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ABB Technical Guide Protection Criteria For Medium Voltage Networks PDF
ABB Technical Guide Protection Criteria For Medium Voltage Networks PDF
Technical guide
Protection criteria for
medium voltage networks
1
45 9.8 Protections for ring networks 48 9.9.3 ‘27M’ undervoltage protection against
46 9.8.1 Block diagrams for logical selectivity disconnection of motors
46 9.9 Automatic changeover 48 9.9.4 ‘27R’ residual undervoltage protection
47 9.9.1 ‘27’ undervoltage protection for starting 48 9.9.5 ‘50-50G’ phase and ground overcurrent
changeover protection against locked changeover
47 9.9.2 ‘27I/59’ under/overvoltage protection for 48 9.9.6 ‘25’ synchronism check relay
changeover consent
2
1. Introduction
This booklet aims at illustrating for, but must only be looked for after ple, undervoltage protections which
the basic criteria needed for good having ensured protection of the net- activate automatic changeover or
protection of machines and plants in work component. automatic reclosing of the lines);
medium voltage networks. The protection relays are normally pro- – control of the network parameters to
vided for different objectives and aims. prevent false operations (for example,
Selection of the protection system and In some cases a protection relay is used synchronism check);
relays depends on and is correlated with with the aim of activating automatisms
– to activate network parameter
the plant characteristics, type of indus- to manage the electric network. The
recording to memorise the network
trial process and its service continuity latter is a special application although
disturbances (for example, the start-
requirements, with the status of the normal in plants, but in this case the
ing contacts of the overcurrent relay);
neutral, characteristics of the machines, relays cannot be considered as network
levels and duration of the fault currents, and plant protections. – to carry out protection of the inter-
etc. face with the external network (with
The main objectives of protection relays contractual not protection settings).
An excessive number of protections
are:
may also be harmful, since, even if they Identification of the abnormal conditions
– to provide the operator with an alarm
operate correctly in the case of a fault, mentioned is made by the protection re-
indication under particular network
they can operate in an untimely way lays, which operate to separate the faulty
or machine service conditions (for
when there is no fault, causing more or part of the network from the rest of the
example protection against negative
less widespread disturbance and out- plant. The protection relay setting must
sequence for generators);
of-order conditions, sometimes more be calculated to give the plant the highest
damaging than the faults themselves, – to put the line or faulty machine out possible service continuity to avoid dam-
as the cause cannot be found (even of commission within a short time, as age to network components. The setting
protections can go wrong). defined in the selectivity study; values must be selected above the tran-
It is important to underline at once that – to carry out automatisms under par- sient conditions which can occur in the
trip selectivity must always be looked ticular service conditions (for exam- network without requiring disconnection.
3
4
2. Network schemes
To size an electric network correctly, Before all these activities, the single-line The protection system must adapt to
it is necessary to do the following diagram of the electric network must be the type of network making up the plant.
network calculations either entirely or defined on the basis of: In fact, depending on the types of
partly: • LOADS: it is considered fundamental machines and industrial process, the
• sizing calculations (machines, to establish the true user and service protection functions to be selected can
transformers, etc.); requirements these are destined for, be different and sometimes not homo-
• calculation of the short-circuit cur- in terms of quality, availability and geneous with each other.
rents; continuity of the power supply; Before defining the protection systems,
• definition of the status of the • POWER SUPPLIES: it must be con- the main network schemes are ana-
neutral; sidered whether these are suitable lysed, highlighting the advantages and
• calculation of the voltage profiles or have to be integrated by resorting disadvantages of the various solutions.
(load flow); to other external ones, from self-pro- Obviously these are qualitative consid-
• starting transient of the motors; duction, in reserve, for emergency or erations of a general kind and are not
• study of dynamic stability; for safety; necessarily exhaustive. In any case,
• calculation of the network • ELECTRIC NETWORK STRUCTURE: it must be pointed out that the role of
harmonic content; this includes selection of the dia- the designer who has to succeed in
• study of protection coordination. gram, machine, cable and apparatus building a network scheme which suits
selection and sizing of the protection the industrial process requirements is
and control system. always important.
LV
5
2. Network schemes
On the other hand, the disadvantage is the high costs for its
realization.
6
2.3.1 Network run with open ring and additional protections can also be provided exploiting the
potential logics and protection functions available in digital
If the ring is run open, the network configuration is practi- relays.
cally the radial type, therefore in the case of a fault the whole The “from the theoretical point of view” statement, is to
part of the network on the load side of the fault point will be underline that, from the theoretical point of view, it is possi-
put out of service. The disadvantages are those already been ble to identify and therefore eliminate just the trunk fault from
listed for single radial networks. The advantage is being able service. From the practical point of view, in many plants this is
to restore service within relatively short times, counter-supply- not possible since the times needed to eliminate the fault on
ing the substations from the sound side of the network and the delivery point do not allow it.
being able to carry out checks and repairs without the worry To run ring networks, the difficulties in correctly identifying the
of production stoppage. ground faults according to the status of the network neutral
and the settings of the protections defined on the supply side
must be considered, particularly in the case of a ring distribu-
2.3.2 Network run with closed ring tion with grounded network with low fault currents. In fact,
where the setting threshold of the ground protections is a few
Running with a closed ring makes it possible to always have
Amperes, the risk is systematic false tripping of the protec-
two sources in parallel in every substation inside the ring and
tions due to problems linked with construction of the plant and
therefore, theoretically, not to have any out of services in the
which it is often not possible to eliminate.
plant due to faults in the ring.
Consider, for example, that the two outgoing feeders of the
To identify faults in ring networks two different techniques can
ring from the main substation are loaded with unequal cur-
be used, for instance:
rents on the three phases.
– differential protections against phase faults and directional
As can be seen, the total load of the ring is perfectly balanced
type ground protection with changeover of consent on
(100 A), but the currents on the two outgoing feeders have
tripping for internal faults;
an unbalance which can be due to various factors, such as
– directional overcurrent protections both against phase
different tightening of the cables, the non- homogeneity of the
faults and against ground faults wired with logical selectiv-
length of the single-phase cords (typical of short distances),
ity.
the fact of having provided a longer cable than foreseen (then
It is necessary for there to be the pilot wires between the
left abandoned in a substation, perhaps coiled up thereby
relays at the two ends of the line to make both the protection
creating a reactance), etc. In this situation, the ground relays
systems described.
which read the vectorial sum of the currents by means of ring
With the new protection technologies, only the second solu-
CTs, measure a current on both the outgoing feeders exactly
tion is in any case now widespread (phase and directional
as if there was a fault present.
ground protections).
These two currents are in phase opposition with each other
The logics with which the locking signals between the protec-
(180°).
tions can provided are very varied (for example, channels,
Directional type ground relays are used on the ring feeders
either independent or not, against phase and ground faults)
(even if they may not be strictly necessary on the outgo-
ing feeders of the ring), and in the absence of homopolar
voltage the relay does not operate, even when the ground
current threshold is exceeded. When a ground fault occurs in
a metallically connected network (perhaps in the network of
100 A 100 A 100 A
another user connected to the same distributor line) there will
Id = 0 be a homopolar voltage in the network and consequently the
ground relays which were previously locked, are put under trip
conditions when the angle returns to the foreseen sector.
In this condition, unwanted trips can occur which are not ho-
mogeneous with each other since, according to the load and
position along the ring, there may or may not be unbalances
Id #0 Id #0 with angles which are in any case variable and therefore there
can be variability in tripping of the protections. In the past,
40 A 40 A 38 A 60 A 60 A 62 A this phenomenon was not noted since, there not being ring
CTs, the ground fault remained in alarm (isolated neutral), or
protection tripping was certain since there were high ground
7
2. Network schemes
fault currents very far from the possible unbalances due to the
plant characteristics.
In the past, this phenomenon was not noted since, there not
being toroidal CTs, the earth fault remained in alarm (isolated
neutral), or protection tripping was certain since there were HV
high earth fault currents very far from the possible unbalances
due to the plant characteristics.
G
~
2.4 Meshed network
This is the typical scheme of transmission networks and does HV2 HV1
not have any particular applications in industrial plants.
This scheme is characterised by many connections among the
network nodes, to an extent to allow, for some of these, alter-
native power supply routes, aimed not only at establishing a
reserve connection, but also to improve the load division in the
various branches and among different power supply sources.
8
3. Selection of switching devices
9
3. Selection of switching devices
only protection against short-circuit patible with outgoing feeders equipped ing characteristics (current, time and
(and partially against large overloads by with contactors plus fuses) are to be number of hourly starts).
means of fuses) can be guaranteed for used for rapid elimination of the fault. The maximum size (rated current) of the
the machine, but safe and rapid protec- fuses is often a limitation to the pos-
tion cannot be given against ground Motors sibility of using contactors instead of
faults in the secondary, with the risk of The choice is normally between contac- circuit-breakers.
possibly seriously damaging the machine tors plus fuses and circuit-breakers.
without any device eliminating the fault From the point of view of protection, the Capacitors
within the times normally guaranteed for two systems are comparable, with an Having to switch capacitive type
transformers (2 seconds) withstand. advantage for the solution with contac- currents excludes the use of switch-
If it is chosen to use contactors with tors and fuses since for serious faults, disconnectors. Otherwise, the consid-
fuses, it must be checked that the fuse the fault elimination time of the fuses erations made regarding transformers
has a sufficiently high rated current to (a few milliseconds) is decidedly lower are valid for selecting either a contactor
prevent false trips on magnetisation than the time required for outgoing with fuse or a circuit-breaker, with the
of the transformer, whereas protection feeders with a circuit-breaker (about 80 usual caution taken in checking that the
relays which control contactor opening ms for the relay plus about 50 ms for fuse does not trip on connection of the
for overloads and ground faults can be the circuit-breaker arc interruption time - capacitor bank.
provided. about 130 ms in all).
Attention must in every case be paid to As for the transformer outgoing feeders, Feeders
the fact that the fuses only exist with the use of a circuit-breaker is also com- The requirement of making trip selectiv-
fairly limited rated currents (a few hun- pulsory for outgoing motor feeders, or in ity for polyphase short-circuit faults can
dred Amperes) and they could therefore the case where differential protection is be decisive in selection of the switching
be an important limitation to selection of to be activated. device. The use of fuses does not allow
this type of switching device. The rated current of the fuse is a func- delaying the trip time and so eliminates
Use of circuit-breakers is always com- tion of the rated current of the motor the possibility of obtaining time selec-
pulsory when differential protections (generally at least 1.35 times the rated tivity which can only be obtained if a
which have instantaneous trip (not com- current of the motor) and of the start- circuit-breaker is used.
10
4. Current and voltage transformers
The CTs (current transformers) For correct identification and removal of or digital type which has reduced
and VTs (voltage transformers) are the fault it is necessary for all the compo- consumption on the secondary of the
provided in the plants to: nents to operate correctly. In particular, measurement transducers, CTs and VTs
– reduce the voltage and current all the apparatus which contributes to (in general less than or equal to 0.5 VA,
values of the plant to values such carrying out the measurement (CTs, unlike the old electromechanical appara-
as to be able to be detected by VTs and relays) must provide an indica- tus which had consumptions of several
measurement and protection tion coherent with the primary network VA (e.g. 5-10 VA per phase).
apparatus; parameters, and the actuators (operating The presence of digital instruments has
– make the secondary measurement parts) must operate correctly to interrupt also had a significant impact on the cur-
and protection circuits galvani- the circuit and eliminate the fault. rent and voltage transformers, leading
cally independent in relation to The transducers, CTs and VTs, repre- to CTs and VTs being constructed with
the primary power circuit, at the sent an extremely important element in different technologies. In practice, since
same time guaranteeing greater the protection chain and inadequate se- only one signal is required at the CT and
safety for operators (a point of the lection of their respective characteristics VT secondary and no longer a signifi-
secondary winding of the instru- can lead to inadequate protection of the cant power (the power needed to make
ment transformer must always be network and machines or to unwanted the protection relay operate is taken
connected to ground). trips (which in many cases are even from the auxiliary power supply), the use
more damaging). of air transformers (CTs) and voltage
The instrumentation which is installed dividers (VTs) is becoming increasingly
in the plants is generally of electronic widespread.
11
4. Current and voltage transformers
case, the terminals of the primary winding are the ends of 100/1 - 4 VA - Cl. 0.5 + 5P10
the busbar, whereas the ends of the secondary winding
The two precision classes are defined for different ranges of
are taken to external terminals. In any case, the number of
CT operation and can therefore coexist.
primary turns in this case is always 1;
In the same way as described for the CTs, the same reason-
– ring type where the primary
ing can be made for the VTs. Therefore when digital REF 54x
is not provided and it will be
type relays are used, foresight lies in selecting VTs with double
made up of the conductor
precision class, for example:
which passes through the
central hole of the CT. 6000:√3 / 100:√3 - 10 VA - Cl. 0.5 + 3P
The ends of the secondary
winding are taken to two ex-
ternal terminals. In this case 4.2.1 Instrument CTs
the number of primary turns
is in any case normally 1 un- An essential factor in selecting the instrument CT character-
less the conductor is made istics is the precision class to be guaranteed for secondary
to pass several times in the loads 25% higher than the rated performance. When instru-
CT. These CTs can also be mentation was electromechanical, it was therefore logical to
constructed as the openable type for easier installation in purchase CTs with high performances, but nowadays with digi-
existing plants. tal instrumentation it becomes compulsory to purchase CTs
with truly limited performances (typically 5 or maximum 10 VA).
The precision classes are the same for all the types of CTs,
The instrument CTs have as their prerogative the charac-
and are defined in accordance with the Standard. According
teristic of saturating for currents just a little above the rated
to how the CT is inserted in the network, it can carry out very
primary current to guarantee protection of the instruments
different measurements. In particular:
(typically able to support a maximum of 20 In for 0.5 seconds)
– the CT which is inserted on just one phase (for example,
in the case of a short-circuit.
a ring CT which embraces just one phase) measures line
For instrument CTs, in accordance with the Standard, a safety
currents (of phase);
factor (Fs) must therefore be defined so that, for currents
– the CT which is inserted on three phases (for example, a
higher than Fs x In, the CT is definitely saturated (therefore
ring CT which encloses the conductors of the three phas-
protecting the secondary circuit).
es inside it) measures the vectorial sum of the currents (in
In actual fact, the CT is not loaded at the secondary with its
reality the sum of the flux) and therefore the homopolar
rated performance but at a lower load. The real safety factor
current.
(F’s) is therefore higher than the rated one and a check is
What has previously been underlined is to indicate that re- essential to guarantee that the instruments connected to the
gardless of the construction shape, the measurement which is secondary circuit are suitably protected.
obtained at the secondary of the CT is a function of the way The ultimate true safety factor can be calculated using the
in which it is inserted in the network. following relation:
The CTs serve to translate currents from the power circuit to S TA + SN
the measurement circuit. They are classified into two types by F’S = F S ·
S TA + SVERO
the Standard:
– Instrument CTs measuring instruments, such as ammeters, With F’ S = true safety factor at the actual secondary load;
watt meters, converters, etc. are connected to; F S = CT rated safety factor;
S N = CT rated load;
– Protection CTs to whose secondary the protection relays
S CT = CT self-consumption = RCT x I2N2;
are connected. I 2N = CT rated secondary current;
R CT = CT secondary resistance at 75 °C;
This classification refers to independent measurement and
S TRUE = true load at CT secondary = I2N2 x (RINSTRUMENTS + RC);
protection systems. Nowadays with digital apparatus (REF R C = rexistence of the wiring circuit;
54x Unit), protection and measurement are carried out by the R INSTRUMENTS = load (self-consumption) of the instruments connected
same piece of apparatus and separate inputs (measurement to the CT secondary
12
Consider a CT with a 100/1 ratio with secondary load made In selection of the protection CT characteristics (performance
up of an ammeter (0.5 VA self-consumption) and a multi-func- and ultimate precision factor) the following conditions must be
tion converter (0.5 VA self-consumption). 0.1 ohm resistance respected:
in the secondary circuit between the CT terminals and the – the performance of the CT must be higher than the sec-
instruments. ondary load (relays and cabling);
– the CTs to be associated with the overcurrent protections
Example 1 must not saturate until safe operation is guaranteed. Gen-
erally for the ABB relays it can be considered that satura-
CT 100/1 - Cl. 0.5 - 4 VA - F S = 5 - RCT = 0.8 ohm tion must take place at least at double the setting value
with a minimum of 20 In, but precise values can be found
The real secondary load is 1.1 VA, i.e. 27.5% of the rated
in the catalogues of the various types of relays;
performance, therefore the precision class is guaranteed.
– the CTs to be associated with particular protections, such
The real safety factor is: as differential, distance relays, etc. must have safety factors
defined case by case and indicated in the relay catalogues
S TA + SN 0.8 + 4 of the relays;
F’S = F S · = 5 · = 12.6
S TA + SVERO 0.8 + 1.1 – the CTs must saturate for very high currents to preserve
the relay and the secondary circuits in the case of a short-
The CT saturates for currents lower than the withstand one of circuit. Typically overcurrent relays have a tolerability of
the instruments connected to the secondary and is therefore 100 In for 1 second and 250 In peak, but more precise
suitably dimensioned. values can be found in the catalogues of the various re-
lays.
Example 2
The latter condition is generally not highly considered and can
CT 100/1 - Cl. 0.5 - 10 VA - F S = 10 - RCT = 0.8 ohm be the cause of serious damage to the components if it is not
verified.
The real secondary load is 1.1 VA, i.e. 11.5 % of the rated As for the ultimate safety factor for the instrument CT, the
performance, therefore the precision class is not guaranteed. true ultimate precision factor for the protection CT must also
The real safety factor is: be calculated according to the load actually connected to the
secondary, and can be calculated using the following relation:
STA + SN 0.8 + 10
F’S = F S · = 10 · = 57
S TA + SVERO 0.8 + 1.1 S TA + SN
F’L = F L ·
S TA + SVERO
The CT saturates for currents higher than the withstand one
of the instruments connected to the secondary and there- With F’L = true accuracy limit factor at the real secondary load;
FL = rated accuracy limit factor of the CT;
fore in the case of a short-circuit in the network there can be
SN = rated load of the CT;
destruction of the instruments and consequent opening of the SCT = CT self-consumption = R CT x I2N2;
secondary circuit, with a serious safety hazard for personnel I2N = rated current of the CT secondary;
(overvoltages). R TA = resistance of the CT secondary at 75 °C;
SREAL = true load at the CT secondary = I 2N2 x (RRELAY’ + RC);
It is therefore obvious how every secondary of the instrument RC = resistance of the wiring circuit;
CT must be precisely dimensioned so as to avoid serious RRELAY’ = load (self-consumption) of the relays connected to the CT.
damage to the plant in the case of a fault and to be able to
obtain measurements in the required precision class. As for the instrument CT, two examples can be significant for
verifying the characteristics of protection CTs.
4.2.2 Protection CTs Consider a CT with a 100/1 ratio with secondary load made
up of an overcurrent relay (self-consumption 0.05 VA). Resist-
The CTs which are associated with the protections have the ance of the secondary circuit between the CT terminals and
peculiarity of not saturating until protection tripping is guaran- 0.1 ohm relay, therefore the real secondary load is equal to
teed for the overcurrent short-circuit. 0.15 VA.
The parameter which defines the value within which the Example 1
response is linear in protection CTs is the ultimate precision
CT 100/1 – 4 VA – 5P10 - RCT= 0.8 ohm
factor (FL), normally equal to 10-15-20 or even higher.
13
4. Current and voltage transformers
14
efficiently grounded. The cable capacity, together with the
VT inductance, makes up an oscillating circuit (R L C). The
4.4 Non-inductive current and
conditions for which the circuit itself goes into resonance can voltage sensors
therefore occur on the circuit (capacitive reactance = induc-
tive reactance saturates the VT) and, although the cause Since the power aborbed by the devices connected to the
of the saturation ceases (for example, an ground fault), a secondary circuit is extremely limited, it is no longer neces-
transient oscillation remains (i.e. a multiple frequency of that sary to have magnetic circuits for the coupling between the
of the network) of reactive energy put into play by the com- primary and secondary circuit. Current sensors or air CTs
ponents of the oscillating circuit. Owing to the frequency of (Rogowsky coils) and voltage sensors (voltage dividers) have
this oscillation, a permanent and high circulation of current therefore been developed, which eliminate the negative as-
is produced just in the primary winding. Since this current is pects of the inductive type of transformers (hysteresis cycle).
only magnetising, the secondary winding is little involved, so Particular reference is made to:
there is a lot of heating at the primary and negligible heating – saturation: the saturation phenomenon does not exist with
on the secondary. Abnormal heating of the windings always current sensors (there is no iron) and therefore definition of
produces a strong internal pressure, consequently breaking the ultimate precision factor is no longer a problem;
the external housing. – performance: the previous examples showed how dif-
The measures taken to prevent ferroresonance phenomena ficult it is to reconcile the performance of the instrument
are mainly to: transformers with the loads connected to the secondary.
– increase the magnetisation impedance of the VT; In fact, the need to have at least 25% of load to guarantee
– use VTs which work with lower induction than the predicted precision is no longer a problem;
one; – rated primary currents and voltages: the linearity of re-
– use VTs with high permeability iron; sponse allows 95% of the applications to be covered with
– insert damping resistances (or, in any case, devices with just two or three types of transducers, with considerable
non-linear resistance) in series with the secondary wind- advantages for standardisation of the switchgear compart-
ings connected with open delta (the voltage relay must be ments and the possibility of their rapid re-conversion;
connected in parallel with the anti-ferroresonance resist- – there is no longer the need to have instrument CTs or VTs
ance). and/or Protection CTs or VTs since precision is constant
In the past, a secondary set of three VTs connected with open and there is no longer the problem of saturation.
delta was used to measure the homopolar voltages (needed The reference Standards for the current and voltage sensors
to identify the ground faults). In modern digital apparatus (REF are:
54. type relay), it is no longer necessary to provide this sec- – IEC 60044-8 (2002-07) air CTs (electronic current trans-
ondary of the VTs since the homopolar voltage (vectorial sum formers);
of the three phase voltages) is calculated inside the relay itself – IEC 60044-7 (1999-12) Voltage dividers (VTs) (electronic
(the signal which comes from the secondary with open delta voltage transformers).
is often less precise).
For current sensors or air CTs, the main characteristic is that
these are transformers whose magnetic circuit is replaced by air.
A peculiar fact about these types of CTs is that the secondary
Combined current – voltage sensors
signal is not proportional to the primary size, but to its derivative
(which, when suitably integrated in the devices connected to
the secondary, allows current measurement to be obtained). As
already pointed out, there are no saturation phenomena, but as
a negative aspect there generally the precision class, which in
present-day design does not reach the characteristics which can
be had for the inductive type of instrument CTs.
The main characteristic for the voltage sensors is the lack of
ferroresonance phenomenon (obviously because there is no
longer any iron).
This is not a negligible advantage where there is still the use of
networks run with isolated neutral. As for air CTs, in the current
state of technology, the precision class of voltage dividers (VTs)
does not yet reach that of the inductive type of VTs either.
15
16
5. Short-circuit
Short-circuit
Accidental or intentional contact, with relatively low
resistance or impedance, between two or more points at
different voltages in a circuit.
Short-circuit current
Overcurrent resulting from a short-circuit due to a fault or
to incorrect connection of an electric circuit.
From the theoretical point of view, calculation of the short- • IEC 61363-1 – 1998-02: Electrical installations of ships
circuit currents should be processed using the data obtained and mobile and fixed off shore units – Part 1: procedure
from studying the voltage profiles. In reality, the Standards for calculating short-circuit currents in the three-phase a.c.
envisage that the calculation be made at the rated plant val- The IEC 61363-1 Standard is for naval plants, but provides
ues and appropriate correction coefficients are introduced for a calculation method which is well suited to small networks
compensation (voltage factor ‘c’). supplied by generators since it provides calculation of the
It is necessary to calculate the short-circuit currents to: short-circuit currents over time, taking into account the time
– establish adequate sizing of the operating and interruption constants of the rotating machines (motors and generators).
parts;
– define the thermal and mechanical stresses of the plant The EN 60909 Standard provides some basic hypotheses on
elements; development of the calculation:
– calculate and select the protection system settings; 1) for the duration of the short circuit there is no change in
– carry out suitable protection for people and the plants. the type of short circuit involved, that is, a three-phase
short-circuits remain three-phase and a line-to-earth short
When studying electric networks it is important to define the circuit remains line-to-earth during the time of short circuit;
short-circuit currents under the various different operating 2) for the duration of the short circuit, there is no change in
conditions. In particular the maximum short-circuit currents the network involved;
are important for sizing the apparatus, the minimum short- 3) the impedance of the transformers is referred to the tap-
circuit currents allow protection coordination to be checked: changer in main position. This is admissible, because the
the protection trip current must always be lower than the mini- impedance correction factor KT for network transformer is
mum short-circuit current at the point of connection. introduced;
It must be remembered that a short-circuit causes passage of 4) the arc resistance is not taken into account;
currents through the accidental or intentional connection mak- 5) all line capacitances and shunt admittances and non-rotat-
ing up the short-circuit itself and through the various compo- ing loads, except those of the zero-sequence systems, are
nents as far as the source, and is therefore a potential cause neglected.
of damage and fires.
The relation the EN 60909 Standard calculates the short-
The reference Standards for calculation of the short-circuit circuit current with is:
currents are: c · Un The ‘c’ parameter, called voltage factor, takes
• EN 60909-0 2001-12: Short circuit currents in three-phase I= on different values (in the range 0.95-1.1)
a.c. systems √3 · Z according to the voltage value of the fault
point and to the type of calculation (maximum
short-circuit or minimum short-circuit).
17
5. Short-circuit
The Standard justifies introduction of the voltage factor for: to be prevented from evolving into two-three-phase faults with
1) the variations in voltage in space and in time; much greater damage and loss of service.
2) the variations in the sockets of the transformers; When the calculation of the short-circuit currents is devel-
3) not taking into account the loads and capacity in the cal- oped, one tends to examine the case where there are the
culations; maximum fault currents (and this check is in actual fact very
4) taking into account the subtransient behaviour of the alter- important for sizing the plant components). On the other
nators and motors. hand, when one analyses the protection system, it is impor-
tant to know the minimum short-circuit currents and in even
The c x Un result must not in any case exceed the maximum
more detail the currents in the various branches and not on
voltage of the network apparatus.
the switchgear busbars. In fact, the overcurrent protections
There are different types of fault which occur in a three-phase
are connected to the lines and therefore it is precisely the
system:
minimum short-circuit current of each branch which must
– Three-phase short-circuit (only the phases are short-
be used as the reference to define the protection system
circuited with each other);
setting.
– Two-phase short-circuit (only two phases are short-
It must be remembered that the protection system is truly
circuited with each other);
such when a protection has been installed and is correctly
– Two-phase short -circuit to ground (two phases and
set. An overcurrent protection set to 10 kA when there is a
ground are short-circuited with each other);
short-circuit current of 8 kA in the branch it is connected to, is
– Single-phase short-circuit to ground (short-circuited be-
a relay but it is not the protection of the plant.
tween one phase and ground).
A further aspect to consider when calculating short-circuit
There are different statistics regarding the percentage of the currents is the contribution of motors. This datum is essential
various types of fault which show how in general more than for sizing the apparatus, but it must be taken into account
80% start as a single-phase fault to ground. This situation that for three-phase faults the contribution dies out after a few
must be kept in evidence when the protection system of a cycles, whereas for two-phase type faults the motors con-
plant is studied and designed: managing to identify (and pos- tinue to sustain the fault (even with lower currents than those
sibly eliminate) a ground fault rapidly and selectively allows it contributed for three-phase faults).
18
6. Status of the neutral
6.1 Isolated neutral able to identify the position of the fault, but is only able to indicate
that there is a fault in the network without specifying its position.
In networks with isolated neutral, no circulation of homopo- Homopolar current, homopolar voltage and angle between
lar current is generated deliberately (by means of grounding voltage and homopolar current in a network are:
systems) in the case of a fault between a phase and ground. – homopolar current only from capacitive contribution (op-
However, there is a circulation of homopolar current in the eration of the metallically interconnected network) of vari-
plant linked to the phase ground capacities of the machines able value in any case and, in general, not guaranteed for
and cables (for what regards the transformers, the phase to all the conditions the network can be run in. Identification
ground capacities are very small and they can be overlooked). of the faults is not always certain by means of homopolar
The difficulty (in any set-up the network may be found to current measurements;
run in) of being able to identify ground faults using selective – homopolar voltage always present in the case of a ground
protections which measure the fault current can be deduced fault. It is therefore definite identification but with uncer-
from this. The only way to be able to ensure identification of tainty linked to the position of the fault since the voltmetric
the fault is measurement of the homopolar voltage (voltage signal is practically the same for the whole network and
normally equal to zero in the absence of a fault and different does not allow selective identification;
from zero only in the presence of a phase to ground fault). – angle between voltage and homopolar current: the current
Unfortunately the voltage homopolar protection (like all voltage is in advance by 90° compared with the voltage (capacitive
protections for that matter) is not of the selective type, i.e. it is not type of network).
19
6. Status of the neutral
R R
R
G G
R R
Direct connection to the real star point. Connection to Direct connection Indirect connection with a
the real star point to the artificial star three-phase transformer star
by means of a point, in the case primary connected to ground
single-phase power of non-accessible and open delta secondary
transformer. neutral, of a zig-zag loaded with a resistance.
reactance.
20
any case capacitive for the contribution of the to ground
capacity of the network.
6.5 Measurement of the ground
There are various methods to create network grounding ac- fault current and identifica-
cording to the availability or lack thereof of the star point as
shown in the figure.
tion of the faulted phase
Since the advent, first of electronic and then of digital protec-
6.4 Neutral grounded by means tions which have low absorption on the current circuit, the use
of ring type CTs has been possible (able to generally give very
of impedance (Petersen coil) small performances), which allows the vectorial sum of flux to
be measured instead of the vectorial sum of the three currents
Grounding the neutral by means of impedance allows the (residual connection).
network capacitive currents to be compensated and therefore When a homopolar overcurrent protection is connected to the
to reduce the current to relatively small values in the case of a residual connection of the phase CTs (Holmgreen connection)
fault (in Italy, utilities limit the fault current to 40-50 A) and with it performs a vectorial sum of the currents and the result-
a fault angle about equal to zero (compensated network). ant is therefore affected by the aperiodic components linked
Homopolar current, homopolar voltage and angle between to magnetisation of the transformers or to motor starting. In
voltage and homopolar current in network are: this case, very conservative settings of the protections are
– homopolar current of known value. Identification of the required and the stability of these is not normally guaranteed
faults by means of homopolar current measurement is (risk of unwanted trips).
possible. The protection is therefore of the selective type; It is therefore suggested to systematically use (obviously
– homopolar voltage: the measurement of the vectorial sum of where possible) CTs of ring type associated with the homopo-
the three phase voltages is different from zero and gives indi- lar overcurrent protection.
cation of a fault in the network (but not of the selective type). In the case where it is necessary to identify which of the phas-
– angle between homopolar voltage and current: theoreti- es is the seat of the ground fault, identification is possible
cally equal to zero (network tuned). In actual fact, the using undervoltage protections with measurement for each
angle can in any case diverge slightly both in advance independent phase connected between the phase to ground
and delayed according to the setting of the compensation (obviously to the VT secondary).
reactance and to changes in the network set-up.
21
7. Protection relay codes
Numerical codes are sometimes used when defining the – 85 pilot wire relay;
protection relay, whereas in other cases symbols are used. – 86 look-out relay;
The numerical codes refer to the IEEE C37-2 Standard, – 87 differential relay;
whereas the symbols refer to the IEC Standards. In the – 90 regulator device;
definition of the symbols the IEC Standards have not
– 91 directional voltage relay;
detailed all the symbols to be used and so in practice one
– 92 directional power voltage relay;
still uses the codes mentioned in C37-2.
– 94 trip relay.
An extract of the numerical codes is given below, as given in The meaning of the codes used most frequently is given in
the C37-2 Standard relative to protection systems. The de- more detail since they are often the cause of misinterpreta-
scription is a summary of what is given in the Standard: tions and misunderstandings.
– 2 starting timer;
code 48: is a little known code which is, however, now
– 21 distance relay (impedance);
commonly used to indicate the protection
– 24 overfluxing relay (volts per hertz); against prolonged motor starts. Sometimes it
– 25 synchronizer or synchronism verifier; is confused with the protection called 51LR
– 26 apparatus for temperature control; (‘locked rotor’ overcurrent). There are two
– 27 undervoltage relay; codes to be used to indicate the protections
– 32 directional power relay; which serve to control motor starting and
– 37 undercurrent or under-power relay; locked rotor: 48 for the starting phase (pro-
longed starting) and 51LR for the locked rotor
– 40 loss of field relay;
(when the motor is already running);
– 46 negative sequence relay or for current balance by
means of current measurement; – code 50: for the Standard this is an overcurrent protec-
– 47 cyclic sequence relay by means of voltage measure- tion of instantaneous type. The definition of
ment; instantaneous relay was valid for the elec-
– 48 incomplete sequence relay; tromechanical, now the various thresholds
of the overcurrent relays always have the
– 49 thermal relay for transformers or machines;
possibility of introducing a delay. In common
– 50 instantaneous overcurrent relay;
practice it is considered to be the overcurrent
– 51 overcurrent relay with inverse time; protection which identifies strong currents
– 55 power factor control relay; typical of short-circuit;
– 59 overvoltage relay;
– code 51: for the Standard this is an overcurrent protec-
– 60 voltage balance relay;
tion of the dependent (inverse) time type.
– 62 stop timer; The definition of a relay with inverse time
– 63 pressure sensor; is typical of American tradition. In common
– 64 relay to identify ground faults (not used for networks practice code 51 is used both for overcurrent
with grounded neutral); relay with dependent (inverse) time charac-
– 66 apparatus which detects a certain number of opera- teristic and with independent (definite) time
tions; characteristic. In general it is considered the
– 67 directional overcurrent relay for alternating current; overcurrent protection which identifies weak
– 68 locking relay (for example to prevent reclosing after currents typical of an overload or of short-
loss of step); circuits with high fault impedance.
– 74 alarm relay; Further clarifications are necessary in defining the numerical
– 76 overcurrent relay for direct current; codes to be used for the protections against ground faults.
– 78 loss of step relay or for measurement of phase angle; The C37-2 Standard only specifies a code to be used for
– 79 reclosing relay for alternating current; ground faults: 64, but specifies that this code cannot be used
– 81 frequency relay; for the protections connected to the CT secondary in grounded
networks where code 51 must by used with suffixes N or G.
– 82 reclosing relay for direct current;
In defining the N and G suffixes, the C37-2 Standard is very
– 83 automatic changeover relay of for selective control;
clear and they are used as follows:
22
– N when the protection is connected by means of Therefore it is correct to use the following definitions for pro-
transducers which measure the phase param- tection against ground fault:
eters and the vectorial sum of the parameter to be – 51G for the overcurrent protection connected to the
measured (current or voltage) is sent to the relay. secondary of a ring CT which measures the
This connection is generally called residual con- ground current;
nection (Holmgreen);
– 51G for the homopolar overcurrent protection con-
nected to the secondary of a CT positioned on
the grounding of the machine (star point genera-
tor or transformer);
– 51N for the homopolar overcurrent protection con-
nected with residual connection to three phase
CTs;
– 59N for the homopolar overvoltage protection con-
nected on the vectorial sum of the three phase
VTs (open delta - residual voltage);
A – 59G homopolar overvoltage protection connected
to the VT secondary positioned on the machine
B
grounding (star point generator or transformer);
C
– 64 only applicable in networks with isolated neutral
both for overcurrent and overvoltage protection.
N
Apart from the N and G suffixes, sometimes other suffixes are
added to indicate the application of the protection in detail.
For example:
– G generator (for example 87G differential protection
for generator);
– G when the protection is connected directly to the
secondary of a transducer (CT or VT) which meas- – T transformer (for example 87T differential protec-
ures the homopolar parameter directly (current or tion for transformer);
voltage); – M motor (for example 87M differential protection for
motor);
– P pilot (for example 87P differential protection with
pilot wire);
– S stator (for example 51S overcurrent stator);
– LR motor protection against locked running rotor
(51LR);
G – BF failed opening circuit-breaker 50 BF (BF = breaker
failure);
G G G
– R used for different applications:
– reactance (for example 87R differential protec-
tion);
– undervoltage to indicate residual voltage (27R);
– rotor of a synchronous machine (64R ground
rotor);
Feeder
– V associated with the overcurrent protection (51) it
indicates that there is voltage control or voltage
restraint (51V);
G
G
– t indicates that the protection is timed (for example
50t protection against overcurrent short-circuit
with delay added).
23
8. Philosophy of protection settings
The objectives of the protection The peculiar characteristics of the – presence of self-production in plant;
system are to: protection system of an electric network – coordination with the existing system;
– limit damage to people and to the are: – configurations and network running
plant; – dependence: it can be called on criteria;
– permit different service conditions; to work after either a short or long – practices.
– guarantee maximum service conti- period after installation. In any case, The aim is to achieve the best technical-
nuity for the plant not affected by it must work when it is called on to economic compromise which allows
faults; operate; adequate protection against “faults” with
– activate the automatisms provided. – safety: it must not operate when is “significant” probability and to verify that
not required (it must not operate the investment is commensurate with
during transients). It must allow the the importance of the plant.
various service conditions and acti- The electric protections are of different
vate the automatisms provided; types and have different applications:
– selectivity: it must operate only and – zone protections (e.g. differential or
when necessary, guaranteeing maxi- with impedance);
mum service continuity with mini- – machine protections (e.g. reverse
mum disconnection of the network; power);
– speed: represented by the minimum – selective protections (e.g. overcur-
fault time and by damage to the rent);
machinery; – non-selective protections (e.g. und-
– simplicity: measured by the number ervoltage, frequency);
of pieces of equipment needed to – protections in support (e.g. fuses,
protect the network; overcurrent, undervoltage);
– economy: assessed as the cost of – interface protections (e.g. undervolt-
the protection system in relation to age protections; under/over and rate
the cost of malfunctioning. of change of frequency; overcurrent
The protection system is the ensemble for disconnection between the plant
of the instrument transformers and the network and the utility network);
relays with adequate settings. The relay – protections for making automatisms
is only one of the components making (e.g. synchronism check).
up the protection system. The criterion which is followed when
Selection of the type of function and the setting of a protection is calculated
of the functions required to adequately is to efficaciously protect the machine
protect a machine or a plant must be or plant and then look for trip selectiv-
made on the basis of: ity. Trip selectivity means isolating the
– Standards; smallest area of plant in the case of
– interface with the external network; a fault in the shortest time possible
– acceptable risk (consequences of (selectivity) and then to ensure a reserve
the fault); (back-up) in the case of failure of the
– short-circuit currents (maximum and primary protection.
minimum); There are various different selectivity
– status of the neutral; criteria which can be used in plants.
24
8.1 Time selectivity 8.2 Current selectivity
Time type of selectivity is obtained by graduating the trip Current type of selectivity is obtained by graduating the trip
times of the protections (time discrimination or time selectiv- threshold of the protections to current values higher than
ity) so that the relay closest to the fault trips in a shorter time those which can involve the load side protections (current
compared to the ones further away. discrimination or current selectivity).
The protection settings are calculated assigning increasing This can easily be made when an impedance of significant
times starting from the user as far as the energy sources. (typically a transformer or a reactance) is provided between
With this criterion only the part of plant affected by the fault two protections in series.
is eliminated. This criterion has the serious disadvantage that Current selectivity between the two protections is calculated
the times for eliminating the fault cannot in any case be too by setting the supply side protection over the overcurrent
long because: which may involve the load side protection.
– the materials do not support faults for long times; With this setting it is not necessary to introduce delay times
– in the presence of a short-circuit there is a voltage drop between the two protections, and the supply side protection
(with, for example, consequent possible stoppage of low can be of instantaneous type since it only trips for faults in the
voltage loads due to de-excitation of the contactors); part of plant included between the two protections.
– the longer the short-circuit remains supplied, the greater
the damage created at the point of the fault is (with seri-
ous consequences as well, such as fires, etc.).
I2
t t
B
A
A A
B tA A tB
tB B tA
I1
IA/IB I1 I IB I1 IA I2 I
B
25
8. Philosophy of protection settings
i1 i2
A tA
26
8.5 Study of protection diagram must be provided for phase or ground protections.
Vice versa, in the case of solidly grounded neutral, since the
coordination ground fault current is of the same order size of the poly-
phase fault current, the selectivity curve of the phase and
ground protections must be compared on the same sheet;
Installing protections in a network and not setting them suit-
ably is the same as not installing the protection system. The – the tolerability of the various components of the plant must
protection system is really only such if the protection functions be indicated in the selectivity diagrams to check that they
necessary are provided and these are suitably set. are adequately protected. For example, the withstand of
The protection coordination study or selectivity study has the the transformers or of the cables;
following objective: to ensure that in the case of a fault or – where particular service criteria of the plant require it, it
overload in a component the electric network, it is only and is necessary for the trip curves of the voltage relay to be
exclusively that component which is eliminated from service given as well in the selectivity diagrams to demonstrate
and not other machines or parts of the plant. trip selectivity between current and voltage protections;
The protection coordination study basically consists of setting – for the direct low voltage protections the trip curves cor-
tables for the protections and selectivity diagrams (in biloga- responding to the operating times of the protection are
rithmic scale) where what the trip sequence of the network given in the selectivity diagrams, which coincide with the
protections is highlighted for each current value which in- circuit-breaker times. For medium or high voltage protec-
volves the circuit. tions (therefore for indirect relays) the relay trip curves are
To work out a correct protection coordination study, some generally given in the coordination diagrams to which the
fundamental factors must be taken into account, such as: circuit-breaker operating time is obviously added in order
– the study must be based on the short-circuit currents. It to obtain the total time for eliminating the fault, so the two
must be remembered that the protection is inserted in a families of curves are not homogeneous.
circuit and therefore the current which it can measure is Particular attention must paid in the protection coordination
only the one which passes through that circuit (it can be study to verifying that the protections do not cause unwanted
also be much lower than the short-circuit overcurrent of trips. The latter are, in fact, often more devastating than a
the switchgear the circuit is connected to); normal trip of the protections since, not finding faults in the
– for ground protections with isolated neutral or grounded by network the operator does not know how and within what
means of a limiting impedance, an independent selectivity time to resume service.
27
9. Selection of the protection system
for machines and plants
The protection system for a line or When selecting the protection system – service which the machine or indus-
a machine must be selected and several variants come into play, among trial process is slave to: for example,
studied for the application it is which: the protection applied to two motors
destined for and it is not normally – type and power of the machine to be with the same power, dedicated to
possible to define a single solution. protected; centrifugal pumps, is very different
– polyphase short-circuit voltage and from the case where one machine is
current level: in particular, safe pro- dedicated to the fire-fighting system
tection of the machine must in any and the other to the normal industrial
case be ensured even with minimum process;
fault currents; – function of the protection system:
– status of the neutral: as already alarm or trip.
illustrated, the presence or not of The numerical codes of the C37-2
current in the case of a fault and its Standard will be used below to indicate
possible magnitude oblige selection the protection functions and conse-
of protection systems completely quently make their univocal comprehen-
different from each other; sion simpler.
9.1 Protections for The protections of a synchronous machine can then be divided
into the following main sub-groups:
synchronous machines 1 main protections or zone protections: these are the
protection functions which must operate instantaneously
(generators) for faults which occur inside the relative zone and must
remain stable for external faults (through faults);
Only medium voltage generators are analysed and large
2 back-up protections: these are the protection functions
machines (above 100 MVA), where selection of the protection
which must operate for faults which occur on the load side
system is necessarily made also according to the interface
of their connection point.
towards the transmission system, are excluded from this
These protection functions must have an intentional delay
description.
to allow a selective trip so as to only operate in the faulty
The philosophy of protection relays is developed on the basis
zone;
of knowledge that faults in generators can be divided into two
main categories: 3 protections for abnormal operating and service conditions:
a) Abnormal operations and working conditions, such as: these are the protection functions which must operate or
– overload; prepare an alarm for any abnormal condition which may
– over speed or under speed; occur during running. The anomalies are detected by
– overvoltage and undervoltage; measuring appropriate electric parameters.
– unbalanced loads; The position of the CTs which supply the various protection
– excitation faults (field circuit or voltage regulator); functions of a generator is not fortuitous: the CTs which supply
– prime motor faults (or of the speed regulator). the various protection functions must be provided on the star
b) Insulation faults, such as: point side and not on the line side.
– ground faults (including rotor faults);
– phase-phase and three-phase faults; Depending on the rated power of the machine and on the type
– faults between the turns of the same phase. of application, all or some of the following protection functions
can be used to protect the generator:
Identification of the abnormal operating condition is made
a relay 87 differential protection generator (some-
by protection relays whose setting must keep the machine in
times also called 87G);
service for as long as possible without the risk of damage.
The setting value of the protection must be calculated above b relay 49 stator overload thermal protection;
the transient current, voltage and frequency values and the trip c relay 51 overcurrent protection;
time must be such as to allow re-establishment of the electri- d relay 40 excitation fault protection (loss of field);
cal parameters to within the range of normal operating values. e relay 32 reverse power protection (return energy);
28
f relay 46 negative sequence overcurrent protection; 9.1.1 ‘87G’ differential protection
g relay 21 under-impedance protection (as an
alternative to overcurrent protection for The main stator winding protection is entrusted to a differen-
voltage control when a unit transformer tial relay with restraint characteristic. This relay compares the
exists); current values at the terminals of each phase of the winding
h relay 50V overcurrent protection with voltage and trips when the differential exceeds the relay setting value.
control (as an alternative to protection It also ensures protection against phase-phase faults inside
against under-impedance when there is the stator winding.
no unit transformer); In order to obtain better stability for external faults, the relay is
i relay 27 undervoltage protection; normally of compensated type to increase the trip value in the
j relay 59 overvoltage protection; case of a through fault.
k relay 81 over and underfrequency protection; Use of the differential protection can allow identification of
ground faults inside of the protected zone as well, but its sen-
l relay 24 overflux protection;
sitivity is limited by the value of the ground fault current.
m relay 64R rotor ground protection;
n relay 64S stator ground protection (a function of
the type of neutral status). 9.1.2 ‘49’ thermal protection against
Other protection functions exist which are used for alternator
stator overload
protection, such as:
All overloads cause abnormal heating conditions of the stator
– 5 accidental energization;
winding which must be eliminated before the temperature
– 37 underpower relay;
reaches dangerous values for the machine. The protections
– 49R (51R) rotor overload;
also take into account the thermal condition of the machine
– 60 voltage balance relay;
before the overload occurs.
– 78 out of step relay;
but they are generally used applied to high power machines.
The typical protection functions for alternators are described
9.1.3 ‘51’ overcurrent protection
briefly below and the basic criteria for their application are
This protection function is not strictly necessary for alterna-
given.
tors since operation under overload also requires the turbine
to be able to deliver more power or for the excitation system
to be able to increase the field in the machine above the rated
value. These conditions are rather difficult to produce and
consequently this protection generally operates for external
R faults and for this reason must be delayed to prevent false
trips.
29
9. Selection of the protection system
for machines and plants
protection must be calculated not to cause unwanted trips in The protection settings must be calculated so that the time-
transient conditions, such as putting the machine in paral- current trip characteristic is as close as possible to the ther-
lel with other sources. It is obvious that the protection only mal tolerability curve of the generator and at the permanent
operates when the generator operates in parallel with other limit of tolerability for unbalanced load.
sources (or power factor correction banks).
9.1.7 ‘21’ under-impedance protection
9.1.5 ‘32’ protection against reverse
power (return of energy) This protection is necessary to identify the faults outside the
machine and take the generator out of service in the case
When the power source which moves the turbine fails, the where they are not eliminated by their own protections. This
generator (with the turbine always connected to the axle) protection is generally applied to generators with unit trans-
operates like a motor and the active power necessary to keep former. The settings are calculated to identify faults inside the
the machine rotating is taken from the network. transformer with a first threshold (in short times) and faults in
The minimum drawing power required of the network by a the network on the supply side of the unit transformer with a
coupled generator is a function of the type of turbine and can second threshold (long times).
vary between less than 1% (steam turbine) up to very high val- The protection measures the impedance (ratio V/I) and trips
ues for generators coupled to diesel motors. when this is lower than the set values. A relay with circular
Code 32 protection function identifies reverse power, i.e. the flow characteristic with centre in the origin of the R-X plane is gen-
of active power which goes from the network towards the gen- erally used for alternator protection.
erator. The protection setting must be calculated not to cause
false trips in transient conditions, such as putting into parallel. 9.1.8 ‘50V’ overcurrent protection with
As for protection against loss of field, it is obvious that the voltage control
protection only operates when the generator operates in par-
allel with other sources. This protection is similar to the under-impedance protec-
tion (in some models it measures the V/I ratio) and serves to
9.1.6 ‘46’ overcurrent protection against identify faults outside the generator. The overcurrent thresh-
negative sequence old varies according to the voltage value (of latching). The
more the network voltage is lowered the lower the current
Balanced three-phase loads produce a field reaction in the trip threshold is. This characteristic prevents the risk of failed
stator which rotates in synchronism with the rotor. When there operation due to a rapid decrease in the fault current linked
are unbalanced loads, the negative sequence component in to a rapid decrease in the voltage and adds the advantage of
the stator current induces a current in the rotor with double making the relay sensitive to normal overload conditions when
the rated frequency. This current which flows through the ro- the voltage is kept at the rated value. Generally, the voltage
tor winding causes serious heat rises in the rotor. latching characteristic recommends use of this relay to identify
Unbalanced load conditions can be imposed by the network faults when, for any reason, the generator operates without
outside the generator, for example by: the automatic voltage regulator.
– single-phase loads; Since this is a back-up protection, it must be coordinated with
– different impedances between the phases (e.g.: different the other network protections to guarantee selective tripping.
phase terminal tightening);
– open circuit on a transmission line; 9.1.9 ‘27’ undervoltage protection
– lack of transposition between the phases;
– faults between the turns; This function protects the generator and the users against exces-
– fault at a circuit-breaker pole on closing; sive voltage drops which can occur when large users are started,
– trip of only one phase of a fuse bank; when the voltage regulator does not work correctly or when there
– prolonged unbalanced operation, such as phase-phase is a voltage drop due to fault not identified by other protections.
fault or phase to ground fault; This relay must be regulated at the minimum value allowed for
– negative sequence harmonics. network operation and with a delay time which allows re-es-
For the reasons indicated, tripping under unbalanced load tablishment of the transient voltage values originated by these
conditions must be delayed to allow the other plant protec- phenomena. The delay time must take the response times of
tions, or the operator, to eliminate the fault selectively. the voltage regulator and excitation circuit into consideration.
30
9.1.10 ‘59’ overvoltage protection 9.1.12 ‘24’ overflux protection
This function protects generators and users against overvolt- This protection function measures the voltage/frequency ratio
ages which can occur due to sudden disconnection of the (V/f) and allows monitoring so that the magnetic circuit does
loads or due to a malfunction of the voltage regulator. Gener- not go into saturation. The result of an overflow condition
ally, the protection is provided with two trip thresholds since is heating of the machine with consequent reduction in life,
it must be extremely rapid for large overvoltages which can therefore the characteristic normally used is of thermal type
cause insulation faults, whereas it must have long times for (with inverse time). Attention must be paid to the setting since
small overvoltages which can be solved by the voltage regula- at rated frequency, this protection operates exactly like an
tor. overvoltage protection with which it must therefore be coordi-
nated.
31
9. Selection of the protection system
for machines and plants
27 50/51
508F
59
24
81
21
87G 64R G 40
32
46
51G
32
Relay code Relay description Step 86 GE 86 GI 52 41 152 Turbine stop Alarm 52-LV
87G Generator phase differential X X X X
46-1 Unbalanced currents 1 X
46-2 2 X
40 Loss of field X
21-1 Under-impedance 1 X
21-2 2 X
32 Reverse power X
64S Stator ground X
27 Undervoltage X
59-1 Overvoltage 1 X
59-2 2 X
24 Overflux 1 X
2 X
81<-1 Under-frequency 1 X
81<-2 2 X
81> Over-frequency X
64R-1 Rotor ground 1 X
64R-2 2 X
51 Transformer unit overcurrent 1 X X
50 2 X X
51G Transformer unit overcurrent X X
64Uo Homopolar overvoltage X X
50BF Circuit-breaker failure X X X
86GI Internal fault lock-out relay X X X X
86GE External fault lock-out relay X X X X X
Auxiliary power supply fault X
Relay 60 (VT fault) inhibits relay operation: 27 – undervoltage; Key: 86GE lock-out relay for external faults;
40 – loss of field; 86GI lock-out relay for internal faults;
21 – under-impedance. 152 HV side circuit-breaker (High Voltage);
52 machine circuit-breaker (generator);
41 generator field circuit-breaker;
STOP TURB turbine stopping.
Relay recommended:
− REG 630
33
9. Selection of the protection system
for machines and plants
Relays recommended:
− REG 630
− RET 615
− RET 620
− RET 630
34
9.3 Line protections Protection functions 51/50 are against non-directional over-
currents and several thresholds are present in the relay (of
which at least one with inverse time). These thresholds must
Protection of a line is adequate when protection against
be set for currents lower than the minimum fault cur-
overloads is ensured and it is possible to identify polyphase
rent and be selective with the load side protections.
short-circuit and single-phase ground faults. Therefore the
The ground protection is generally against overcurrent sup-
protection is extremely simple and in general limited to the
plied by type ring CTs to guarantee great sensitivity and be
following protection functions:
able to identify ground faults even of resistive type. Two types
a relay 49 thermal protection against overload; of protections can be used:
b relay 51 overcurrent protection against high im- – 51G: non-directional ground overcurrent: applicable when
pedance faults; the capacitive contribution of the network load side is
c relay 50 overcurrent protection against short- lower than the setting to be set on the protection;
circuit; – 67G: directional ground overcurrent: applicable to any net-
d relay 87L differential line protection applicable work but with the caution that a set of three VTs with star
when a selective protection is required connection must be present on the switchgear to be able
in a particular zone of the distribution to have the homopolar voltage which allows a reference
network. for the direction of the fault current to be established.
Protection 87L can be used in indus-
trial plants with ring networks, meshed
networks with or without the presence of
decentralized power production;
e relay 50N protection against ground faults.
Relays recommended:
− REF 601
− REF 611
− REF 615
− REF 620
− REF 630
− RED 615
35
9. Selection of the protection system
for machines and plants
9.4 Transformer protections g relay 51G secondary side overcurrent ground fault
protection;
h relay 26 overtemperature protection;
A transformer is a two-way type of machine, i.e. the flow of
i relay 63 overpressure protection (only for oil
energy can be in two directions without distinction. This clari-
transformers).
fication is very important since in plants where there can be
power which flows without distinction from the primary to the Other protections can be provided for particular applications
secondary or vice versa, it is necessary to prepare protections or for high-power machines. These protection functions are:
on both sides. If, on the other hand, the transformer is only j relay 24 overflux protection;
used with power flow in one direction, the protection system k relay 46 negative sequence overcurrent protection;
against phase faults may only be provided on the power sup- l relay 87N restricted differential ground fault protec-
ply side. What has been stated is only valid for the protections tion (for one or both windings);
against phase faults and is not valid for ground protections m relay 51G tank protection.
as the two homopolar circuits are generally independent and
each one needs dedicated protection against ground faults. In selecting the protection system, thermal protection has
The faults or abnormal operating conditions in transformers been indicated as both function 49 obtained by means of
can be traced back to (and consequently the protection must measuring the current absorbed by the transformer, and func-
recognise) the following: tion 26 obtained by temperature measurements taken directly
– Overload; inside the machine.
– Short-circuit; Where installed, the temperature probes (code 26). which
– Primary side ground fault; allow more effective and safe thermal protection and are
– Secondary side ground fault. preferable to thermal protection obtained by means of current
In their turn, these abnormal operating conditions can be identi- measurements (code 49).
fied using different protection functions which can also be a re- As shown in the list, several overcurrent protection thresholds
serve for each other, for example, short-circuit can be identified are normally provided in order to be able to select settings
using overcurrent protections and/or differential protections. which exploit both time type selectivity (functions 51 or 50t)
The protection functions to be provided for a transformer are: and current type selectivity (50) and at the same time allow
a relay 49 thermal overload protection; the machine an adequate overload and the possibility of ob-
b relay 51 overcurrent protection with inverse time; taining good selectivity with the load side protections.
c relay 51 or 50t secondary side short-circuit overcurrent In the past, the differential protection was normally installed
protection; on machines with significant power (higher than 5 MVA).
d relay 50 primary side overcurrent short-circuit pro- Some types of protection relay (such as REF 54x) allow the
tection; differential protection to be activated already as a basis, and it
e relay 87T differential transformer protection; can consequently be activated without extra costs even with
f relay 51G primary side overcurrent ground fault small-sized machines.
protection; The following figure shows some configurations of the protec-
49 49 49 49 49 49 49
50/51 50/51 50/51 50/51 50/51 50/51
50/51 51G-MV 51G-MV 51G-MV
51G-MV 51G-MV 51G-MV 51G-LV 51G-LV 51G-LV
51G 51G-LV 51G-LV 51G-LV 87T 87T 87T
59N 50/51
50/51 50/51
51G
51G 51G
87N
A B C D E F G
36
tion system which can be selected according to the power of – it blocks the zero sequence which circulates in the star
the machine, the connection unit and the status of the neutral. windings (without this precaution there could be false trips
The typical protection functions for a transformer are for external faults).
briefly described below. On connecting a transformer to the network, the inrush cur-
rents which supply the no-load transformer rise initially to
9.4.1 ‘49’ thermal overload protection peak values comparable with those of a short-circuit between
phases at the secondary terminals to then decrease gradu-
Overload of a transformer (and in general of all machines) ally, reducing down to the rated values of the no-load current.
corresponds to an increase in temperature inside the machine These currents would be detected by a normal differential
and as a consequence there is a reduction of life. The Stand- protection as currents due to a fault inside the transformer
ards give a general indication about how much the life of causing an unwanted trip.
transformers is reduced according to the size of the overload The inrush current is characterised by a high second harmon-
and it can be noted that even significant overloads can be ic component and the differential protections are fitted with a
supported with small machine life reductions. filter which, recognising the presence of the second harmonic,
The possibility of having the real internal temperature of the allows false trips to be prevented.
machine could help better exploitation of the machine. In fact, Both the differential protection and the overcurrent short-cir-
the internal temperature of a transformer is, with the same cuit protection normally operate on a time base (the difference
power circulating, very different if the ambient temperature is in milliseconds is negligible when compared to the time which
0° or 40° centigrade. the circuit-breaker takes to open). The basic difference lies
in the trip current threshold, which for the differential protec-
9.4.2 ‘51/50’ overcurrent protection tion is a percentage of the rated current (indicatively 30%)
whereas for the overcurrent protection it is a multiple (from 10
Different overcurrent thresholds are used to guarantee good to 20 times) of the rated current. Therefore, where possible it
protection of the machine. In general, the first threshold has is always useful to activate the differential protection which is
an inverse time characteristic and the type of characteristic is much more sensitive and even allows faults with high resist-
selected based on selectivity criteria. For example, when the ance to be detected.
protection has to be coordinated with low voltage releases,
the extremely inverse time characteristic is normally used,
whereas in medium voltage networks, if there are no motors
9.4.4 ‘51G’ overcurrent protection
with very long starting time, a very inverse time characteristic against ground fault
is generally chosen, etc.
Then two thresholds with independent time (or definite time) As already noted, the ground protection must be provided for
characteristic are normally used to carry out the short-circuit both the transformer secondaries. In general, transformers
protection with a delayed (selective) threshold for the second- have an open circuit (if there is a delta-connected secondary)
ary side faults and a threshold with instantaneous trip (time for passing zero sequence currents from load side to supply
base) for primary side faults. side (and vice versa). The two windings must therefore be
protected independently against the ground faults and the
relative protections are part of the selective protection system
9.4.3 ‘87T’ differential protection
of the network.
The differential protection of the transformer is of the compen- The protection criterion against ground faults is a function of
sated type, i.e. it increases the trip threshold according to the the type of winding connection:
line current. In practice, the higher the current is on the line, – with delta windings:
the higher the differential which serves to make the protec- ° with grounded neutral network, the machine is a user
tion trip is. This solution allows great stability in the case of a from the point of view of ground faults (even if the
through fault even in the presence of significant errors in the incoming feeder is from the power source). The ground
current transformers. protection is in this case very simple and can be
There are three peculiarities about a transformer differential entrusted to a homopolar overcurrent protection with
protection: setting at high sensitivity and extremely short time;
– it makes a ratio correction (the currents which come from ° with isolated neutral, the only protection able to identify
the two sets of three CTs are generally different); ground faults is the homopolar overvoltage protection
– it makes angle correction to correct the angular unit of the which is not, however, of the selective type;
transformer;
37
9. Selection of the protection system
for machines and plants
− REF 615
− RET 615
− RET 620
− RET 630
38
9.4.7 ‘26’ overtemperature protection In the presence of a network short-circuit, the motor behaves
like a generator during the first instants and supplies the fault
This protection has the aim of preventing damage to the with a current theoretically equal to the starting current.
insulation of the windings caused by excessive heating due to Both the starting condition as well as the contribution to the
overload currents which do not reach the trip threshold of the short-circuit are service conditions of the machine and the
phase overcurrent protection, or which is caused by anoma- protections must be calculated to prevent false trips in these
lies in plant cooling. operating conditions.
The protection is obtained by means of thermometric stations Motor faults or abnormal operating conditions can be traced
which detect the temperature of several heat probes, placed back to (and consequently the protection must recognise):
in particular points of the magnetic core and of the tank. It is – Overload;
always advisable to provide alarm thresholds set to reason- – Short-circuit;
able margins in advance of the trip values. – Ground fault;
– Too long starting;
9.4.8 ‘51G’ tank protection – Locked rotor running;
– Unbalanced load;
The tank protection is made up of an overcurrent relay con-
– Excessive number of starts.
nected to a C.T. inserted in the conductor which connects the
transformer tank to ground. For a fault between phase and The anomalous operating conditions can be identified with
ground the current between the live conductors and ground different protection functions which can also be a reserve for
flows through the above-mentioned conductor and makes the each other, for example short-circuit can be identified using
protection trip. For good operation of the tank protection, the overcurrent protections and/or differential protections.
ground fault current must be prevented from passing along The protection functions to be provided for a motor are:
other routes, other than the one the protection is inserted on, a relay 49 thermal image protection against overload;
therefore it is necessary to take all the measures for isolating b relay 50 overcurrent short-circuit protection (which
the transformer from ground. can be in association with the fuses);
c relay 87M differential protection;
9.5 Protections for motors d relay 51G overcurrent ground fault protection;
e relay 48 overcurrent protection against prolonged
When a motor protection is analysed, it must be remembered starting;
that in the starting phase the machine absorbs a current equal f relay 51LR overcurrent protection against locked rotor
to about 6 times the rated one for a variable time according to during running;
the characteristics of the machine moved (from fractions of a g relay 46 negative sequence overcurrent protection;
second for small pumps up to tens of seconds for large fans). h relay 66 number of starts control protection.
49 49 49 49
50 50 50 50
48 48 48 48
46 46 46 46
51LR 51LR 51LR
51LR 51G 67G↓ 67G↓
51G 66 66 66
66 27 27 27
M M VT M VT M VT
A B C D
39
9. Selection of the protection system
for machines and plants
Other protection functions can be provided for particular ap- ence of unbalanced loads, the negative sequence component
plications and these are: in the stator current induces a current in the rotor with dou-
i relay 27 undervoltage protection against motor ble the frequency of the rated one. This current which flows
disconnection; through the rotor winding causes serious heating in the rotor.
j relay 37 undercurrent protection (typical for sub- This function sees to protection of the motor in the case of
merged pumps); one or two missing phases of the power supply and for unbal-
k relay 78 protection against out of step for synchro- anced currents of small amplitude. It is necessary for this
nous motors. protection to trip in long times for small currents which can
The motor represents a user ‘terminal’ of the electric system be of transient type. The protection must have a definite time
and therefore the protection system setting is not conditioned characteristic it being a question of heating the rotor circuit.
by other network protections.
With regard to the differential protection, its use can be very 9.5.3 ‘50’ short-circuit overcurrent
important for motors, unlike for the other electric machines,
when the short-circuit currents are low and because the trip protection
time compared to a normal overcurrent protection can also be
This function protects the motor with relative connection
greatly reduced (20 ms instead of 70-80 ms). The short-circuit
cable against serious phase-phase or three-phase faults.
protection of the overcurrent type must be delayed to avoid
For outgoing feeders equipped with contactor and fuse, the
unwanted trips in the first instants of the motor starting phase
short-circuit protection is also entrusted to the fuse, but the
(connection or inrush current), therefore for motors with power
short-circuit overcurrent protection is in any case necessary to
higher than or equal to 1500 kW it is normally provided.
identify the faults of small size which can be solved by means
The main difficulty in applying the differential protection for
of opening the contactor.
motors consists in having to provide star point side CTs and
In the latter case, the protection must have a delay such as to
therefore to sometimes provide special versions for the motor
be able to be coordinated with the opening characteristics of
terminal box or even external cabinets for installation of the
the contactor and the fuse trip curve.
CT and formation of the star point.
When the outgoing feeder is equipped with a circuit-breaker,
The figure shows some configurations of the protection
a delay on the trip time is provided in any case to let the peak
system which can be selected according to the power of the
currents on starting pass.
machine, the connection unit, and the neutral status.
The typical motor protection functions are described below.
9.5.4 ‘51G - 67G’ overcurrent protec-
9.5.1 ‘49’ thermal image protection tion against ground fault
against overload This is a homopolar overcurrent protection against ground
fault and the only particular attention consists in checking the
The thermal image protection, simulating the time constant of need or not to provide directionality. In particular, the protec-
the motor, allows good and effective motor protection to be tion must be of the directional type should the capacitive
obtained in the case of an overload. contribution of the motor and associated cable be higher than
The characteristic trip curve of the protection is of exponential the threshold value to be set.
type in accordance with the Standard for thermal relays. As already shown, the motor is a user terminal of the electric
When setting the protection, if the motor is foreseen for ‘hot’ re-start- network and therefore this protection represents the first step
ing, it must be verified that the equivalent thermal curve is such as to of selectivity for ground faults.
allow passage of the starting current for the corresponding time.
For thermal protection it is normally possible to set both the
heating time constant as well as the cooling time constant.
9.5.5 ‘48’ overcurrent protection
against prolonged starting
9.5.2 ‘46’ overcurrent protection
This protection function is only activated during the starting
against negative sequence phase (once the starting time is over it is put out of service).
(unbalanced loads) The aim of this protection is to check that the motor starts
within the foreseen time. If the starting time exceeds the value
The balanced three-phase loads produce a field reaction in the calculated, overheating of the windings occurs with serious
stator which rotates in synchronism with the rotor. In the pres- jeopardy for the life of the machine.
40
An important datum to define the setting of this protection is times, they lead to a rise in the machine temperature with
the starting time, which is also and above all a function of the consequent reduction of its life.
operating machine which is connected to the axle. This protection function must be wired to prevent the circuit-
breaker closing and not opening as typically happens for the
other protection functions.
9.5.6 ‘51LR’ overcurrent protection
against locked running rotor
9.5.8 ‘27’ undervoltage protection
This protection function is out of service in the starting phase
and is only activated on completion of starting. An undervoltage relay for motor protection has different ap-
This protection verifies the anomalous operating condition of plications:
the machine due to a lock, caused, for example, by failure of – to check that voltage drops in the network are not critical
the bearings (more than 30% of faults in motors), or by a stall taking the motors to the stall condition;
condition. – to check that the voltage is sufficiently high on circuit-
The protection therefore has a rapid time for currents which breaker closing to allow correct motor starting;
can be compared with the starting currents without waiting – to disconnect the motor when there is no voltage in the
for the thermal protection threshold which has large delays. network in order to avoid simultaneous re-starting with
In this way you can manages to operate in short times for other machines and consequently the network being put
motor locks which would jeopardise the life time, excessively completely out of commission, due to collapse.
overheating the stator windings. The protection setting changes, as well as the command the
protection gives, depending on the function to be obtained.
Relays recommended:
− REM 611
− REM 615
− REM 620
− REM 630
41
9. Selection of the protection system
for machines and plants
VT VT
9.6 Block transformer-motor 51G
protections
59N
Motors which are provided with a rigid connection to the
transformer require protections equivalent to what was de- M M
scribed previously for motors supplied at the network voltage.
The setting of the protections must be calculated on the ba-
Relays recommended:
− REM 611
− REM 615
− REM 620
− REM 630
42
9.7 Protections for capacitors 9.7.1 ‘51’ overcurrent protection
The capacitors are a static load where the current absorbed The tolerability of the capacitors for currents higher than the
is only a function of the network voltage. The capacitors are rated one is defined in the IEC 871-1 and ANSI 18-1980
generators of reactive capacitive power, therefore they have Standards. This characteristic is very steep and there is no
the effect (apart from varying the network power factor of the) equivalent curve in the IEC 60255 (protections) Standards. An
of increasing the voltage at the connection point. The capaci- important datum to take into consideration in calculating the
tors also represent a critical point in networks with a high har- protection setting is the variation in voltage which can occur
monic content since they can cause resonance phenomena in the network, especially at low load, in the presence of the
with consequent high currents which can lead to damaging capacitor. This datum must be selected as a reference for
the capacitor. calculating the trip threshold setting.
At its connection, the power factor correction bank absorbs
a transient current (very short time) which can even reach 10 9.7.2 ‘50’ overcurrent short-circuit
times the rated current.
protection
The faults or anomalous operating conditions of the capaci-
tors can be due to (and consequently the protection must This function protects the capacitor with relative connection
recognise): cable against serious phase-phase or three-phase faults.
– Currents higher than the rated current; When selecting the setting, the transient phenomenon relative
– Short-circuit; to supplying the bank with voltage must be taken into ac-
– Ground fault; count.
– Overvoltage; For outgoing feeders equipped with contactor and fuse, the
– Unbalanced impedance (fault on the elementary element protection of short-circuit is also entrusted to the fuse and
making up the capacitor). therefore the overcurrent short-circuit protection can be omit-
The anomalous operating conditions can be identified with the ted.
following protection functions:
a relay 51 overcurrent protection; 9.7.3 ‘51G -67G’ overcurrent protec-
b relay 50 short-circuit overcurrent protection (which tion against ground fault
can be replaced by fuses);
c relay 51G overcurrent ground fault protection; This is a normal homopolar ground fault protection and partic-
d relay 59 overvoltage protection; ular attention must only be paid to checking the need whether
e relay 46 negative sequence overcurrent protection. to provide directionality or not. In particular, the protection
must be of the directional type when the capacitive contribu-
The capacitor is a user tion for single-phase ground fault of the associated cable is
‘terminal’ of the electric higher than the threshold value which is to be set.
system and therefore The star point of capacitor banks is never grounded and con-
the setting of the pro- sequently the capacitor is the user terminal from the point of
tection system is not view of ground faults, so the protection can be set as the first
conditioned by other 50/51 step of selectivity.
network protections. 59/46
51G
9.7.4 ‘59’ overvoltage protection
The capacitor is a reactive power generator and, conse-
quently, tends to raise the network voltage. For this reason,
it is important to provide an overvoltage protection which
puts it out of service so as to avoid high overvoltages of long
duration both for the capacitor and for the connected electric
network since, by putting the capacitor out of service, the
contribution of reactive power is reduced and therefore the
network voltage.
43
9. Selection of the protection system
for machines and plants
9.7.5 ‘46’ overcurrent protection – use of a single-phase overcurrent relays: in this case the
star points of the two power factor correction banks are
against negative sequence connected with each other and a CT is connected into this
connection. A relay connected to the secondary measures
Power factor correction banks are made up of a lot of capaci-
the current which circulates over the connection - current
tors to obtain the total capacity required. Perforation of the
which in the absence of a fault is equal to zero (two bal-
insulation of one of these basic capacitors modifies the imped-
anced three-phase banks), whereas it is different from zero
ance of that branch and consequently the power factor cor-
in the presence of a fault;
rection bank is un unbalanced load which with a three-phase
symmetrical power supply absorbs unbalanced currents.
Identification of an unbalanced current allows problems in the
power factor correction bank to be detected and to operate
before the fault evolves due to the increase in current due to 46
the lower impedance.
The use of a negative sequence overcurrent relay on the
power supply line to the power factor correction bank can CT
therefore monitor this condition, but generally the sensitivity
which can be obtained is not sufficient to guarantee protec-
tion against faults in the basic capacitor making up the power
– use of single-phase overvoltage relays: in this case the
factor correction bank.
star points of the two power factor correction banks are
When power factor correction bank are installed in the plant,
connected with each other and a VT. A relay connected to
they are normally made with star connection (less voltage on
the secondary measures the voltage between the two star
each phase) and in general two star banks are provided in
points. In the the absence of a fault this voltage is equal
parallel with each other. The availability of the star points of
to zero (two balanced three-phase banks), whereas it is
two banks allows an extremely sensitive and reliable protec-
different from zero in the presence of a fault.
tion against unbalance.
The true star points of the two power factor correction banks
are coincident (with the theoretical star point) in the absence
46
of a fault. Vice versa, in the presence of a fault in a basic
capacitor of one of the two banks, there is movement of the
real star point of the bank which is the seat of the fault (three
different impedances).
Two different techniques can be used to identify the fault with VT
great sensitivity:
Relays recommended:
− REV 615
44
The relays used for these measurements are single-phase protection system which guarantees trip selectivity, respect
relays and must preferably have a filter on the third harmonic of the maximum trip time values required by the power Utility
to prevent false trips (the third harmonics are summed on the and rapid identification of the fault zone at the same time.
star points). The definition is typical of ground relays (single- In distribution networks of the ring type, the direction of the
phase with filter) and for this reason the protections which fault currents in the feeders making up the ring is not prede-
are connected to the star point of the power factor correc- termined, but depends both on localization of the fault point
tion banks are the same as those which are used to identify and on the network configuration at the time of the fault.
ground faults, but the code which marks them is 46 (nega- The protection systems normally used in a ring network are:
tive sequence) and not 51G or 64 since it is the method with
– if the ring is run open, it is a radial network and consequently
which the measurement is made which defines the protection
time or logical selectivity using normal overcurrent protections
function and not, vice versa, the type of relay used.
can be used (possibly directional for ground fault if there is a
high capacitive contribution);
9.8 Protections for ring – if the ring is run closed and there are circuit-breakers on
the substation in-out and you want to put only the feeder
networks or the faulty busbar out of service, it is necessary to
provide directional of phase and ground protections with
The need to provide a reserve power supply for each substa- connection with pilot wire to carry out logical selectivity.
tion with a lower investment than the one required for the
As an alternative to this solution, it is possible to use differ-
double radial configuration lies at the base of selecting the
ential protections to identify and put only the line seat of the
ring configuration. The lower commitment in terms of cost
fault out of service on a time basis.
has a negative aspect in the greater difficulty of building a
A1 A2 A1
27 27
50/51 A6 50/51 A12
51N 51N
67N↓ 67N↓
49 49 49 49 49 49
50/51 50/51 50/51 50/51 50/51 50/51
51N 51N 51N 51N 51N 51N
27 27 27 27 27 27
45
9. Selection of the protection system
for machines and plants
9.8.1 Block diagrams for logical There are two types of automatic changeovers (which are also
completely different from each other from the point of view of
selectivity complexity and cost):
– rapid changeovers without voltage gap (typical of feed
The figure gives a typical diagram of logical selectivity which
water pumps supplying power stations);
can be made with ring networks. This block diagram is ex-
– slow changeovers with voltage gap and temporary loss of
tremely simple and the result of eliminating the faulted part of
the loads (typical of petrochemical plants).
the network selectively is obtained (perhaps even more than
The subject of automatic changeover is, in any case, closely
the faulted part, but substations not affected by a fault are
linked to that of protections, because the latter provide the
not stopped). It is, in any case, obvious that more complex
information and establish the conditions so that changeover
systems can be made where, for example, even more sophis-
can either take place or has to be locked.
ticated logical selectivity can be made (with only the busbar
In the presence of several changeovers in cascade (at the
or cable fault out of service) and particular functions activated
same or different voltage), the slow changeover waiting times
(important with small-sized transformers as ring networks
must be coordinated so that they are carried out in order
typically are), such as failed circuit-breaker opening 50BF.
of time from the source towards the user substation (in any
case, always selective with the overcurrent protections).
The measurement relay (of current and voltage) connected in
Relays recommended: the logics of automatic changeovers, does not carry out any
− REF 630 protection functions.
Different network operating conditions must be analysed
− REF 615 and combined to allow or prohibit automatic changeover. In
particular:
– correct position of the circuit-breakers;
– permanent lack of voltage on an incoming feeder;
– presence of sound voltage on the other incoming feeder;
– busbar loads disconnected or suitable for re-acceleration
during push-pull;
– low value of the busbar residual voltage in the case where
the motors are not disconnected from the busbar or are
not able to start again in push-pull;
– load side phase faults cleared up or not (consent/lock);
– load side ground faults cleared up or not (consent/lock).
During return to normal conditions, if the two sources cannot
be in synchronism, a relay for verifying synchronism must be
provided to enable momentary parallel.
The protection functions which are used to carry out auto-
9.9 Automatic changeover matic changeover are:
a relay 27 undervoltage protection transfer start;
The automatic changeover systems do not come within the b relay 27I (59) undervoltage/voltage protection for
sphere of electrical protections. They are simply the ensemble consent (sound voltage on other
of devices which automatically supply the power supply from riser);
an alternative source to some busbars or to single users when c relay 27R residual undervoltage protection;
the normal power supply fails. This function is very important d relay 27M undervoltage protection against motor
because it considerably improves service continuity. disconnection;
It must be pointed out that different philosophies and different e relay 50 overcurrent phase protection against
levels of complexity exist in carrying out the logics associated lock on changeover in the presence of
with automatic changeovers and consequently the protection a load side fault;
systems must also adapt to these. f relay 50G overcurrent ground protection against
The use of automatic changeovers is not generalised: it is only lock on changeover in the presence of
justified for the most important users, in particular in continu- a load side fault;
ous cycle plants, such as chemical or petrochemical plants g relay 25 synchronism check relay (for parallel
and the auxiliary services of power stations. transit consent).
46
Incoming feeder Measurements Bus-tie Busbar riser Incoming feeder
A V A A V
P1 P1 P1
W VAR W VAR
-FF -FF
-BC 27 50 -BC 50 51
27RA 27RB -BC 27 50
3 P2 51 51G 3 P2 25 3 P2 51 51G
-BV -BV
-RA -RA
-BN -BN
1 1
47
9. Selection of the protection system
for machines and plants
48
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ABB S.p.A. The data and illustrations are not binding. We reserve