display

strength test and flexural strength test are as shown in
unit corresponding to the load exerted by the main ram.

Table 6 and 7 respectively.
Simultaneously
    the digital electronic
 fitted on the straining
            
unit gives mechanical
  displacement
  to theelectronic display
           
unit. Both signals are processed by microprocessor
         and load  Table 6. Linear
  regression
 equations for compressive
   
and displacement are displayed on the digital readouts strength

simultaneously
as shownin Figure 3. The flexural
 strength   
 
Sr. Figure

Linear regression

Explanation
      
is calculated by formula no. no. equation

 The curves as shown in
flexural strength = y = 6.312x+61.93, Figure 4, 5, 6 and 7 follows
01 4 2
 
 R =0.524 linear regression type

Here, P = maximum load in N, l = Length between the equation in the form
y = 1.172x+63.92, y = ax+b.

support in mm, d = Depth of specimen in mm, b = Width of 02 5
R2=0.311 where,
specimen
 in mm [17]. y = compressive strength
as dependent variable,
 03 6
y = 4.310x+67.37, x = percentage of fiber as a
R2=0.482 independent variable,
 a and b are constants.
 y = 6.886x+64.77,
The above equations holds
good for steel fiber range
04 7
 2
R =0.913 from 0.5% to 1.5%.




 80


70
 y= 6.312x + 61.93
 60
R² = 0.524
2
Compressive strength in N/mm


50

 40

30
    

20

3 10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
% of steel fiber

Figure 4. Compressive strength-% of steel fiber randomly

Figure 3. Flexural strength test reinforced (AR65)

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 63

 POINT OF VIEW

67 76

66.5
74
2
Compressive strength in N/mm

66 y = 6.886x + 64.778
R² = 0.9138

2
Compressive strength in N/mm
65.5 72

65 y = 1.172x + 63.921
R² = 0.311 70

64.5

64 68

63.5
66

63
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
64
% of steel fiber
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
% of steel fiber
rd
Figure 5. Compressive strength-% of steel fiber 1/3 reinforced
(AR65) rd
Figure 7. Compressive strength-% of steel fiber 1/3 reinforced
(AR80)

76

74 Table 7. Linear regression equations for flexural strength

Sr. Figure Linear regression Explanation
y = 4.31x + 67.375 no. no. equation
2
Compressive strength in N/mm

72 R² = 0.482
The curves as shown
y=1.654x+5.122, in Figure 8, 9, 10 and
01 8 2
R =0.582 11 follows linear
70 regression type
y=0.780x+5.560, equation in the form y
02 9 = ax+b.
R2=0.637
68 Where,
y = flexural strength
y=1.786x+5.103, as a dependent
03 10 variable,
R2=0.622
66
x = percentage of
fiber as a independent
variable,
64 a and b are constants.
0 1 2 y=1.350x+5.325, The above equation
04 11 2
R =0.667 holds good for steel
% of steel fiber
fiber range from 0.5%
to 1.5%.
Figure 6. Compressive strength-% of steel fiber randomly
reinforced (AR80)

64 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

POINT OF VIEW

10 9

8 8
2
Flexural strength in N/mm

7
6
y = 1.654x + 5.122
R² = 0.5828
6

2
Flexural strength in N/mm
4
y = 1.786x + 5.103
5 R² = 0.6223
2
4

0
3
0 1 2

% of steel fiber 2

Figure 8. Flexural strength-% of steel fiber randomly reinforced 1

(AR65)
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
% of steel fiber

Figure 10. Flexural strength-% of steel fiber randomly reinforced

(AR80)

8 7

7 6
2
Flexural strength N/mm

6 5
y = 0.78x + 5.56 y = 1.35x + 5.325
2

R² = 0.6375
Flexural strength N/mm

R² = 0.667
5
4

4
3

3
2
2
1
1
0
0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0 1 2
% of steel fiber
% of steel fiber

rd
Figure 11. Flexural strength-% of steel fiber 1/3rd reinforced
Figure 9. Flexural strength-% of steel fiber 1/3 reinforced (AR65) (AR80)

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 65

 POINT OF VIEW
Table 8. Comparison between experimental results and
regression technique result for compressive strength
Aspect ratio 65 Aspect ratio 80
Mixture Position Experimental Regression Experimental
results technique results / At randomly mixed
(N/mm2) (N/mm2 ) Regression 80.00
technique
70.00

2
Compressive strength in N/mm
65SF0.5 Random 63.77 65.086 0.979
60.00
65SF1.0 Random 64.00 68.240 0.937
65SF1.5 Random 75.55 71.390 1.058 50.00

65SF0.5 One third 63.55 64.506 0.985

40.00
65SF1.0 One third 64.10 65.092 0.984
30.00
65SF1.5 One third 66.66 65.678 1.014
80SF0.5 Random 71.99 69.525 1.035 20.00
80SF1.0 Random 74.22 71.680 1.035
10.00
80SF1.5 Random 71.33 73.835 0.966
80SF0.5 One third 67.11 68.213 0.983 0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
80SF1.0 One third 73.55 71.656 1.026
% Steel fibre
80SF1.5 One third 74.22 75.099 0.988

Aspect ratio 65 Aspect ratio 80

At 1/3 rd position
80.00
Table 9. Comparison between experimental results and
70.00
regression technique result for flexural strength
2
Compressive strength in N/mm

Mixture Position Experimental Regression Experimental 60.00

results technique results /
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) Regression
50.00
technique
65SF0.5 Random 4.64 5.949 0.779 40.00
65SF1.0 Random 7.15 6.776 1.055
30.00
65SF1.5 Random 7.79 7.603 1.024
65SF0.5 One third 5.40 5.950 0.907 20.00
65SF1.0 One third 6.51 6.340 1.026
65SF1.5 One third 6.80 6.730 1.010 10.00

80SF0.5 Random 5.25 5.996 0.875

0.00
80SF1.0 Random 6.08 6.889 0.882 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
80SF1.5 Random 8.57 7.782 1.101 % Steel fibre
80SF0.5 One third 5.43 6.000 0.905
80SF1.0 One third 6.18 6.675 0.925
Figure 12. Comparison of compressive strength between different
80SF1.5 One third 7.87 7.350 1.070
aspect ratio of steel fiber with varying position

6. CONCLUSION
Comparison made between experimentally obtained results
1. Increase in compressive strength for steel fiber
and regression technique results are presented in Tables 8
and 9 respectively. reinforced concrete with aspect ratio 80 in both
position than with aspect ratio 65 and controlled
concrete as shown in Figure 12 except 1.5 % steel
fiber randomly reinforced case.

66 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

POINT OF VIEW
fibers are available for bridging the crack. There is
delaying in crack formation which helps to increase
Aspect ratio 65 Aspect ratio 80
the strength of concrete.
At randomly mixed
10.00 3. In flexural strength test maximum displacement
was observed for mixture 80SF1.5 with fibers placed
8.00 at 1/3rd position.
2
Flexural strength in N/mm

6.00 4. As percentage of fiber increases flexural strength

also increases in both the position that is at randomly
4.00 reinforced fiber concrete and fibers reinforced at
1/3rd depth from top of the surface.
2.00

5. Maximum displacement without fiber was 1.26 mm

0.00 and with fiber having aspect ratio 80 maximum
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
displacement was 25.40 mm at 1/3rd depth condition.
% of Steel fiber
It indicate that post cracking behavior was affected by
fiber length. Therefore an increment in ductility was
Aspect ratio 65 Aspect ratio 80
observed.
At 1/3 rd position
8.00
References
7.00
1. R.S. Olivito, F.A. Zuccarello, An experimental study on the tensile
2
Flexural strength in N/mm

6.00 strength of steel fiber Reinforced concrete. Cement & Concrete

5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00
% of steel fibre
Figure 13. Comparison of flexural strength between different
aspect ratio of steel fiber with varying position
2. Increase in flexural strength of concrete for 80
aspect ratio steel fiber concrete than 65 aspect ratio
steel fiber concrete and controlled concrete was
observed as shown in Figure 13 except 1 % steel fiber
in randomly reinforced case. For mixture 80SF1.5
flexural strength was increased by 27.71% and
16.09% than the controlled concrete and mixture
65SF1.5 respectively in randomly reinforced steel
fiber case. As compare to fibers with aspect ratio
65, fibers with aspect ratio 80 are longer, so more
Composites journal, 2010, Vol. 41, pp 246–255.
2. Roger M. Larson, P. E., and Kurt D. Smith, P.E., Evaluating the Use
of Fiber Reinforced Polymer bars in Continuously Reinforced
Concrete Pavement, 2009 , Federal Highway Administration.
3. M. Madhkhan, R. Azizkhani, M.E. Torki Harchegani, Effects of
pozzolans together with steel and polypropylene fibers on
mechanical properties of RCC pavements, 2012, Construction and
building materials journal, Vol.26, pp102-112.
4. Ilker Bekir Topcu, Mehmet Canbaz, Effect of different fibers on the
mechanical Properties of Concrete containing fly ash, Construction
and Building Materials journal, 2007, Vol.21, pp 1486–1491
1.50
5. Chih-Ta Tsai, Grodon Tung- Chin Kung a, Chao-Lung Hwang, Use
of high performance concrete on rigid pavement construction
for exclusive bus lanes, 2010, Construction and building materials
journal, Vol. 24, pp 432-442.
6. Nicola Buratti, Claudio Mazzotti, Marco Savoia, Post- cracking
behaviour of steel and macro-synthetic fibre-reinforced concretes,
2011, construction and building materials journal, Vol. 25, pp 2713–2722.
7. S. Eswari P.N., Raghunath, Ductility Performance of Concrete with
Dramix Steel micro reinforcement, 2008, A journal of Advances in
Natural and Applied Sciences, 2 (3), pp 243-248.
8. Farnoud Rahimi Mansour, Sasan Parniani, and Izni Syahrizal Ibrahim,
Experimental Study on effects of Steel Fiber Volume on Mechanical
Properties of SFRC, 2011, Advanced Materials Research journal, Vol.
214, pp 144-148.
9. Abid A. Shah , Y. Ribakov, Recent trends in steel fibered high-
strength concrete, Materials and Design journal, 2011, Vol.32, pp
4122-4151.
10. Ravindra V. Solanki, Prof. C. B. Mishra, Dr. F. S. Umrigar,
Prof. D. A. Sinha, Use of Steel fiber in concrete pavement: A
review, 2011,National Conference on Recent Trends in Engineering
& Technology, B.V.M. Engineering College, V.V. Nagar, Gujarat,
India13th and 14th May 2011.
11. M.N. Sustsos, T.T. Le, A. P. Lampropopulos, Flexural performance
of fiber reinforced Concrete made with steel and synthetic fibers,
2012, Construction and Building Materials journal, Vol.36, pp 704-710.

The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017 67

 POINT OF VIEW
12. G. Niranjana, Dr. Samson Mathew, Dr. P. Jayabalan, Structural
strength enhancement of rigid pavement using scrap steel fiber
reinforcement, May 2008, NBM construction portal.
13. ______Indian standard code on methods of test for aggregates for
concrete IS 2368 part I-1963, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
14. ACI 211.4R:1993 method for mix design of high strength concrete.
15. Karjinni Vilas V. and Shrishail B. Anadinni, Mixture proportion
procedure for self compacting concrete, 2009, The Indian Concrete
Journal, June 2009, Vol. 83, No. 6, pp 35-41.
16. Karjinni Vilas V., Shrishail B. Anadinni and Dada S. Patil, An
investigation on the characteristic properties of high performance
self compacting concrete with mineral admixtures, The Indian Concrete
Journal, September 2009, Vol. 83, No. 9, pp 14-19.
17. ______Indian standard code on methods of tests for strength of concrete,
IS 516:1959, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

Shriganesh S. Kadam holds an M. Tech. (structures); pursuing his PhD at at Shivaji university, Kolhapur.
He is presently an Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering at SKN Sinhgad College of Engineering,
Pandharpur, Maharashtra, India. He is in teaching profession for last 10 years. His research interest are
design of high strength concrete, rigid pavement. He is a member of IEI.

Dr. Vilas V. Karjinni holds a PhD in Civil Engineering. He is presently the Principal and Professor at KIT’s
College of Engineering, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India. He is in teaching profession for last 32 years. His
area of interest includes transportation system, self compacting concrete. He has published eight papers
in international journals, 12 papers in national journals and over 50 papers presented in international and
national conferences. He is Fellow of IEI, Member of ACI, IUT (India), IRC and ATDI.

68 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017

70 The Indian Concrete Journal May 2017
 Image source: Tom Klemens - www.concreteconstruction.net

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