PENGANTAR ILMU KELAUTAN

NAMA : SANIA PUTRI CIBRO

NPM : 1911101010008

PRODI : ILMU KELAUTAN

(353-356)
composed of the elements hydrogen and
carbon. Hydrocarbons are organic
substances, so they can be broken down, or
biodegraded, by microorganisms. Because
hydrocarbons are largely biodegradable,
many marine pollution experts consider oil
to be among the least damaging pollutants
introduced into the ocean! Certainly oil spills
appear ghastly as the oil coats the
water, the shore, and helpless
marine organisms, including
seabirds, and it can cause grievous
short-term damage. But oil dissipates and
breaks down, becoming food for various
microbes. As an example, vast quantities of
oil were spilled in the Pacific and,
especially, the Atlantic during World War II. In fact, some U.S. East Coast beaches were coated
by oil several centimeters deep, yet not a trace of those spills remains today. In a broader view,
some natural undersea oil seeps have occurred for millions of years, and the ocean ecosystem
seems unaffected—or even enhanced—by them (because oil is a source of energy). As we’ll see,
other types of pollutants last far longer and can do much more damage than an oil spill.

Data from the Exxon Valdez oil spill are a case in point. The oil spill released
almost 44 million liters (11.6 million gallons) of oil into a pristine wilderness area in Alaska. The
affected waters were expected to have a long, slow recovery, but the fisheries that closed in 1989
bounced back with record takes in 1990. A study conducted 10 years after the spill revealed that
several key species had rebounded to the point where their numbers were greater than before the
spill (Figure 11.6). Scientific studies on the long-term effects of the spill, however, reveal that a
significant amount of poorly weathered oil has seeped into intertidal sediments and remains
below the surface.

tersusun dari unsur hidrogen dan karbon. Hidrokarbon adalah zat organik, sehingga dapat
dipecah, atau diurai secara biologis oleh mikroorganisme. Karena hidrokarbon sebagian besar
dapat terurai secara hayati, banyak ahli polusi laut menganggap minyak sebagai salah satu
polutan yang paling merusak yang dimasukkan ke laut! Tentu saja tumpahan minyak tampak
mengerikan ketika minyak melapisi air, pantai, dan organisme laut yang tak berdaya, termasuk
burung laut, dan itu dapat menyebabkan kerusakan jangka pendek yang menyedihkan. Tetapi
minyak menghilang dan rusak, menjadi makanan untuk berbagai mikroba. Sebagai contoh,
sejumlah besar minyak tumpah di Pasifik dan, khususnya, Atlantik selama Perang Dunia II.
Faktanya, beberapa pantai Pesisir Timur AS dilapisi oleh minyak sedalam beberapa sentimeter,
namun tidak ada bekas tumpahan yang tersisa sampai hari ini. Dalam pandangan yang lebih luas,
beberapa rembesan minyak bawah laut alami telah terjadi selama jutaan tahun, dan ekosistem
laut tampaknya tidak terpengaruh — atau bahkan ditingkatkan — oleh mereka (karena minyak
adalah sumber energi). Seperti yang akan kita lihat, jenis polutan lainnya bertahan lebih lama dan
dapat merusak lebih banyak daripada tumpahan minyak.

Data dari tumpahan minyak Exxon Valdez adalah contohnya. Tumpahan minyak dilepaskan
hampir 44 juta liter (11,6 juta galon) minyak menjadi daerah hutan belantara yang masih asli di
Alaska. Perairan yang terkena dampak diharapkan memiliki pemulihan yang panjang dan lambat,
tetapi demikian halnya perikanan yang ditutup pada tahun 1989 bangkit kembali dengan catatan
memakan waktu pada tahun 1990. Sebuah penelitian yang dilakukan 10 tahun setelah tumpahan
mengungkapkan bahwa beberapa spesies kunci telah pulih kembali ke titik di mana jumlah
mereka lebih besar daripada sebelum tumpahan (Gambar 11.6). Studi ilmiah tentang efek jangka
panjang dari tumpahan, bagaimanapun, mengungkapkan hal itu signifikan jumlah minyak yang
rusak karena cuaca buruk telah meresap ke dalam sedimen dan sisa intertidal di bawah
permukaan.

OTHER CONCERNS ABOUT OIL IN THE OCEAN

OIL is a complex mixture of various
hydrocarbons and other substances,
including the elements oxygen, nitrogen,
sulfur, and various trace metals. When this
complex chemical mixture combines with
seawater—another complex chem ical
mixture that also contains organisms—the
results are usually devastating for marine organisms.
Studies have revealed, for example, that crude oil in
seawater at concentrations of only 0.7 parts per billion
kills or damages certain fish eggs. In addition, many
organisms are killed outright when they are coated by
oil, rendering their insulating feathers or fur useless
(Figure 11.7).

Toxic compounds2(toxicum 5 poison) in

crude oil vary, but the most worrisome are
polycyclic aro matic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
such as napthalenes, ben zene, toluene, and
xylenes. Even in small doses, they can
sicken humans, animals, and plants. These
hydro carbons are particularly dangerous if inhaled or
ingested by animals because they can be transformed
into even more toxic products, which can ultimately
affect an organism’s genetic materials. There is also
concern about the long-term effects of oil spills, such as
chronic, delayed, or indirect impacts, many of which are
often difficult to document and link to the spill because of the considerable time lag. For example,
exposure to even tiny concentrations of the chemicals present in oil can cause harmful biological effects
that usually go unnoticed. Scientific studies have shown that fish exposed to PAHs in crude oil exhibited
changes in gene expression that are linked to developmental abnormalities, decreased

OKAMI MELAKUKAN OBAT minyak di dalam Minyak OCEan adalah MINYAK

adalah campuran kompleks berbagai hidrokarbon dan zat lain, termasuk unsur oksigen, nitrogen,
belerang, dan berbagai logam jejak. Ketika campuran kimia kompleks ini bergabung dengan air
laut — campuran kimia kompleks lainnya yang juga mengandung organisme — hasilnya
biasanya sangat merusak organisme laut. Studi telah mengungkapkan, misalnya, bahwa minyak
mentah dalam air laut dengan konsentrasi hanya 0,7 bagian per miliar membunuh atau merusak
telur ikan tertentu. Selain itu, banyak organisme dibunuh secara langsung ketika dilapisi oleh
minyak, menyebabkan bulu-bulu isolasi atau bulu mereka menjadi tidak berguna (Gambar 11.7).

Senyawa toksik2 (racun racun 5) dalam minyak mentah bervariasi, tetapi yang paling
mengkhawatirkan adalah polycyclic aro matic hydrocarbon (PAHs), seperti napthalene, ben
zene, toluene, dan xylenes. Bahkan dalam dosis kecil, mereka dapat membuat sakit manusia,
hewan, dan tanaman. Hidro karbon ini sangat berbahaya jika terhirup atau dicerna oleh hewan
karena mereka dapat diubah menjadi produk yang lebih beracun, yang pada akhirnya dapat
mempengaruhi bahan genetik suatu organisme. Ada juga kekhawatiran tentang dampak jangka
panjang tumpahan minyak, seperti dampak kronis, tertunda, atau tidak langsung, banyak di
antaranya seringkali sulit untuk didokumentasikan dan dihubungkan ke tumpahan karena jeda
waktu yang cukup lama. Misalnya, paparan bahkan konsentrasi kecil bahan kimia yang ada
dalam minyak dapat menyebabkan efek biologis berbahaya yang biasanya tidak diperhatikan.
Studi ilmiah telah menunjukkan bahwa ikan yang terkena PAH dalam minyak mentah
menunjukkan perubahan ekspresi gen yang terkait dengan kelainan perkembangan, menurun
embryo survival, and lower reproductive success that
wouldn’t be noticed until years later. Another example
is from the oil tanker that ran aground in the
Galápagos Islands in 2001, spilling roughly 3 million
liters (800,000 gallons) of diesel and bunker oil. The
oil spread westward and was dispersed by strong
currents, so only a few marine animals were
immediately killed. Marine iguanas on a nearby island,
however, suffered a massive 62% mortality in the year
after the accident, due to a small amount of residual oil
contamination in the sea. In addition, spills from oil
tankers may release a wide variety of petroleum
products (not just crude oil), each of which has a
different level of toxicity and behaves differently
in the environment. For example, refined oil, such as
fuel oil, is rich in compounds that are much more toxic
to the environment than crude oil. Although spills
from oil tankers receive much media attention, they
are not the primary source of oil to the oceans. Figure
11.8 shows that 47% of worldwide oil to the oceans is
caused by underwater natural oil seeps (many of
which occur in U.S. waters); the remaining 53%
comes from human sources. The figure also shows
that of human-caused oil to the oceans, 72% comes
from petroleum consumption, which includes non-tank
vessels, runoff from increasingly paved urban areas,
and individual car, boat, and watercraft owners; 22%
comes from petroleum transportation, including
refining and distribution activities; and only 6% comes
from petroleum extraction, which is associated with
oil and gas exploration and production. Remarkably,
the overwhelming majority of the petroleum that
enters the oceans due to human activity is a result of
small but frequent and widespread releases of oil
related to activities that consume petroleum.
ClEaninG oil spills When oil enters the ocean, it initially
floats because oil is less dense than water and forms a
slick at the surface, where it starts to break down
through natural processes (Figure 11.9). The volatile,
lighter components of crude oil evaporate over the first
few days, leaving behind a more viscous substance
that aggregates into tar balls and eventually sinks. The
tarry oil also coats suspended
particles, which settle to the sea floor, too. If the floating oil hasn’t dispersed, it can be collected with
specially designed skimmers or absorbent materials. The collected oil (or oiled materials), however,
must still be disposed of elsewhere. Waves, winds, and currents serve to further
disperse an oil slick and mix the remaining oil with water to make a frothy emulsion called mousse. In
addition, bacteria combined with the process of photooxidation by sunlight act to break down the oil into
compounds that dissolve in water. Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi naturally biodegrade oil, so
they can be used to help clean oil spills—a method called bioremediation (bio = biologic, remedium 5 to
heal again). Virtually all marine ecosystems harbor naturally occurring bacteria that degrade
hydrocarbons. Although certain types of bacteria and fungi can break down particular kinds of
hydrocarbons, none is effective against all forms. In 1980, however, microbiologists discovered a
microorganism capable of breaking down nearly two-thirds of the hydrocarbons in most
crude oil spills. Releasing bacteria directly into the marine environment is one form of bioremediation.
For example, a strain of oil-degrading bacteria was released into the Gulf of Mexico to test its
effectiveness in cleaning up about 15 million liters (4 million gallons) of crude oil spilled after an
explosion disabled the tanker Mega Borg in 1990. Results indicate that the bacteria reduced the amount of
oil and had no negative effects on the area’s ecology. Providing conditions that stimulate the growth of
naturally occurring oil-degrading bacteria is another form of bioremediation. Exxon, for example, spent
$10 million to spread fertilizers rich in phosphorus and nitrogen on Alaskan shorelines to boost the
growth of indigenous oil-eating bacteria after the Exxon Valdez spill. The resulting cleanup rate was more
than twice the rate that occurs under natural conditions.

kelangsungan hidup embrio, dan keberhasilan reproduksi yang lebih rendah yang tidak akan
diperhatikan sampai bertahun-tahun kemudian. Contoh lain adalah dari kapal tanker minyak
yang kandas di Kepulauan Galapagos pada tahun 2001, menumpahkan sekitar 3 juta liter
(800.000 galon) minyak diesel dan minyak bunker. Minyak menyebar ke barat dan disebarkan
oleh arus kuat, sehingga hanya beberapa hewan laut yang segera terbunuh. Namun, iguana laut di
pulau terdekat menderita 62% kematian besar-besaran pada tahun setelah kecelakaan, karena
sejumlah kecil kontaminasi minyak residu di laut. Selain itu, tumpahan dari tanker minyak dapat
melepaskan berbagai produk minyak bumi (bukan hanya minyak mentah), yang masing-masing
memiliki tingkat toksisitas yang berbeda dan berperilaku berbeda. di lingkungan. Misalnya,
minyak olahan, seperti minyak bakar, kaya akan senyawa yang jauh lebih beracun bagi
lingkungan daripada minyak mentah. Meskipun tumpahan dari kapal tanker minyak menerima
banyak perhatian media, mereka bukanlah sumber utama minyak ke lautan. Gambar 11.8
menunjukkan bahwa 47% minyak dunia ke lautan disebabkan oleh rembesan minyak alami
bawah laut (banyak di antaranya terjadi di perairan AS); 53% sisanya berasal dari sumber
manusia. Gambar tersebut juga menunjukkan bahwa minyak yang disebabkan manusia ke lautan,
72% berasal dari konsumsi minyak bumi, yang meliputi kapal non-tank, limpasan dari daerah
perkotaan yang semakin beraspal, dan masing-masing pemilik mobil, kapal, dan perahu; 22%
berasal dari transportasi minyak bumi, termasuk kegiatan penyulingan dan distribusi; dan hanya
6% berasal dari ekstraksi minyak bumi, yang terkait dengan eksplorasi dan produksi minyak dan
gas. Hebatnya, sebagian besar minyak bumi yang memasuki lautan karena aktivitas manusia
adalah hasil dari pelepasan minyak yang kecil namun sering dan meluas terkait dengan kegiatan
yang mengonsumsi minyak bumi. ClEaninG tumpahan minyak Ketika minyak memasuki lautan,
ia awalnya mengambang karena minyak kurang padat dari air dan membentuk lapisan licin di
permukaan, di mana ia mulai rusak melalui proses alami (Gambar 11.9). Komponen minyak
mentah yang mudah menguap menguap selama beberapa hari pertama, meninggalkan zat yang
lebih kental yang teragregasi menjadi bola tar dan akhirnya tenggelam. Minyak tarry juga
ditangguhkan tumpahan. Tingkat pembersihan yang dihasilkan lebih dari dua kali lipat laju yang
terjadi kondisi alam.

PREVENTING OIL SPILLS One of the best ways to protect areas from oil spills is to
prevent spills from occurring in the first place. Because our society relies on petroleum products,
however, oil spills are a likely occurrence in the future (Figure 11.10),
especially as petroleum reserves beneath the continental shelves of the world are
increasingly exploited.
After the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989, Congress enacted the Oil Pollution Act
of 1990, which defined responsibility for fiscal damage and cleanup. The act also
phased out single-hulled oil tankers traveling in U.S. waters and mandated double-hulled
construction by 2015. Currently, single-hulled tankers are barred from
U.S. ports, and European countries, such as France and Spain, do not allow them
within 320 kilometers (200 miles) of their coasts. A double hull houses two layers:
An inner hull can prevent oil spillage if damage occurs to the outer hull. Studies of

hull designs during groundings and collisions indicate that double-hull designs are
more effective overall at reducing oil spills. However, analysis of the Exxon Valdez
spill suggests that even a
double-hulled tanker would not
have prevented the disaster.
Tanker designs are also being
modified to limit the amount of
 oil spilled in the
event of a hull
rupture.In
February 1999, the
Japanese owned
freighter M/V New
Carissa ran
aground just
offshore of Coos
Bay, Oregon, with
nearly 1.5 million
liters (400,000
gallons) of
tarlike fuel oil
aboard that began leaking through cracks in its hull. When the
ship washed into the surf zone and an approaching storm
threatened to tear it apart, federal and state authorities decided
to ignite the vessel and its fuel rather than risk a larger oil spill
(Figure 11.11). This was the first time that oil on a ship in U.S.
waters was intentionally burned to prevent an oil spill. Eventually, the ship split in two, and about half of
its oil burned, limiting the amount of oil spilled into the ocean. Most of the remaining oil was sunk with
the wrecked ship a month later, when it was towed offshore and sunk in water 3 kilometers (1.9 miles)
deep by U.S. Naval gunfire and a torpedo. In addition to the chemicals that comprise petroleum, a variety
of other chemical compounds—including sewage sludge—is released into the ocean. In sufficient
quantities, these materials are often responsible for marine pollution incidents. We’ll explore these
substances next.

11.3 What Marine

Environmental problems
are associated with non-petroleum Chemical
pollution?
There are many other types of pollution besides petroleum that are considered
types of marine chemical pollution. Examples include sewage sludge, DDTs, PCBs,
mercury, and even chemicals contained in prescription and non-prescription drugs.
Let’s examine some of these types of chemical pollutants, including how these substances get
into th ocean. sewage sludge One of the main types of marine chemical pollution is sewage
sludge. Sewage treated at a facility typically undergoes primary treatment, where solids are
allowed to settle and separate from the liquid, and secondary treatment, where it is exposed to
bacteria-killing chlorine. Sewage sludge is the semisolid material that remains after such
treatment. It contains a toxic brew of human waste, oil, zinc, copper, lead, silver, mercury,
pesticides, and other chemicals. Since the 1960s, at least 500,000 metric tons (1.1 billion pounds)
of sewage sludge have been dumped into the coastal waters of Southern California, and more
than 8 million metric tons (18 billion pounds) of sewage sludge has been dumped into the New
York Bight between Long Island and the New Jersey shore. Although the Clean Water Act of
1972 prohibited the dumping of sewage into the ocean after 1981, the high cost of treating and
disposing of sewage sludge on land resulted in extension waivers being granted to many
municipalities. In the summer of 1988, however, non-biodegradable debris including medical
waste—probably carried by heavy rains into the ocean through storm drains—washed up on
Atlantic coast beaches and adversely affected the tourist business. Although this event was
completely unrelated to sewage disposal at sea, it focused public awareness on ocean pollution and helped
pass legislation that makes it illegal to dump sewage sludge at sea

11.3 Apa masalah Lingkungan Laut dikaitkan dengan Kimia non-minyak bumi polusi? Ada
banyak jenis polusi selain minyak bumi yang dipertimbangkan jenis polusi kimia laut.
Contohnya termasuk lumpur limbah, DDT, PCB, merkuri, dan bahkan bahan kimia yang
terkandung dalam obat resep dan non-resep. Mari kita periksa beberapa jenis polutan kimia ini,
termasuk bagaimana zat-zat ini masuk ke lautan. lumpur limbah Salah satu jenis utama polusi
kimia laut adalah lumpur limbah. Limbah yang diolah di fasilitas biasanya menjalani perawatan
primer, di mana padatan dibiarkan mengendap dan terpisah dari cairan, dan pengolahan
sekunder, di mana ia terpapar klorin pembunuh bakteri. Lumpur limbah adalah bahan semipadat
yang tersisa setelah perawatan tersebut. Ini mengandung minuman beracun dari limbah manusia,
minyak, seng, tembaga, timah, perak, merkuri, pestisida, dan bahan kimia lainnya. Sejak 1960-
an, setidaknya 500.000 metrik ton (1,1 miliar pon) lumpur limbah telah dibuang ke perairan
pantai California Selatan, dan lebih dari 8 juta metrik ton (18 miliar pon) lumpur limbah telah
dibuang ke New York Berjarak antara Long Island dan pantai New Jersey. Meskipun Undang-
Undang Air Bersih tahun 1972 melarang pembuangan limbah ke laut setelah tahun 1981,
mahalnya biaya pengolahan dan pembuangan lumpur limbah di darat menyebabkan
perpanjangan izin diberikan kepada banyak kota. Akan tetapi, pada musim panas 1988, puing-
puing yang tidak dapat terbiodegradasi termasuk limbah medis — kemungkinan dibawa oleh
hujan deras ke laut melalui saluran badai — tersapu di pantai-pantai pantai Atlantik dan
berdampak buruk pada bisnis pariwisata. Meskipun acara ini sama sekali tidak terkait dengan
pembuangan limbah di laut, ia memusatkan perhatian publik pada polusi laut dan membantu
mengesahkan undang-undang yang membuatnya ilegal untuk membuang lumpur limbah di laut.
NEW York’s SEWAGE SLUDGE DISPOSAl AT SEA
Sewage sludge from New York
and Philadelphia has traditionally been
transported offshore by barge and dumped
in the ocean at sites totaling 150 square
kilometers (58 square miles) within the
New York Bight sludge site and the Philadelphia
sludge site (Figure 11.12).
The water depth is about 29 meters (95 feet) at
the New York Bight sludge site
and about 40 meters (130 feet) at the
Philadelphia sludge site. The water column in
such shallow water is relatively uniform, so even
the smallest sludge particles reach
the bottom without undergoing much horizontal
transport, and the ecology of the
dump site can be severely affected. At the very
least, such a concentration of organic
and inorganic matter seriously disrupts the
chemical cycling of nutrients. Greatly
reduced species diversity results, and in some
locations, the result is an overabundance of
algae that causes dissolved oxygen to be reduced
to very low levels.3 In 1986, the shallow-water
sites were abandoned, and sewage was
subsequently transported to a deep-water site
171 kilometers (106 miles) out to sea (Figure
11.12). The deep-water site is beyond the
continental shelf break, so there is usually a
welldeveloped density gradient that separates
low-density, warmer surface water from high-density, colder deep water. Internal waves moving along
this density gradient can horizontally transport particles at rates 100 times faster than they sink. Local
fishermen reported adverse effects on their fisheries soon after deepwater dumping began. Also, concern
was expressed that the sewage could be transported great distances in eddies of the Gulf Stream (see
Chapter 7), even as far as the coast of the United Kingdom. This program was terminated in 1993, and
municipalities must now dispose of their sewage on land.
BOSTON HARBOR SEWAGE PROJECT Prior to the 1980s, some 48 different communities that comprise the
greater Boston area used an antiquated sewage system
to dump sludge and partially treated sewage at the entrance to Boston Harbor. Tidal
currents often swept the sewage back into the bay, and at other times, the system
became overloaded and dumped raw sewage directly into the bay, making Boston
Harbor one of the most polluted bays in the country. A court-ordered cleanup of Boston Harbor in the
1980s resulted in the construction of a new waste treatment facility at Deer Island, which came online in
1998. The facility treats all sewage with bacteria-killing chlorine and carries it through a
tunnel 15.3 kilometers (9.5 miles) long into deeper waters offshore (Figure 11.13a),
which prevents it from returning to the bay. Since the cleanup of Boston Harbor,
beaches have reopened, clammers are digging again, and marine life—including
harbor seals, porpoises, and even whales—has returned. To pay for the $3.8 billion
sewage system, however, the average annual sewage bill for a Boston-area household
was increased to about $1200, more than five times what it had been. Despite the benefits, at the time it
was proposed, some opponents feared thatthe project would degrade the environment in Cape Cod Bay
and Stellwagen Bank (Figure 11.13b), which is an important whale habitat. In 1992, six years before the
facility went online, this area was designated as a U.S. National Marine Sanctuary,
which restricts the amount of sewage that can be dumped there.
DDT and PCBS
The pesticide DDT and the industrial chemicals called PCBs are now found
throughout the marine environment. They are persistent, biologically active chemicals that have been
introduced into the oceans entirely as a result of human activities. Because of their toxicity, persistence,
and propensity for accumulating in
3Water with very low dissolved oxygen creates hypoxic (hypo = under, oxic = oxygen)
conditions that can kill marine life; for details, see Section 13.2 in Chapter 13 “Biological
Productivity and Energy Transfer.

slewDEW sEWaGE York Pembuangan aT sEa lumpur Sewage dari New York dan Philadelphia
secara tradisional diangkut ke luar negeri dengan tongkang dan pembuangan di lautan di lokasi -
lokasi dengan total 150 kilometer persegi (58 mil persegi) di dalam Situs lumpur New York
Bight dan situs lumpur Philadelphia (Gambar 11.12). Kedalaman air sekitar 29 meter (95 kaki) di
situs lumpur New York Bight dan sekitar 40 meter (130 kaki) di situs lumpur Philadelphia.
Kolom air di air dangkal seperti itu relatif seragam, sehingga partikel lumpur terkecil sekalipun
mencapai bagian bawah tanpa mengalami banyak transportasi horisontal, dan ekologi situs
pembuangan dapat sangat terpengaruh. Paling tidak, konsentrasi organik seperti itu dan zat
anorganik secara serius mengganggu siklus kimiawi nutrisi. Sangat berkurangnya
keanekaragaman hasil, dan di beberapa lokasi, hasilnya adalah ganggang yang berlebihan yang
menyebabkan oksigen terlarut berkurang ke tingkat yang sangat rendah. Pada tahun 1986, situs
air dangkal ditinggalkan, dan selanjutnya pembuangan air limbah diangkut ke lokasi perairan
dalam 171 kilometer (106 mil) ke laut (Gambar 11.12). Situs deep-water berada di luar batas
landas kontinen, jadi biasanya ada gradien kepadatan yang berkembang baik yang memisahkan
air permukaan dengan kepadatan rendah dan lebih hangat dari kepadatan tinggi, air dalam yang
lebih dingin. Gelombang internal bergerak sepanjang gradien kerapatan ini dapat secara
horizontal mengangkut partikel dengan kecepatan 100 kali lebih cepat dari pada yang tenggelam.
Nelayan lokal melaporkan dampak buruk pada perikanan mereka segera setelah pembuangan air
laut dalam dimulai. Juga, keprihatinan diungkapkan bahwa air limbah bisa diangkut dalam jarak
yang sangat jauh di pusaran Arus Teluk (lihat Bab 7), bahkan sejauh pantai Britania Raya.
Program ini dihentikan pada tahun 1993, dan pemerintah kota sekarang harus membuang kotoran
mereka di tanah.

PROYEK PERUBAHAN KEBIJAKAN BosTon Sebelum tahun 1980-an, sekitar 48 komunitas

berbeda yang terdiri dari wilayah Boston yang lebih besar menggunakan sistem pembuangan
limbah kuno untuk membuang lumpur dan sebagian mengolah limbah di pintu masuk Boston
Harbor. Pasang surut arus sering menyapu limbah kembali ke teluk, dan di waktu lain, sistem
menjadi kelebihan beban dan membuang limbah mentah langsung ke teluk, membuat Boston
Harbor salah satu teluk paling tercemar di negara ini. Pembersihan Boston Harbor yang
diperintahkan pengadilan pada 1980-an menghasilkan pembangunan fasilitas pengolahan limbah
baru di Deer Island, yang online pada 1998. Fasilitas ini memperlakukan semua limbah dengan
klorin pembunuh bakteri dan membawanya melalui a terowongan sepanjang 15,3 kilometer (9,5
mil) ke perairan yang lebih dalam di lepas pantai (Gambar 11.13a), yang mencegahnya kembali
ke teluk. Sejak pembersihan Boston Harbor, pantai telah dibuka kembali, clammer menggali lagi,
dan kehidupan laut — termasuk anjing laut, lumba-lumba, dan bahkan paus — telah kembali.
Untuk membayar $ 3,8 miliar sistem pembuangan limbah, bagaimanapun, rata-rata tagihan air
limbah tahunan untuk rumah tangga di wilayah Boston ditingkatkan menjadi sekitar $ 1.200,
lebih dari lima kali lipat dari sebelumnya. Terlepas dari manfaatnya, pada saat itu diusulkan,
beberapa lawan takut itu proyek ini akan merusak lingkungan di Cape Cod Bay dan Stellwagen
Bank (Gambar 11.13b), yang merupakan habitat paus yang penting. Pada 1992, enam tahun
sebelumfasilitas daring, area ini ditetapkan sebagai Suaka Laut Nasional AS, yang membatasi
jumlah limbah yang bisa dibuang di sana.

DDT dan Pcb DDT

pestisida dan bahan kimia industri yang disebut PCB sekarang ditemukan di seluruh lingkungan
laut. Mereka persisten, bahan kimia aktif biologis yang telah dimasukkan ke samudera
sepenuhnya sebagai hasil dari aktivitas manusia. Karena toksisitas, ketekunan, dan
kecenderungan mereka untuk menumpuk di

3 Air dengan oksigen terlarut sangat rendah menciptakan kondisi hipoksik (hipo = di bawah,
oksik = oksigen) yang bisa membunuh kehidupan laut; untuk perinciannya, lihat Bagian 13.2 di
Bab 13 “Produktivitas Biologis dan Transfer Energi.