GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

APOLLO SOIL MECHANICS EXPERIMENT S-200

FINAL REPORT

COVERING WORK PERFORMZD UNDER

NASA CONTRACT NAS9-11266

3 , K, Mitchell, Principal Investigator

W, N, Houston, Co-Investigator
W, D. Carrier, 111, Co-Investigator
N, C. Costes, Co-Investigator

January, 1974

Submitted to the National Aeronautics

and Space Administration.

SPACE SCIENCES LABORATORY SERIES 15, ISSUE 7

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BERKEILEY

 APOLLO SOIL MECHANICS EXPERIMENT S-200

FIWL REPORT

J. K, Mitchell, Principal Iwestigator

W, N. Houston, Co-Investigator

W e D, Carrier, 111, CQ-Investigator

N, C, Castes, Co-Investigator

Submitted to the National Aeronautics

and Space Administration

SPACE SCIENCES MBOMTBRY SERIES 15, ISSUE 7

 "The surface i s f i n e and powdery. I can k i c k i t up
l o o s e l y w i t h my toe. I t does adhere i n f i n e l a y e r s l i k e

powdered charcoal t o t h e s o l e and i n s i d e s o f my boots.

I o n l y go i n a small f r a c t i o n o f an inch--maybe an e i g h t h
o f an inch, b u t I can see t h e f o o t p r i n t s o f my boots and

t h e treads i n t h e f i n e sandy p a r t i c l e s . "

Neil A. Armstrong
July 20, 1969
 iii,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The a u t h o r s wish t o g r a t e f u l l y acknowledge t h e a s s i s t a n c e

of t h e many i n d i v i d u a l s who have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s u c c e s s of t h e

S o i l Mechanics Experimnt. The l i s t s of r e f e r e n c e s a t t h e end of

t h i s r e p o r t i n d i c a t e t h e a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d

with t h e p r i n c i p a l m d co-investigators,

The b a s i c design concept of t h e SKI? w a s developed a t t h e

Geotechnical Research Laboratory of t h e NASA Marshall Space F l i g h t

Center Space Sciences Laboratory w i t h t h e support of Teledyne-Brown

Engineering Company, H u n t s v i l l e , Alabama, D r , Rolland 6 , S t u m ,

Wolanri K, Norton, George E, Campbell, and 6 , T. Cohron were i n s t r u -

mental i n t h e development of t h i s concept. The f i n a l d e s i g n ,

c o n s t r u c t i o n , and q u a l i f i c a t i o n of t h e f l i g h t a r t i c l e were c a r r i e d

through by W, N , Dunaway, and W. Lyon of t h e NASA Manned S p a c e c r a f t

Center (now Johnson Space Center) and W. Young of t h e General E l e c t r i c

Company ,

C h a r l e s S. Alton and W. D, Sherborne of t h e NASA Manned S p a c e c r a f t

Gentes (now Johnson Space Center) c o n t r i b u t e d g r e a t l y t o t h e design

and development of t h e c o r e t u b e s used on Apollo 1 5 and subsequent

missions,

D r , W e John Hovland, D r , Arshud Mahmsod, D r , L, I, Namiq,

D r , H. Turan Durgunoglu, C, S . @hang, Donald D. Treadwell, and Y

Moriwaki, a l l of t h e s o i l mechanics r e s e a r c h s t a f f a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y

of C a l i f o r n i a , were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r many of t h e s i m u l a t i o n s t u d i e s ,

d a t a a n a l y s e s , and computations d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s r e p o r t .
 D r . Stewart W. Johnson, N a t i o n a l Research Council S e n i o r

P o s t d o c t o r a l Fellow from t h e A i r Force I n s t i t u t e of Technolog~z, and

Richard A. Wemer, Lisimaco Carrasco, and RaLE Schmidt of Lockheed

E l e c t r o n i c s Company p a r t i c i p a t e d i n s i m u l a t i o n s t u d i e s a t t h e &nned

S p a c e c r a f t Center (now Johnson Space Center).

 CONTENTS

DATA SOURCES AND mAL'IISIS METHODS. .......... 6

PK'SISICPIL AND MEC ICAL MODEL FOR THE LUNM SOIL .., 14

CONCLUSIONS ......,........,...., 106

REFERENCES

APBEmIX 1 PUBLICATIONS RESmTING FROM LUNAR RESEmCH BY

SOIL MECNMICS TEAM mMBERS. ........ ..... 120

 LIST OF FIGUIRES

Apollo Simple Penetrometer ................ 10

Self-Recording Penetrometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II

Typical Particle Types found in the Lunar Soils. . . . . . 19

(a) Mineral Grains
(b) Glass Droplets
(c) Glass Prapents
(d) Agglutinates
(e) Recrystallized Breccia Matrices
( f ) Basalt Fragments

Grain Size Distributions of Lunar Soil.......... 30

Varieion of Drive (Core) Tube Densities with Depth . . . 48

Proposed Variation of Density with Depth for Apollo 15

Station 9 A . ....................... 50

Variation of Density with Depth for Lunar Drill STEM

Samples. ........................ 54

Correlation of Apollo 16 Station 4 Double-Core-Tube

Stratigraphy with S W Test 4 ............... 68

Approximate Soil Profile Between Apollo 16 Station 10

Double-Core-Tube Site and Deep-Drill-Stem Site in Alsep
Area..................e........ 70

Penetration Resistance of the Lunar Surface at Different

Locations ........................ 71
Friction Angle as a Function of Porosity for Lunar Soil
simulant No. 2 (Ground Basalt) .............. 73
Cohesion as a Function of Porosity for Lunar Soil
Sintulant No. 2 (Ground Basalt) ............... 74
Relationships of Cohesion as a Function of Friction
Angle Required to develop Measured Penetration
Resistances at Apollo 16 Station 4 . ........... 78
 vii.

Relationships of Cohesion as a Function of Friction

Angle Required to Develop Measured Penetration

Resistances at Apollo 16 Station 10, Test 1 ....... 79

One-Dimensional Compression Curves for LSS No. 2

at l,9% Water Content ................. 87

Predicted Variation of Void Ratio with Depth for

Actual Lunar Soil under Lunar Gravity m e . . . . . e . 89

bmparison of One-Dimensional Compression Curves

for Apollo 12 Lunar Soil and LSS No. 2 ......... 91

Comparison of Compression Characteristics for

Apollo 12 Lunar Soil and LSS No, 2 on Relative

Density Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R e . 93

Example Assumed Conapression Patterns for Lunar

Soil.. ........................ 95

Depth of Astronaut Bootprints used to Determine

Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for the Lunar Surface .. I, 97

Measured Energy Consumption of the Rover in Rel.ation

to the Predicted Values Based on the Soil Properties

bndicated.... .................... 104

 LIST OF TABLES

Page

D i s t r i b u t i o n of P a r t i e l e Types i n L m a r S o i l s ... 27

Luraar Sample Location .. . . . . . . . . . . .

. 28

Lunar S o i l Grain S i z e Parameters: .

Apo1.l~ 11-15 , 31

S p e c i f i c Gravity of Lunar S o i l s .......... 35

Maximm and Minimm D e n s i t i e s s f Crushed B a s a l t

Simulant ... ..................

, 38

Minimum and Maximum Density of Lunar S o i l s ...

.. 40

Data Saurees f o r I n f e r r i n g L m a r S o i l Density o r

Porosity . .
,, , ...... .. . . . . . . . . . 44

Proposed V a r i a t i o n of b e r a g e Density w i t h Depth . . 52

r y of R e s u l t s of S t a t i s t i c a l h a l y s i s of

P o r o s i t i e s Deduced from F o o t p r i n t Depths ....,. 56

Average H a t e r i a l P r o p e r t i e s of S u r f i c i a B Lunar

% s i b a t ApoZPo 14-17 and Euna 1 7 Landing S i t e s ... 59

a r y of R e s u l t s from Density and P o r o s i t y

Studies .... ...........

, , , .... 64

Estimates of Lunar S o i l Cohesion and F r i c t i o n Angle

Based on Pre-Apollo Data , .. ....... ... , 75

Lunar S o i l Cohesion and F r i c t i o n h g l e Values 80

 APQLLQ SOIL MECHANICS INVESTIGATION

- FINAL REPORT -

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

S o i l mechanics i n v e s t i g a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e Apollo Program were

organized t o m e e t t h e following o b j e c t i v e s :

( 1 ) t o o b t a i n an understanding of t h e compositional, t e x t u r a l , and

mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of l u n a r s o i l s and t h e v a r i a t i o n s of

t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s w i t h depth and among d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s an

the lunar surface,

(2) t o use t h i s understanding t o a i d i n t h e formulation, v e r i f i c a -

t i o n or m d i f i c a t i o n of t h e o r i e s f o r l u n a r h i s t o r y and p r o c e s s e s ,

( 3 ) t o u s e l u n a r s o i l d a t a t o a i d i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of d a t a

o b t a i n e d from o t h e r l u n a r s u r f a c e a c t i v i t i e s and experiments,

( 4 ) t o develop % m a r s u r f a c e models t h a t were u s e f u l f o r t h e

s o l u t i o n of e n g i n e e r i n g problems i n subsequent Apollo d s s i o n s ;

e.g., c o r e t u b e sampling, d r i l l i n g i n t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e ,

t r a f f i c a b i l it y ,

(5) t o o b t a i n i n f o m a t i o n which can b e used Fn planning f u t u r e

e x p l o r a t i o n and development of t h e Moon.

Thus t h e S o i l Mechanics Experiment (S-208) was m i q u e among t h e

experiments a s s i p e d t o t h e Apollo m i s s i o n s i n t h a t t h e r e s u l t s have b o t h

s c i e n c e and e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s . Types of problems f o r which an

u n d e r s t m d i n g of l m a r s o i l p r o p e r t i e s is important i n c l u d e (1) formation

 2*

and compaction of s u r f a c e l a y e r s , ( 2 ) c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of d e p o s i t s s f

d i f f e r e n t composition, (3) s l o p e s t a b i l i t y , (4) downslope movement o f

s o i l and r o c k fua-ents, ( 5 ) e s t i m a t i o n of t h e I properties f o r heat

flow s t u d i e s , ( 6 ) p r e d i c t i o n of s e i s m i c v e l o c i t i e s , (7) c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n

s f d i e l e c t r i c p r o p e r t i e s f o r use i n radar backscatter a d e l e c t r i c a l

p r o p e r t y s t u d i e s , (8) gas d i f f u s i o n through t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e , (9) d e f i -

n i t i o n of c o n d i t i o n s f o r t e r r e s t r i a l s i n b l l a t i o n s t u d i e s , and (10) v a r i o u s

soil-dependent engioleering a n a l y s e s , Some e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s wgre

i m e d i a t e and r e l a t e d ts such i t e m s a s r e d e s i m of new c o r e t u b e s f o r

Missions 15-17, t o r e s o l u t i o n of problems of d r i l l i n g and c o r i n g f o r t h e

Heat Flow Experiment, and t o i n s t a l l a t i o a k of t h e n e u t r o n f l u x probe

during Apollo 17.

S o i l mechanics s t u d i e s were one of t h e f e w a r e a s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n

t o b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o all of t h e Apollo m i s s i o n s , and t h e r e s u l t b g

c o n t i n u i t y and i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r f a c e t s of t h e program proved

valuable. A Team of Cograizanf: S c i e n t i s t s conngosed of N. C. C o ~ t e s ,"ram

Leader, NASA Marshall Space P l i & t Center (mFC); W e D. C a r r i e r , 111,

NASA Johnson Space Center (JSG); J, K, M i t c h e l l , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a ,

Berkeley; and R. F e S c o t t , C a l i f o r n i a I n s t i t u t e of Terhnology, was

appointed by NASA Headquarters t o deduce s o i l mechanics information from

o b s e r v a t i o n s , photographs, and samples o b t a i n e d d u r i n g Apollo 11. These

same h v e s t i g a t o r s were appointed C o - I n v e s t i g a t o r s f o r t h e Apsllo 1 2

Lunar G o l o g y Experiment S-0599, E. M e S h o e m k e r , P r i n c i p a l I n v e s t i g a t o r ,

a d s e r v e d a s a s u b - g r o q f o r s o i l mechanics w i t h R. F. S c o t t a s T e a

Leader,
 A f o m a l S o i l Mechmics Experiment was approved f o r Apollo

Missions 14 through 1 7 w i t h J. K a M i t c h e l l a s P r h c i p a l I n v e s t i g a t o r

m d t h e above-named i n d i v i d u a l s a s Co-Investigators. I n a d d i t i o n L a G.

Bromwell, Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e of Technology, was appointed a s Co-

I n v e s t i g a t o r begtnning w i t h Apollo 14 and W e N. Nouston, U n i v e r s i t y of

C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley, was d e s i g n a t e d a s a Co-Investigator c o m e n c f a g

with Apallo 25,

Support f a r t h o s e phases of t h e work done a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of

C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley, was provided under NASA C o n t r a c t HAS 9-11266,

81 P r i n c i p a l I n v e s t i g a t o r Support f o r S o i l Mechanics I n v e s t i g a t i o n , " work

a t M,Z.T. was c a r r i e d out under s u b c o n t r a c t t o NAS 9-11266, and t h e

e f f o r t a t t h e C a l i f o r n i a I n s t i t u t e of Technology was supported by NASA

Contract NAS 9-41454, ' % o l n v e s t i g a t o r Support f o r Apollo S o i l Mechanics

Emrperiarnent S-200." B r t i e i p a t i o n of N, C, Costes w a s supported by I n t e r -

Center Agreemat between mFC and JSC, and t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of W. D,

C a r r i e r were provided by t h e Johnson Space Center,

Emphasis i n t h i s r e p o r t i s on f i n d i n g s concerning t h e p h y s i c a l m d

meehmiea% p r o p e r t i e s of t h e m c o n s o l i d a t e d l u n a r s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l o r

r e g o l i t h , termed '"oil"' h e r e i n , t h a t have been obtained. a s a r e s u l t of

t h e Apollo m i s s i o n s , on t h e development of t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e model f o r

lhlnar s o i l b e h a v i o r , m d on assessment of i q l i c a t i o n s f o r l u n a r h i s t o r y

Bre-ApoBHo i n f o m a t i o n concerning t h e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of

lunar s o i l i s n o t reviewed h e r e i n . Such i n f o r m a t i o n , which was d e r i v e d

from v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h e m a l measurements, photographs o b t a i n e d by

t h e U. S, Ranger and L m a r O r b i t e r S p a c e c r a f t , and from t h e s o f t land-

i n g s s f t h e Surveyor m d S o v i e t L m a s p a c e c r a f t , i s p r e s e n t e d i n d e t a i l

in s e v e r a l of t h e r e f e r e n c e s l i s t e d a t t h e end of t h i s r e p o r t and i n

Appendix I,

The Surveyor B r o g r m d e s e r v e s s p e c i a l n o t e , however, because t h e

r e s u l t s e n h l e d f o r m u l a t i s n of a model f o r t h e l u n a r s o i l t h a t has proven

surprisingly accurate. I n essence i t was concluded ( s e e S c o t t m d Roberson,

1 9 6 7 , 1968a,b,~, 1969) t h a t t h e l u n a r s o i l a t t h e s u r f a c e was s l i g h t l y

cohesive and coaggosed mainly of g r a i n s r a n g i n g in s i z e from s i l t t o f i n e

sand, Behavior was s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t e r r e s t r i a l s o i l s w i t h a d e n s i t y

of about 1.5 g/cm3. A cohesion of about 0 . 7 m/m2 ( 0 . 1 p s i ) and a

f r i s t t i s n a n g l e s f 35O t o 3 7 O were deduced, and s t r e n g t h iincrease w i t h

depth was observed. With t h e r e s u l t s of Apollo considerable, refinement

o f this basic model i s p o s s i b l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y as r e g a r d s v a r i a b i l i t y of

t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o p e r t i e s l a t e r a l l y and w i t h depth.

In t h e n e x t c h a p t e r of t h i s r e p o r t s o u r c e s of d a t a u s e f u l f o r

deduction of s o i l i n f o m a t i o n and methods used t o o b t a i n t h e d a t a a r e

indicated. In t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r a p h y s i c a l and rarechisnical model f o r

t h e lmar s o i l i s developed. I n p a r t i c u l a r , s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i e s (index

p r o p e r t i e s ) , d e n s i t y a d p o r o s i t y , s t r e n g t h , c o s n g r e s s i b i l i t y , arnd

t r a f f i e a b i l i t y p a r a m e t m s are cansidered. mh
e concluding clrapter of t h e

report considers t h e implications f o r lunar h i s t o r y m d processes, a

comparison of l u n a r a d t e r r e s t r i a l s o i l b e h a v i o r , iand s o i l considera-

t i o n s f o r f u t u r e e x p l o r a t i o n and development of t h e Moon.

D e t a i l e d procedures, a n a l y s e s , and c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e n o t p r e s e n t e d ,

b u t can be found i n o t h e r papers and r e p o r t s prepared by t h e I n v e s t i g a t o r s .

A complete l i s t i n g of t h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s i s p r e s e n t e d i n Appendix I ,

As a r e s u l t s f t h e s t u d i e s completed t o d a t e i t i s concluded

t h a t p r e s e n t knowledge of l u n a r s o i l p r o p e r t i e s i n s i t u t o d e p t h s of

s e v e r a l t e n s of centimeters is good and t h a t p r e d i c t i o n s of behavior

can b e made w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e confidence, Reasonable terrestrial sinrau-

l a t i o n of l u n a r s o i l can b e made; however, g r a v i t y d i f f e r e n c e s p r e c l u d e

d i r e c t c o r r e l a t i o n between t e r r e s t r i a l m d l u n a r measurements i n some

Cases ,

Much r e n a f n s t o b e l e a r n e d about t h e i n f l u e n c e s of such t h i n g s

as c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s , s t r e s s h i s t o r y , and f a b r i c a n t h e t h e m a l , e l e c t r i -

c a l , and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s 0% lunar s o i l , Such knowledge e m be s f

g r e a t importance i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s from d i f f e r e n t geo-

p h y s i c a l experiments, More e x t e n s i v e t e s t i n g of r e t u r n e d l u n a r s o i l

samples f o r e v a l u a t i o n of t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s would a i d g r e a t l y in c l o s i n g

t h e gap,
 CHAQTEW 2

DATA SOURCES MD MAILYSIS mmQDS

INTRODUC"E0N

Conclusions about t h e n a t u r e , p h y s i c a l b e h a v i o r , and mechanical

p r o p e r t i e s af l u n a r s o i l were i n f e r r e d o r deduced from a v a r i e t y of

d a t a s o u r c e s and ana1ysfs methods, With t h e e x c e p t i o n s f t h e S e l f -

R e c o r d k g Penetrometer (SW) used on t h e Apollo 1 5 and Apollo 1 6 H s s i o n s ,

t h e r e were no s o i l t e s t i n g d e v l c e s unique t o t h e S o i l ~ u l e c h a n i c ~ q ~ p e r -

rment t h a t could provide q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a . Thus i t w a s n e c e s s a r y t o

u t i l i z e a l t e r n a t i v e d a t a s o u r c e s and ta develop s p e c i a l methods of

walysis. These s o u r c e s and methods a r e l i s t e d below; f u r t h e r d e t a i l s

c m b e found in the P r e l i m i n a r y Science Reports f o r each mission a d i n

s e v e r a l o t h e r of t h e r e f e r e n c e s l i s t e d i n Appendix I ,

Data Sources

O b s e r v a t i o n a l Data

Astronaut o b s e r v a t i o n s , d e s c r i p t i o n s , a n d c o m e n t s i n r e a l time and

a t d e b r i e f i n g s f o l l o w i n g t h e EVA (ExtraVehicular A c t i v i t y ) p e r i o d s and t h e

d s s i o n s provided much u s e f u l q u a l i t a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e n a t u r e and

behavior of l u n a r s o i l .

V i s u a l Data

Real t l m e t e l e v i s i o n d u r h g t h e EVA'S and kinescopes made t h e r e -

from w e r e s t u d i e d Itn d e t a i l . Sequeace carrnesa p h o t o g r w h y ( ~ i s s i o n s111

and 1 2 ) was u s e f u l , a s were a l s o photographs o b t a i n e d u s i n g t h e Lunar

S u r f a c e c l o s e u p C m e r a (Apollo 11, Apollo 12, and Apollo 1 4 ) 'The photo-

graphs of g r e a t e s t v a l u e , however, were o b t a i n e d u s i n g t h e WassePblad

s t i l l e m e r a w i t h 70 m, m d 500 me l a s e s ,

Analysis of LM (Lunar Module) descent p r o f i l e s t o g e t h e r w i t h s t u d y

of s u r f a c e e r o s i o n under t h e a c t i o n sf t h e DPS (Bescent P r o p u l s i o f ~System)

exhaust was made t o p r o v i d e i n f o m a t i o n on s o i l c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e s u r f a c e

i n c l u d i n g p a r t i c l e s i z e and cshesion.

I n t e r a c t i o n Data

h a l y s e s s f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s of t h e LM f o o t p a d s , equipment, and

a s t r o n a u t s w i t h t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e were made, In many e a s e s when s i z e s ,

weigI-rts and f o r c e s were k n m a s w e l l a s depths o f p e n e t r a t i o n o r sinkage,

approximate a a l y s e s could be made f o r e s t i m a t i o n of s t r e n g t h and p o r o s i t y ,

I n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e a d (1) a s t r o n a u t boots, ( 2 ) LM

footpads, (3) f l a g p o l e , and ( 4 ) t h e S o l a r Wind Coanpositisn experiment

were of p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e . O b s e r v a t i m s and nleasurements h s i n g d r i l l i n g

and c o r e t u b e sampling u s i n g b o t h d r i v e t u b e s and d r i l l stems were a l s o

very useful,

Vehicle Data

A Modularized Equipment T r m s p o r t e r (MET), a two-wheeled, ricksha-

t y p e veRicle w i t h pneumatic t i r e s was used d u r i n g Apoflo 1 4 t o c a r r y

i n s t r u m e n t s , t o o l s , acnd photographic equipment, For Apollo Missions 15,

1 4 and 17, t h e Lurnar Roving Vehicle (LRV) was used t o t r a n s p o r t b o t h

a s t r o n a u t s , t h e i r equipment and l u n a r samples, The LRV, (Fig. 2-1) is

a four-wheeled s u r f a c e v e h i c l e w i t h 'kires" of t h i n , steel, piano-*wire

m s h , and 58 p e r c e n t of t h e c o n t a c t a r e a w i t h t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e i s
covered wl.th a chevron t r e a d . Analyses of t r a c k d e p t h s , power con-

sumption, m d g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s d u r i n g operaticarn were used t o deduce

s o i l c o n d i t i o n s and s o t l v a r i a b i l i t y .

Penetration T e s t s

During d e p l o p e n t s f t h e Apollo 14 l u n a r s u r f a c e e~bperimentspackage

(USEP), t h e geophone/thumper anchor, a l s o known a s t h e Apollo Simple

Penetrometer (ASP), was used t o o b t a i n t h r e e two-point p e n e t r a t i o n tests

i n t o the l u n a r s u r f a c e . T h i s simple t o o l and t h e d e p t h s t o which it c o d d

be pushed by t h e a s t r o n a u t u s i n g one hand a r e s h o m i n Fig. 2-2.

T h e SWB was used an Apollo 1 5 aslld Apollo 16 t o o b t a i n continuous

f o r c e v s . p e n e t r a t i o n depth d a t a t o a maximum depth of 76 cm. and maximum

r e c o r d a b l e f o r c e s of 11UM and 215N f o r t h e Apollo 1 5 and Apollo 1 6

devices, respectively, T h i s a p p a r a t u s , shown i n Fig. 2-3, was t h e main

q u m t i t a t i v e d a t a s o u r c e f o r t h e S o i l &chanics E q e r i m e n t . The r e c o r d

06- each p e n e t r a t i o n was i n s c r i b e d on a r e c o r d i n g drum c o n t a i n e d i n t h e

upper housing assembky. The l u n a r s u r f a c e r e f e r e n c e p l a n e r e s t e d on t h e

l u n a r s u r f a c e during a measurement and s e r v e d a s d a t m f o r p e n e t r a t i o n

depth, A b e a r i n g p l a t e 2.54 cm wide by 12.7 cm l m g and t h r e e p e n e t r a t -

ing cones, each of 30" apex a n g l e and b a s e a r e a s of 1.29, 3.22, and

6.45 cm2 were a v a i l a b l e f o r attachment t o t h e penetrometer s h a f t .

The upper housing a s s e d l y with the r e c o r d i n g drum were r e t u r n e d

t o earth. Data were t r m s c r i b e d from t h e r e c o r d i n g drum m d a r e p r e s e n t e d

i n t h e d i p o l h ~1 5 and Rpollo 16 Prelilninary Science & p o r t s . The d a t a a r e

a l s o on f i l e a t t h e N a t i o n a l Space S c i e n c e s Data Center, and t h e recording

drums a r e s t o r e d a t t h e Johnson Space Center.

 soil

FIG. 2 - 2 APOLLO SIMPLE PENETROMETER

 S o i l sample c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s determined by t h e Lunar Sample

P r e l i m i n a r y Examination Team (LSPET) were c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n

of s o i l p r o p e r t i e s . Data on t h e c o r e samples, b o t h d r i v e t u b e m d d r i l l

stem, were of p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e . Limited t e s t i n g of s o i l r e t u r n e d by

Apollo 11 was done by members o f t h e S o i l Mechanics Team i n t h e Lunar

Receiving L a b o r a t o r y (LEU;) , and t h r e e s m a l l samples of a p p r o x i m a t e l y

one gram e a c h , two from Apollo 14 and one from Apollo 15, were made

a v a i l a b l e f o r measurements of s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and d e n s i t y l i m i t s .

Aklalytical Methods

Q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s e s s f t h e m c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s af lmar s o i l

i n s i t u were made u s i h g two main approaches, s i n g l y and i n combination;

namely, (1) si-mulations, wherein terrestrial. measurements are made ~ l s i n g

a p p r a p r i a t e l y designed l u n a r s o i l s i m u l a n t s , and ( 2 ) t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s e s

t o r e l a t e observed b e h a v i o r t o s o i l p r o p e r t i e s and imposed boundary

condltions.

T h e o r i e s of s o i l mechanics a r e r e a s o n a b l y w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d , a l t h o u g h

t h e i n h e r e n t v a r i a b i l i t y of most s o i l s and d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e t e m i n a t i o n

of s t r e s s e s i n t h e ground r e q u i r e Judgment i n t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n , Scott

(1963) and o t h e r s o i l mechanics t e x t s p r e s e n t t h e s e t h e o r i e s i n d e t a i l .

The t h e o r y of e l a s t i c i t y i s used f o r computation of s t r e s s e s and d i s p l a c e -

ments, and t h e t h e o r y of p l a s t i c i t y i s used t o r e l a t e f a i l u r e s t r e s s e s

and l o a d s t o s o i l s t r e n g t h p a r a m e t e r s , The Mohr-Coulomb s t r e n g t h t h e o r y

h a s been found s u i t a b l e f o r most t e r r e s t r i a l s o i l s , According t o t h i s

t h e o r y t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h , s , can b e r e p r e s e n t e d by
where c i s u n i t cohesion, a i s n o m a l stress on t h e f a i l u r e p l a n e , m d
@I is t h e m g l e of i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n . A v a i l a b l e evidence i n d i c a t e s t h a t

t h e same approach can be a p p l i e d t o l u n a r s o i l b e h a v i o r ,

D e t a i l s of t h e a n a l y s i s methods are p r e s e n t e d i n t h e P r e l i m i n a r y

Science Reports f o r each mission and i n s e v e r a l of t h e r e f e r e n c e s

l i s t e d i n Appendix 1, Exanrples of t h e t y p e s of s t u d i e s t h a t were made

u s i n g t h e r e s u l t s of s i m u l a t i o n s t u d i e s and t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s e s e i t h e r

s i n g l y o r together include:

(I) D e t e m i n a t i o n of d e n s i t y a d p o r o s i t y from a s t r o n a u t boot-

p r i n t depth

(2) Deducti on of s t r e n g t h parameters from p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t

results

( 3 ) E v a l u a t i o n of s t r e n g t h parameters and d e n s i t y v a l u e s from

vehicle-soil interaction

( 4 ) Determination of s t r e n g t h parameters from s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s

s f t h e w a l l s of t r e n c h e s dug on the l u n a r s u r f a c e

(5) Computatim of s t r e n g t h parameters from s t a b i l i t y affalysis of

open d r i l l and d r i v e t u b e h o l e s

( 6 ) E v a l u a t i o n of s o i l f r i c t i o n cangle from boulder t r a c k s on l u n a r

s lopes

(7) Analysis of downslope s o i l movements r e s u l t i n g from meteoroid

inmpact,
 CHAPTER 3

PHYSICAL, AND mWMICAE NODEL, FOR THE LmAR SOIL

INTRODUCTION

I n t h i s c h a p t e r a comprehensive d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l and

mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of t h e l u n a r s o i l i s p r e s e n t e d . Were possible the

r g s u l t s of a l l m i s s i o n s have been combined i n a n e f f o r t t o produce a

g e n e r a l model. A t t h e same t i m e , however, a t t e n t i o n h a s been given t o

v a r i a b i l i t y on b o t h g l o b a l and l o c a l s c a l e s , and t o unique l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s ,

mile t h e m d e l p r e s e n t e d i s b e l i e v e d t o b e a s c o r r e c t and comprehensive

as p o s s i b l e on t h e b a s i s of t h e d a t a a t hand, i t s h o u l d b e recognized

t h a t f u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t and, i n f a c t , even s u b s t a n t i a l changes may be

r e q u i r e d i n t h e f u t u r e when s t u d i e s t h a t i n t e g r a t e t h e r e s u l t s of s e v e r a l

l u n a r s u r f a c e e x p e r i m e n t s have been made.

A t t e n t i o n h e r e i s f i r s t d i r e c t e d a t t h e s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and

index p r o p e r t i e s . Then d e n s i t y and p o r o s i t y a r e c o n s i d e r e d , followed by

s t r e n g t b , c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y , and t r a f f i c a b i l i t y p a r a m e t e r s .

CHARACTERISTICS AND INDEX PROPERTIES

The Apollo s e r i e s r e t u r n e d more t h a n 380,000 g of rocks and s o i l s ,

however a p p r o x i m a t e l y 90% of t h i s m a t e r i a l h a s r e c e i v e d only a c u r s o r y

examination and i s s t o r e d i n t h e C u r a t o r i a l F a c i l i t y a t t h e Johnson

Space C e n t e r f o r f u t u r e a a l y s e s . The r e i ~ l a i n d e rh a s been d i s t r i b u t e d t o

numerous i n v e s t i g a t o r s around t h e world f o r d e t a i l e d s t u d y and a n a l y s i s .

A s t h e a v e r a g e sample s i z e i s 2 t o 3 g, and many of t h e samples a r e a s

s m a l l as 0.05g, i t h a s n o t been p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e e n g i n e e r i n g

p r o p e r t i e s of l u n a r s o i l s a c c o r d i n g t o u s u a l s o i l t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s .

However, g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n , s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and minimum and maxi-

snum d e n s i t i e s on one-gram l u n a r samples have been measured s u c c e s s f u l l y .

The r e s u l t s of t h e s e tests and a d d i t i o n a l i n d e x p r o p e r t y d a t a determined

by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s can be used t o develop an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of l u n a r s o i l . The s c o p e of t h i s s e c t i o n i n c l u d e s l u n a r

s o i l g e n e s i s , p a r t i c l e t y p e s , g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n , g r a i n shape

d i s t r i b u t i o n , s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y , minimum and maximum d e n s i t y , and r e l a t i v e

density.

Lunar S o i l Genesis

Lunar s o i l i s f o m e d p r i m a r i l y as a r e s u l t of m e t e o r i t e impact

on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e ( c . f , , Oberbeck and Quaide, 1968). Heteorites

t h a t would burn up o r b e slowed down c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e e a r t h ' s

atmosphere a r e unimpeded i n l u n a r vacuum and s t r i k e t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e a t

v e l o c i t i e s of 95 t o 20 km/sec. The energy of impact is s o g r e a t t h a t

t h e m e t e o r i t e e x p l o d e s and v a p o r i z e s , e x c a v a t i n g a mass of m a t e r i a l up

t o 1000 t i m e s t h a t o f t h e impacting m e t e o r i t e ( G a u l t e t a l . , 1968). The

c r a t e r t h u s f o m e d i s t h e n f i l l e d i n t i m e by t h e a c t i o n of subsequent

impacts. The impacts t e n d t o comminute t h e n a t i v e m a t e r i a l i n t o f i n e r

and f i n e r p a r t i c l e s . L e s s a p p a r e n t %st h e f a c t t h a t t h e impacts a l s e

melt some of t h e r o c k and s o i l i n t o g l a s s e s which t e n d t o a g g r e g a t e w i t h

other particles. T h e two p r o c e s s e s , cc m i n u t i o n and a g g r e g a t i o n , e v i d e n t l y

reach a s t e a d y s t a t e b a l a n c e because, a s shown s u b s e q u e n t l y , t h e g r a i n

s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s t a b i l i z e s even though t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of p a r t i c l e

f ypes v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y ( c f . ., Quaide et a l . , 1991 and McKay e t a 1. ,

1971).
 The e j e c t e d m a t e r i a l can b e thrown v e r y l o n g d i s t a n c e s ; t h e meteo-

rites ( o r p l a n e t o i d s ) t h a t produced t h e c r a t e r s t h a t are v i s i b l e from

e a r t h w i t h t h e unaided e y e probably d i s t r i b u t e d material o v e r t h e e n t i r e

s u r f a c e of t h e moon. Consequently, m e t e o r i t e impact i s a l s o a primary

t r a n s p o r t mechanism on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e , a l o n g w i t h g r a v i t y , and very

complex s o i l m i x t u r e s can b e produced from d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t g e o l o g i c

f o r m a t i o n s l o c a t e d a t v a r y i n g d i s t a n c e s and i n d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s ,

The l u n a r s o i l d e p o s i t s a r e s i m i l a r t o t e r r e s t r i a l wind-blown

d e p o s i t s such a s sand dunes i n t h a t t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y i s v e r y complex.

The s t r a t a may b e i n t e r r u p t e d , t i l t e d , non-planar and c o n s t a n t l y changing

i n relative positions. S o i l p a r t i c l e s may b e b u r i e d and exposed many

timese F u r t h e m o r e , t h e d e n s i t y v a r i e s e r r a t i c a l l y w i t h i n s h o r t

distances. The two t y p e s of d e p o s i t s d i f f e r , however, i n t h a t m e t e o r i t e

impacts produce a. random d e p o s i t and t h e wind produces a s y s t e m a t i c

deposit. Thus, t h e p a r t i c l e s a r e w e l l - s o r t e d by s i z e i n a sand dune;

whereas, t h e y are well-graded i n t h e l u n a r s o i l . Furthermore, t h e

changes in a sand dune d e p o s i t o c c u r f a r more r a p i d l y w i t h time t h a n do

changes i n a s o i l on t h e moon.

A r a i n of m e t e o r i t e s i s c o n s t a n t l y f a l l i n g on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e

producing c r a t e r s r a n g i n g i n d i a m e t e r from t e n t h s of microns t o hundreds

of k i l o m e t e r s . Impact frequency d e c r e a s e s an o r d e r of magnitude f o r

each i n c r e a s e i n o r d e r of magnitude of t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e m e t e o r i t e .

The f l u x of t h i s bombardment a p p e a r s t o b e g e n e r a l l y d e c r e a s i n g w i t h

g e o l o g i c t i m e ( c . f . , Shoemaker, 1 9 7 1 and Hartmann, 1 9 7 2 ) . Probably more

t h m 100 m i l l i o n y e a r s of exposure a t t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e a r e r e q u i r e d t o

produce a mature s o i l .
 Primary mechanisms involved ib t h e formation of t e r r e s t r i a l s o i l s

have n o t been a c t i v e on t h e moon. I f w a t e r and f r e e oxygen have e v e r

been p r e s e n t on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e , t h e n i t h a s e v i d e n t l y been f o r only

s h o r t p e r i o d s and i n h i g h l y l o c a l i z e d a r e a s ( c . E , , Charles et a l . , 1971

and Gibson and Moore, 1973). Mechanical d i s i n t e g r a t i o n due t o running

w a t e r , f r e e z i n g rind thawing, g l a c i a t i o n , e t c . , and chemical decomposition

due t o o x i d a t i o n m d h y d r a t i o n a r e a b s e n t on t h e moon. Nonetheless, a n

i n c r e d i b l e v a r i e t y of p a r t i c l e t y p e s a r e t o be found i n t h e l u n a r s o i l .

P a r t i c l e Types

Despite t h e s i m i l a r a p p e a r a c e of t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e a t t h e d i f f e r e n t

l a n d i n g sites - d a r k brown t o dark grey s l l t y - s a n d y s o i l - t h e compositions

of t h e r e t u m e d s m p l e s a r e h i g h l y v a r i a b l e . Four g e n e r a l groups of

p a r t i c l e s have been i d e n t i f i e d ( c . f . , MeKay e t a l e , 1971, 1972):

Mineral fragments

miscellaneous g l a s s e s

agglutinates

l f t h i c fragments

The m i n e r a l fragments found i n l u n a r s o i l s i n c l u d e :

plagioclases

pyroxenes ( a u g i t e , p i g e o n i t e , et c .)

ilmeni t e

olivine

potassium f e l d s p a r

q u a r t z (extremely r a r e )

dozens of o t h e r m i n e r a l s i n s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s
 It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e m i n e r a l fragrnents a r e b i l l i o n s

of y e a r s o l d and y e t a r e unweathered chemically. Thus, although t h e r e

a r e clay-sized p a r t i c l e s , t h e r e a r e no c l a y m i n e r a l s . S e l e c t e d Tnineral

fragments a r e shorn i n Pig. 3-l(a) ,

Miscellaneous Glasses

A l a r g e v a r i e t y of g l a s s e s ( p a r t i c l e s w i t h o u t c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e )

a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e l u n a r s o i l , d i f f e r i n g i n form, chemical composition

and c o l o r , The b a s i c £ o m s a r e a n g u l a r f r a p e n t s , d r o p l e t s , and ropy

glass@s; and t h e d i f f e r e n t c h e d c a l compositions produce brown, red,

o r a g e , green and e o l o r l e s s g l a s s e s .

Glass d r o p l e t s , o r s p h e r u l e s (Fig. 3 - l ( b ) ) r e p r e s e n t only a s m a l l

p e r c e n t a g e of t h e l u n a r s o i l and have l i t t l e o r no i n f l u e n c e on geo-

technical properties. They a r e firmed when molten g l a s s t h a t i s e j e c t e d

by a m e t e o r i t e impact has a s u f f i c i e n t l y long t i m e - o f - f l i g h t t o form

d r o p l e t s (due t o s u r f a c e t e n s i o n ) and t h e n harden i n t o beads b e f o r e

l a n d i n g back on t h e s u r f a c e . The diameter of t h e s e beads g e n e r a l l y

ranges f m m 0.005 t o 1 m (Quaide et a l . , 1971) . Examples of t y p i c a l

g l a s s f r a p e n t s found i n l u n a r s o i l s a r e shown i n F i g , 3 - l ( c ) ,

A g g l u t i n a t e s a r e composed of l i t h i c and m i n e r a l fragments and g l a s s

d e b r i s bonded t o g e t h e r by inhomogeneous g l a s s , A g g l u t i n a t e s a r e formed

when t h e molten g l a s s t h a t was produced d u r i n g an impact s t r i k e s and

p e n e t r a t e s t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e , t h e r e b y welding s o i l p a r t i c l e s t o g e t h e r .

T h i s i s an important c o n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e s s , a s i t c r e a t e s b i g s o i l

p a r t i c l e s from s m a l l ones. However, t h e a g g l u t i n a t e s tend t o b e q u i t e

f r a g i l e and t h e r e f o r e a s o i l c o n t a i n i n g a l a r g e amount of t h i s m a t e r i a l
may show a curved Mohr-CoulornZa s t r e n g t h envelope because of p a r t i c l e

breakage a t h i g h e r c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e s ( C a r r i e r e t a l . , 1973a). Examples

of a g g l u t i n a t e s a r e shown i n Fig. 3 - l ( d ) , where t h e i r i r r e g u l a r , d e l i c a t e

form may b e seen.

L i t h i c fragments c o n s i s t of c o m i n u t e d p i e c e s of l w r a r rocks and

include:

basalts

breccias

f e l d s p a t h i c rocks

pyroxenites

Sonte t y p e s of b r e c c i a s a r e sjimilar t o a g g l u t i n a t e s i n t h a t they

c o n s i s t of l i t h i c and mineral fragments and g l a s s d e b r i s welded t o g e t h e r

e i t h e r by molten g l a s s o r by g l a s s wlzich h a s been r e c r g r s t a l l i z e d due t o

t h e m a l met amorphism ( c , f ., Williams, 1972) . However, t h e s e b r e c c i a s

a r e f o m e d n o t by t h e i n j e c t i o n s f molten g l a s s i n t o t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e ,

b u t w i t h i n t h e h o t e j e c t a blarrket of g a s e s and fragments produced by a

aneteorite impact. A l l of t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e b r e c c i a are thrown o u t

a s a mass and p a r t of t h e g l a s s m e l t s to bond t h e o t h e r p a r t i c l e s t o g e t h e r ,

T h i s i s a n o t h e r i r p o r t a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n a l process. Other b r e c c i a s a r e

formed *en t h e n a t i v e rocks a r e broken up, jumbled and t h e n re-welded

i n s i t u b u t w i t h o u t t h e presence of g l a s s . Both types of b r e c c i a s a r e

denser and more coherent than a g g l u t i n a t e s , b u t n o t a s s t r o n g as b a s a l t s .

Examples of b r e c c i a s and b a s a l t s a r e shown i n Figs. 3-1 ( e ) and 3 - l ( f ) .

The p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t i c l e t y p e s d i s c u s s e d above

%re v a r i a b l e from s i t e t o s i t e , from sample t o sample and even from s i z e

 fraction t o s i z e fraction. Table 3-1 p r e s e n t s p a r t i c l e t y p e d i s t r i b u t i o n

d a t a f o r l u n a r s o i l s from t h e Apollo 1 2 , 14 and 1 5 l a n d i n g sites (McKay

e t a l e , 1971, 1972 and Glanton e t a l e , 1972). The l o c a t i o n s on t h e

l u n a r s u r f a c e of s p e c i f i c samples r e f e r r e d t o i n Table 3-1 and i n subse-

quent t a b l e s and f i g u r e s i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e given i n Table 3-2. The

range of p r o p o r t i o n s can b e c o n s i d e r a b l e , t h e extreme c a s e being t h e

I
b r e c c i a s i n t h e Apollo 12 s o i l samples, which can comprise anywhere from

O m 7 % t o 75% of t h e 0 - 2 5 t o 1,00 m s i z e f r a c t i o n ,

P a r t i c l e t y p e d a t a f o r one Apollo 1 4 sample, 14259, a r e s e p a r a t e l y

hcluded: of a11 the samples f o r which s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and r e l a t i v e

d e n s i t y m a s u r e m e n t s have been made, 14259 i s t h e only sample t o d a t e f o r

which the d i s t r i b u t i o n of p a r t i c l e t y p e s i s a l s o known. Its d i s t r i b u t i o n

i s very s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e mean d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r Apollo 14 s o i l s .

Samples 14141 and 14149, t h e former t a k e n n e a r t h e rim of Cone C r a t e r

and t h e l a t t e r from t h e bottom of t h e S o i l Mechanics Trench, a r e considered

t o be e x c e p t i o n a l samples, a s evidenced by t h e i r much c o a r s e r g r a i n s i z e

than t h e b u l k of t h e saunples, and a r e t h e r e f o r e n o t included i n t h e mean

and range f o r Apollo 1 4 s o i l s ,

A 1 1 of t h e Apollo 1 5 samples i n Table 3-1 were t a k e n a t d i f f e r e n t

depths along a 2e4 m d r i l l stem c o r e and a r e probably r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of

t h e p l a i n s a r e a of t h e Apollo 15 l a n d i n g s i t e .

Although t h e p e r c e n t a g e of p a r t i c l e t y p e s i n t h e Apollo 12 s o i l s

were n o t determined f o r t h e same s i z e f r a c t i o n a s i n t h e Apollo 14 and

1 5 s o i l s , t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d s seem t o b e t h e following: Apolla 1 5 s o i l s

c o n t a i n t h e g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n of m i n e r a l fragments, and Apollo 14 t h e

l e a s t ; Apollo 12 t h e g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n of g l a s s e s , and Apoflo 14 and

15 about e q u a l ; Apollo 1 4 t h e g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n of a g g l u t i n a t e s , and

 TABLE 3-1

DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLE TYPES

I N LmAR SOILS

-
Mean
I
Mean
P

I
I
Mineral
fragments
2 1% 4-48% 1 li
9% 7-14%
I
Glasses 35% 12-75% 1 14% 11-18%
I
Agglutinates 15% 0.5-30% j 52% 48.57%
I
I
L i t h i e fragments I
I
I
Basalts 11% 3-45% 1 1% 0-2%
Breccias

*Apollo 12: 0.25 t o 1.00 m s i z e f r a c t i o n f o r n i n e samples

(McKay et a l e , 197 1 )

**Apollo 14: 0.09 t o 0.15 m s i z e f r a c t i o n f o r s i x samples,

e x c l u d i n g samples 14141 and 14149 (MeKay e t a l e ,
1972)

***Apollo 15: 0.09 t o 0.15 nm s i z e f r a c t i o n f o r 12 d r i l l stem

samples (Clanton et a l e , 1972)

?See Table 3-2 f o r l o c a t i o n of sample

 n
d
b

C
C
0
en
Fl
w

-
.., L
.
)
e
r-i
cd

.- U
L .-
C

Q)

-
C s

3
V3

X
1-11

"0

E
8
3
LA
d

h
w h
03

0
aJ

r-i
El g
Et
0

*fi
C,

cd

U
0

CV

a"
e f i
r, m

C3

s U
a,

g
*I-l
%k

r-i
U
cd

a
rl
U
m
El
U
*d

I
0\
en
rl U3
-3 rcp 0 0
r-i Gal 00

r l d -3-
rl "

4- mu)
rlrf

a,

rl

2
h
a,

Fi
a u
d

E
.. Fd

" .fdiaJG
rcp

0
r-i a,
r-4 0 4
0 a

q4
Apollo 12 t h e l e a s t ; Apollo 12 t h e g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n of b a s a l t s , and

Apollo 14 t h e l e a s t ; and Apollo 14 t h e g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n of b r e e c i a s

and Apollo 15 t h e l e a s t .

Grain S i z e D i s t r i b u t i o n

The g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e >1m f r a c t i o n of many l u n a r

s o i l samples was d e t e r d n e d by t h e Lunar Sample P r e l i m i n a r y Examination

Team (LSPET) i n t h e Lunar Receiving Laboratory by d r y s i e v i n g n e a r l y t h e

e n t i r e sample, u s u a l l y a m u n t i n g t o s e v e r a l hundred grams, S m l l sub-

samples of t h e <I mm f r a c t i o n , t y p i c a l l y 0 . 1 t o 0.5g, were t h e n s e l e c t e d

and d i s t r i b u t e d t o d l £ f e r e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s f o r f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s , The

g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s determined by t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t o r s a r e g e n e r a l l y

q u i t e r e p e a t a b l e and r e p r o d u c i b l e , i n s p i t e of t h e s m a l l sample s i z e and

s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s i n s i e v i n g techniques. D e s p i t e t h e v a r i e t y of l u n a r

s o i l compositions, t h e g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r t h e b u l k of t h e

r e t u r n e d samples f a l l w i t h i n a rezllarkably narrow band, and a re c l a s s i f i e d

a s well-graded s i l t y sands t o sandy silts: SW-SM t o M& i n t h e 'Unified

S o i l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System, The r e s u l t s from a r e c e n t compilation of

d a t a from a number of s o u r c e s ( C a r r i e r , 1973a) a r e shown i n Fig. 3-2.

The average p a r t i c l e s i z e by weight f o r a l l samples i s 0.07 mm, w i t h a

range i n t h e average s i z e of any sample from 0.04 t o 0.13 mrn. The g r a i n

s i z e parameters a r e s u m a r i z e d i n Table 3-3. These samples have been

exposed a t t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e f o r 100 m i l l i o n y e a r s o r more (deteranined

by counting t h e number of n u c l e a r p a r t i c l e t r a c k s p e r s q u a r e centimeter:

c.f. Arrbenius et a l e , 1971 and Crozaz e t a l . , 1971, 1972); whereas, t h e

few e x c e p t i o n a l l y c o a r s e samples t h a t have been found have exposure ages

of o n l y 15 t o 40 m i l l i o n y e a r s . Consequently, 108 m i l l i o n y e a r s seems t o

b e t h e minimum t i m e r e q u i r e d t o produce a "steady state" s o i l . After t h a t

 TABLE 3-3

Lmfi SOIL @WINSIZE PA TEE: ~ O L L11-15

~

The g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of the b u l k of t h e r e t u r n e d l u n a r s o i l
samples f a l l w i t h i n a r e l a t i v e l y narrow band d e f i n e d by the c o a r s e
and f i n e boundaries i n d i c a t e d below and shown i n Fig. 3-2.

Coarse Fine
boundary boundary
Parmeter of band 14163' -
14259' 15601' of band

Percent f i n e r
than 1 m

'see Table 3-2 f o r l o c a t i o n of samples

* ~ o effi c i e n t of uniformity
* * ~ o e f f i c i e n tof c u r n a t u r e
p e r i o d , t h e a g g r e g a t i o n p r o c e s s e s b a l a n c e t h e co u t i o n p r o c e s s e s , and

w h i l e t h e composition may c o n t i n u e t o change, t h e g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u -

t i o n w i l l e v i d e n t l y only vary back and f o r t h w i t h i n t h e band s h o r n i n

Fig. 3-2.

T h e a u t h o r s have a l s o determined t h e g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r

t h r e e , one-grm subdllinnreter samples: 14163, 14259 and 15601 ( s e e

Table 3 - 2 ) . The samples were wet-sieved i n f r e o n . These d i s t r i b u t i c m s

a r e i n c l o s e agreement w i t h the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s

f o r o t h e r subsamp1es of the same p a r e n t samples, The d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r

t h e s e t h r e e samples, a s shorn i n F i g , 3-2 and Table 3-3, have been

c o r r e c t e d f o r t h e >I mnn s i z e f r a c t i o n s ; t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r t h e <lmm

f r a c t i o n s a r e even c l o s e r t o g e t h e r ,

Grain Shapes

The shapes of t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s i n l u n a r s o i l range f r ~ m

p e r f e c t l y s p h e r i c a l t o extremely a n g u l a r , as shown i n Fig, 3-1. Many

( i n some c a s e s , most) of t h e p a r t i c l e s a r e n o t compact, b u t e x h i b i t very

i r r e g u l a r shapes and s u r f a c e t e x t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g r e - e n t r a n t s u r f a c e s .

The s t a n d a r d shape p a r m e t e r s t h a t have been developed by v a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a -

t o r s ( c . f . Wadell, 1935, Krumbein, 1941, Aschenbrenner, 1956, Lucks, 1970)

a r e i n a d e q u a t e t o d e s c r i b e a c c u r a t e l y t h e shapes of t h e s e i r r e g u l a r l u n a r

s o i l particles. Nonetheless, some shape measurements have been made,

and t h e r e s u l t s are s u m a r i z e d h e r e ,

Heywood (1971) has determined seven shape c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r 30

p a r t i c l e s of 0.7 m diameter from an Apollo 12 sample, 12057. These

c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e : e l o n g a t i o n , f l a t n e s s , a r e a r a t i o , volume c o e f f i c i e n t ,

r u g o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t , s p e c i f i c c i r c u l a r i t y of p r o f i l e , and s p e c i f i c
c i r c u l a r i t y i n c l u d i n g t h e e f f e c t of r u g o s i t y . One of t h e s e , volume

c o e f f i c i e n t , was a l s o measured f o r s e p a r a t e s i z e f r a c t i o n s and i t was

found t h a t t h e i n t e m e d i a t e - s i z e f r a c t i o n s of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r l m a r

sample a r e more n e a r l y equi-dirrzensional t h a n t h e c o a r s e r arnd f i n e r

fractions,

~ 6 r ze t a l . (1971, 1972) have determined a s p e c t r a t i o s f o r samples

from ApolLo 3.2, 14 and 1 5 , The a s p e c t r a t i o of a p a r t i c l e i s d e f i n e d as

t h e r a t i o of t h e minor and major axes of an e l l i p s e which h a s been f i t t e d

t o t h e p a r t i c l e by a l e a s t s q u a r e s approximation. Measured a s p e c t r a t i o s

range from 1.0 (equant) t o 0 . 1 ( v e r y e l o n g a t e ) , w i t h most v a l u e s f a l l i n g

i n t h e range 0.8 t o 0.3 ( s l i g h t l y t o medium e l o n g a t e d ) and an average

r a t i o of 0.6. Because the raajority of particles a r e somewhat e l o n g a t e d ,

i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t p r e f e r r e d p a r t i c l e o r i e n t a t i o n s may e x i s t i n t h e

lunar s o i l i n s i t u . I f s o , then a n i s o t r o p i c p r o p e r t i e s may b e a n t i c i -

pated. These p o s s i b i l i t i e s have been under s t u d y and a r e r e p o r t e d

separately,

Cadenhead et a l e (1972) and Cadenhead and Jones (1972) have measured

t h e s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e a r e a of an Apollo 1 4 sample, 14153, and t h a t of an

Apollo 15 sample, 15101, by means of n i t r o g e n gas a d s o r p t i o n and obtained

v a l u e s of 0 . 2 1 m 2 / g and 0.65 rn2lg,r e s p e c t i v e l y , which a r e t y p i c a l f o r

silty soils.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y h a s r e c e i v e d very l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n

i n t h e l u n a r samples p r o g r m . The d e n s i t y of none of t h e rock samples

has been a c c u r a t e l y determined t h u s f a r , and s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y measure-

ments have been made on only a few s o i l s . The former i s due t o d i f f i c u l t i e s

involved i n measuring t h e volume of a rock w i t h o u t i m e r s i n g i t i n a

liquid. The l a t t e r i s due t o a understandable u n w i l l i n p e s s t o commit

t h e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e s o i l s m p l e s necessawy f o r s t a n d a r d t e s t s : at

l e a s t 30 g f o r an a i r comparison pycnometer and 50 g f o r a c o n v e n t i o n a l

500 cm3 w a t e r pycnometer. Other methods have now been developed, how-

e v e r , which r e q u i r e much s m a l l e r samples, I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e have o b t a i n e d

good r e s u l t s on t h r e e , one-gram s u b m i l l i m e t e r samples u s i n g 3 and 5 cm3

volumetric f l a s k s . The average s p e c L f f e g r a v i t y of t h e p a r t i c l e s i n

each samples was determined u s i n g conventionali w a t e r inunersion rdcro-

pycasmetry t e c h n i q u e s . The m i n i a t u r i z a t i o n r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s m a l l l u n a r

samples was found t o b e p r a c t i c a l and t o g i v e r e p r o d u c i b l e r e s u l t s .

S p e c i f i c g r a v i t y v a l u e s a r e s u m a r i z e d i n Table 3-4 and range from

2,9 t o g r e a t e r t h a n 3 . 2 . These v a l u e s a r e h i g h by t e r r e s t r i a l s t a n d a r d s ,

even f o r ground b a s a l t s which have s p e c i f i c g r a v i t i e s of 2.9. The f i r s t

s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y test was on an Apollo E l sample o b t a i n e d from t h e

combined s p l i t s of t h e two c o r e t u b e samples. An a i r comparison pycno-

meter was u t i l i z e d f o r t h i s test, The v a l u e of 3 , 1 t h a t was o b t a i n e d

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e l u n a r s o i l was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t y p i c a l

t e r r e s t r i a l s o i l s , and i t was l a t e r found t h a t t h e Apollo 11 s o i l was

e n r i c h e d i n t i t a n i u m oxide. A l a r g e r a g e of s p e c i f i c g r a v i t i e s f o r

t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e t y p e s h a s been found. By suspending t h e s o i l

p a r t i c l e s i n a d e n s i t y g r a d i e n t , produced by v a r y i n g t h e p r o p o r t i o n s of

a mixture of methylene i o d i d e and dimethyl f o mide, Duke e t a l . (1970a)

found t h e f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s of s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y :

a g g l u t i n a t e and g l a s s p a r t i c l e s : 1,0 t o > 3.32

basalt particles: > 3.32

breccia particles: 2.9 t o 3.1

rcl
r-i
0

rt
rl
0

 The wide v a r i a t i o n i n chemical composition of t h e g l a s s e s , a s

evidenced by t h e many d l f f e r e n t c o l o r s , i s p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e

broad range of s p e c i f i c g r a v i t i e s . The v e r y low v a l u e s approaching

1.0 r e s u l t from e n c l o s e d v o i d s w i t h i n t h e g l a s s e s .

A n Apollo 12 samples was a l s o t e s t e d w i t h a n a i r comparison pycnometer,

and t h e same s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y a s f o r Apollo 11, 3.1, was obtained. This

type of test technique was n o t authorized. f o r u s e on l u n a r samples from

subsequent d s s i o n s ,

Cadenhead et a l e measured a v a l u e of 2.9 f 0 . 1 i n helium a s p a r t of

t h e i r gas a d s o r p t i o n s t u d i e s , Our v a l u e of 2.90 1 0.05 f o r m o t h e r sub-

sample of t h e same p a r e n t sample, 14163, a g r e e s e x a c t l y . The s l i g h t l y

h i g h e r v a l u e of 2.93 + .05 f o r sample 14259 probably i n d i c a t e s a s m a l l

d i f f e r e n c e i n s o i l composition. Cadenhead et a l . a l s o rngasured t h e

s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of a fragment from a b r e c c i a rock, 14321, and o b t a i n e d

a v a l u e of 3 . 2 + .Ie
I n the s e c t i o n on P a r t i c l e Types, i t was s e e n t h a t t h e Apollo 1 4

( F r a Mauro region) s o i l s c o n t a i n a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of a g g l u t i n a t e s and

b r e c c i a s and fewer m i n e r a l fragments and b a s a l t s t h a n t h e Apollo 12 and

15 s o i l s . The s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower s p e c i f i c g r a v i t i e s of t h e ApolXo 14

s o i l s undoubtedly r e f l e c t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n composition.

A s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of 3.1 .l has been measured by Cadenhead and

Jones f o r one Apollo 1 5 s o i l sample, 15101, and t h e writers obtained a

v a l u e of 3.24 f .05 f o r a n o t h e r , 15601. The l a t t e r i s a remarkably h i g h

value: p r e l a i n a r y , unpublished d a t a o b t a i n e d by t h e Apollo 1 5 LSPET

s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r sample c o n t a i n s more b a s a l t s and m i n e r a l

fragments, about t h e same p r o p o r t i o n of a g g l u t i n a t e s , and fewer g l a s s e s

and b r e c c i a s t h a n t h e median Apollo 1 5 d r i l l s t e m samples i n Table 3-1.

 A s more d a t a are a c c m u l a t e d , it i s v e r y l i k e l y t h a t a c o r r e l a t i o n

can b e developed between t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s p a r t i c l e t y p e s

and t h e average s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y . It may b e t h a t a r e a s o n a b l e e s t i m a t e

of s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y can b e c a l c u l a t e d given t h e p e r c e n t a g e of a g g l u t i n a t e s ,

b a s a l t s , b r e c c i a s , etc. T h i s wsuld permit c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e p o r o s i t y

of u n d i s t u r b e d c o r e t u b e samples f o r h i c h t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y is n o t

known d i r e c t l y ,

The few minimum and maximum d e n s i t y measurements t h a t have been

made f o r l u n a r s o i l s have been by a v a r i e t y of methods. It i s w e l l h o r n

t h a t t h e maximum d e n s i t y i s dependent on t h e method, and t h e r e f o r e t h e

v a l u e s r e p o r t e d by d i f f e r e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s cannot b e compared d i r e c t l y .

The method developed by t h e a u t h o r s , w h i l e a r b i t r a r y , does p r o v i d e a

well-defined, r e p e a t a b l e approach t h a t can b e used w i t h v e r y s m a l l samples

( 1 g) . Small g r a d u a t e d c y l i n d e r s of 1 . 0 and 1.5 cm3 c a p a c i t y were used

t o measure s a p l e volumes a f t e r placement i n l o o s e and dense s t a t e s . The

l o o s e s t c o n d i t i o n was o b t a i n e d by pouring t h e sample from a small h e i g h t

i n a s i n g l e , continuous operation, To o b t a i n t h e maximum d e n s i t y t h e

c y l i n d e r s were f i l l e d w i t h s o i l and tapped 90 times by dropping 4 t o 5 cm

(1-112 t o 2 i n ) i n n e a r l y f r e e f a l l o n t o a t a b l e . It was found t h a t t h e

maximum d e n s i f i c a t i o n t h a t could b e o b t a i n e d was reached by 90 t a p s of t h e

sample,

The e f f e c t of compactive e f f o r t (number of t a p s ) on maximum d e n s i t y

was s t u d i e d u s i n g 0.5 gram samples of crushed b a s a l t s i m u l a n t . I t was

found t h a t a compactive e f f o r t i n e x c e s s of 90 t a p s d i d n o t make any

measuralsle d i f f e r e n c e i n the d e n s i t y o b t a i n e d ; t h u s 90 t a p s were used t o

o b t a i n dense s m p l e s . The e f f e c t s of number of l a y e r s ( 1 t o 5) and

c y l i n d e r diameter (9 m) was used, and t h e l o o s e s q l e ( d e p o s i t e d i n

one l a y e r ) was d e n s i f i e d by t a p p i n g i t 90 t i m e s ,

R e s u l t s of s t a n d a r d A . S eT0M5 tests on crushed b a s a l t s i m u l m t a r e

compared w i t h s m a l l sample test r e s u l t s i n Table 3-5, The d a t a show

that s m a l l samples can b e prepared t o lwer minimum d e n s i t i e s (Iaigher

void r a t i o s ) t h a n l a r g e s m p l e s . This can be i n t e r p r e t e d a s due t o s m a l l e r

body f o r c e s (self-weight) causing compression i n t h e s m a l l samples, m d

p o s s i b l y due t o t h e i n f l u e n c e of s i d e w a l l f r i c t i o n i n t h e s m a l l graduated

cylinder. Conversely, t h e s m a l l samples e m b e prepared t o a h i g h e r

m a x i a m d e n s i t y (lower m i d r a t i o ) than t h e l a r g e samples. T h i s probably

r e f l e c t s t h e f a c t t h a t s t a n d a r d A,S,T,M. t e s t f o r maximum d e n s i t y does

n o t provide complete d e n s i f i c a t i o n of s o i l s of s i l t y f i n e sand g r a d a t i o n *

The v a r i a b i l i t y in r e s u l t s was much g r e a t e r when s m a l l s a p l e s were used,

It should b e noted, however, t h a t no s p e c i a l equipment i s needed f o r t h e s e

tests and no u l t r a - p r e c i s e measuring techniques a r e r e q u i r e d ,

Table 3-5: Maimurn and Mnimum D e n s i t i e s o f

Crushed B a s a l t Simulant

Best Range of Percent

Sampl e Value Variation

Standard A.S.T.M, Maximum Density 1.8% t-0,3%

Minimwaa Dens i t y 1,36 -to. 4%

Small Sample MaimumDmsity 1.94 92.0%

(0,s gram)
Minimum Density 1 24
5 +4.8%

The minimum and m a x i m d e n s i t i e s f o r s e v e r a l samples a r e p r e s e n t e d

in Table 3-6; in e a s e s where t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y i s known, t h e maximum

and minimum void r a t i o s have a l s o been c a l c u l a t e d . The Apollo 11

d e n s i t i e s r e p o r t e d by Costes et a l e (1970) were determined as p a r t of a

s t u d y of p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e . Cremers et a l e (19701, Cremers and

Birkebak ( l 9 7 1 ) , Cremers (1972) and Cremers and H s i a (1973) found

minimum d e n s i t i e s f o r Papollo 11, 12, 1 4 and 1 5 s m p l e s a s p a r t of an

f m e s t i g a t i o n of thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y and n o t i c e d t h a t i t was n o t

p o s s i b l e t o p l a c e t h e Apollo 11 and 12 samples a t a s low an a b s o l u t e

d e n s i t y a s t h e Apallo 14 sample. The d e n s i t i e s determined by J a f f e (1972)

were f o r a sample r e t u r n e d i n s i d e t h e scoop of t h e Surveyor I T 1 space-

c r a f t and were p a r t of a s t u d y on p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e . The d e n s i t i e s

of Lurra XVE saanples tirere d e t e e d by Grsmov e t a l e (1979) a s p a r t of

t h e i r penetrometer, oedometer, and d i r e c t s h e a r tests, T h e i r sarmple

r e p r e s e n t e d approximately twa p e r c e n t of t h e e n t i r e Luna XVI r e t u m e d

samp l e

T h e h i g h e r ~ a i m u mand maximum d e n s i t i e s s f t h e Apol1o 1 5 s o i l

compared w i t h t h e Apo11o 1 4 saraples s t u d i e d by t h e a u t h o r s is o b v i o u s b

p a r t l y due t o t h e h i g h e r s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of t h e Apollo 1 5 s o i l , This

cannot b e t h e e n t i r e e w l a n a t i o n , however, o t h e r w i s e t h e maximum and

minimum void r a t i o s would b e comparable, and t h e Apollo 14 s o i l s have

g r e a t e r void r a t i o s t h a n t h e Apollo 1 5 s o i l . The su7bmillimeter g r a i n s i z e

d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r t h e t h r e e samples are a l l q u i t e similar, s o t h e explana-

t i o n f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n v o i d r a t i o s must l i e elsewhere, me p o s s i b i l i t y

i s t h a t t h e h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of a g g l u t i n a t e s and b r e e c i a s i n t h e Apallo 14

s o i l s c o n t r i b u t e s more r e - e n t r a n t , i n t r a m g r a n u l a r v o i d s t h a n t h e Apollo 1 5

soil, I f i t i s assumed t h a t t h e Apollo 15 s o i l h a s no r e - e n t r a n t v o i d s ,

which i s probably n o t t r u e , then based on t h e minimum v o i d r a t i o s , t h e

Apollo 1 4 s o i l s would have a r e - e n t r a n t component of v o i d r a t i o of about

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.9l - . 7 l = 0.2, which i s a s i g n i f i c a n t amount. Even s o , t h i s c

be t h e e n t i r e e x p l a n a t i o n , s i n c e t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n maximum v o i d r a t i o s

i s even higher: 2.32 - 1.94 = 0.4.

It appears, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t o t h e r f a c t o r s such a s p a r t i c l e shape,

s u r f a c e t e x t u r e and g r a i n arrangement must a l s o b e important. In fact,

t h e maximum and minimum v o i d r a t i o s of a ground b a s a l t s i m u l a n t w i t h

t h e same g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n a s t h e l u n a r s o i l s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y

less t h a n even t h e Apollo 1 5 s o i l . It i s i m p e r a t i v e t o make minimum

and maximum d e n s i t y tests on a v a r i e t y of l u n a r s o i l s , because w i t h t h e s e

v a l u e s and t h e i n s i t u d e n s i t y known i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e

r e l a t i v e density. R e l a t i v e d e n s i t y i s important i n b o t h e n g i n e e r i n g and

g e o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , a s d i s c u s s e d i n more d e t a i l l a t e r .

Sumary

Lunar s o i l is produced p r i m a r i l y by m e t e o r i t e impacts on t h e l u n a r

s u r f a c e ; t h e u s u a l t e r r e s t r i a l a g e n t s of s o i l formation a r e a b s e n t on t h e

moon. These impacts cause both comminution and a g g r e g a t i o n of p a r t i c l e s

and t h e s o i l s c o n s i s t of complex m i x t u r e s of m i n e r a l fragments, miscellan-

eous g l a s s e s , a g g l u t i n a t e s , and l i t h i c fragments ( p r i m a r i l y b a s a l t s and

breccias). Although t h e p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e v a r i o u s p a r t i c l e t y p e s a r e

extremely v a r i a b l e , t h e g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r s o i l s which have

been exposed t o m e t e o r i t e re-working f o r 100 m i l l i o n y e a r s o r more f a l l

w i t h i n a r e l a t i v e l y narrow band and a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s well-graded silty

sands t o sandy s i l t s (SW-SM t o ML i n t h e USCS). The average p a r t i c l e s i z e

by weight g e n e r a l l y v a r i e s from 0.04 t o 0.13 mm. Grain shapes range from

p e r f e c t l y s p h e r i c a l t o extremely i r r e g u l a r , i n c l u d i n g some p a r t i c l e s w i t h

re-entrant surfaces.
 The s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of s u b m i l l i m e t e r l u n a r s o i l samples v a r i e s

from 2,90 t o 3.24; and i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s range from 1.0 t o > 3 . 3 2 .

The minimum and maximum b u l k d e n s i t i e s of s u b m i l l i m e t e r one-gram samples

v a r y from 0.87 t o 1.10 g/cm3 and from 1 . 5 1 t o 1.89 g/cm3, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The ranges i n t h e minimum and maximum. d e n s i t i e s a r e due t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

i n t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y , i n t r a - g r a n u l a r p o r o s i t y , p a r t i c l e shape, s u r f a c e

t e x t u r e , and g r a i n arrangements.
 DENSITU AND POROSITY

Data Sources

Data s o u r c e s used s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r i n f e r i n g l u n a r s o i l d e n s i t y

o r p o r o s i t y a r e l i s t e d i n Table 3-7, These d a t a s o u r c e s were l i s t e d

and d i s c u s s e d b r i e f l y i n Chapter 2. Shown a l s o i n Table 3-7 are

parameters which have been measured d i r e c t l y o r deduced from

c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h s i m u l a n t s , a s opposed t o t h o s e parameters which must

be c a l c u l a t e d . The l a s t column i n T a b l e 3-7 shows t h e approximate

range i n depth from which d e n s i t y d a t a h a s been o b t a i n e d by each of

t h e s e nzethods.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p s between a l l of t h e parameters i n Table 3-7 a r e

shown by t h e following set of e q u a t i o n s .

GsP,
bulk density, p = l+e = Gsp, (1-n)

where p o r o s i t y , n i s i n decimal and d e n s i t y of w a t e r , is

1 grn/cm3 a t 4 ° C and Gs = s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of s o l i d s .

porosity,

void r a t i o , e = - n
l - n

b G

r e l a t i v e density, Dr =
e
max
-e
x 180%
max min
 TABLE 3-7 -- DATA SOURCES FOR INFEmING EUkJAR SOIL DENSITY OR POROSITU

for disturbmce
during sampling
must be made
Heasured d i r e c t l y
-but correction

of g r a v i t y must be
lunar s o i l

MET Tracks

c o r r e l a t i o n with
f r i c t i o n angle -
which i n t u r n
where e n and pmin = maximum v o i d r a t i o , maximum p o r o s i t y ,
max ' max
and minimum d e n s i t y when d e p o s i t e d by a s t a n d a r d proce-

dure designed t o minimize d e n s i t y

emin "inn and p

max
=minimumvoidratio,minimumporosity,

and maximum d e n s i t y when d e p o s i t e d by a s t a n d a r d procedure

designed t o maximize d e n s i t y .

A s i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e use of t h e s e e q u a t i o n s , i f e i s k n o m , t h e n

n i s a l s o known. by Equation (3-2). I f G i s a l s o known, then p can be

s
computed p r e c i s e l y by Equation (3-1). Likewise i f emin i s known, then

n i s obtained by Equation ( 3 - 2 ) . If G i s a l s o known, then p can

min s max
be computed by Equation (3-1).

Thus conversion from one d e n s i t y parameter t o another may be r e a d i l y

accomplished i f s u f f i c i e n t d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e . Unfortunately, however,

s u f f i c i e n t d a t a have r a r e l y been a v a i l a b l e t o allow t h e s e conversions

w i t h a h i g h degree of confidence, P a r t i c u l a r l y s c a r c e have been d a t a on

l u n a r s o i l s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and maximum and minimum d e n s i t y v a l u e s ,

Therefore i t h a s u s u a l l y been necessary t o widely e x t r a p o l a t e t h e few

v a l u e s of s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and maximum and minimum d e n s i t y which have

become a v a i l a b l e ,

From t h e beginning of t h e study of l u n a r s o i l mechanical p r o p e r t i e s

i t was recognized t h a t l u n a r s o i l s and v a r i o u s l m a r s o i l s i m u l a n t s

a r e b e s t compared a f t e r d e n s i t i e s have been normalized by conversion t o

r e l a t i v e density. That i s , a s a f i r s t approximation i t may be assumed

t h a t g r a n u l a r s o i l s of s i m i l a r g r a d a t i o n s e x h i b i t s i m i l a r p r o p e r t y v a l u e s

when compared a t t h e same r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y . However, d a t a became

a v a i l a b l e p r o g r e s s i v e l y , and i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of study s i m p l i f y i n g

assumptions had t o be made i n t h e absence of hard d a t a .

 P r i o r t o t h e Apollo lmar l a n d i n g s , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o assume t h a t

t h e a c t u a l l u n a r s o i l and b a s a l t i c l u n a r s o i l s i m u l a n t s which had s i m i l a r

g r a d a t i o n s had t h e same v a l u e s of Gs, e and e With t h i s assump-

max ' min "
t i a n i t followed t h a t l u n a r s o i l and l u n a r s o i l s i m u l a n t s would be expected

t o e x h i b i t t h e same p r o p e r t i e s when t h e i r b u l k d e n s i t i e s were t h e same.

A f t e r v a l u e s of Gs = 3.1 were measured f o r Apollo 11 and 12 samples

i t became a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e s i n u l a n t G v a l u e , 2.9,was n o t t h e same

s
and t h a t s i m u l a n t s and l u n a r s o i l should be compared on a p o r o s i t y ( o r

void r a t i o ) b a s i s t o i n s u r e t h a t r e l a t i v e d e n s i t i e s were t h e same.

However i t was s t i l l n e c e s s a r y a t t h a t time t o assume t h a t e and e

max min
were t h e same f o r s i m u l a n t s and l u n a r s o i l of s i m i l a r g r a d a t i o n . Thus

most of t h e r e s u l t s of a n a l y s e s which i n some way involved s i m u l a n t s

were r e p o r t e d i n terms of p o r o s i t y o r void r a t i o a s l a t e a s t h e Apollo 16

Preliminary Science Report.

When r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y t e s t r e s u l t s became a v a i l a b l e f o r 1 gram

samples of Apollo 14 and 15 s o i l i t became a p p a r e n t t h a t equivalence of

e and emin f o r s i m u l a n t s and l u n a r s o i l was n o t a good assumption and

ma%
t h a t they should b e compared d i r e s t l y on a r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y b a s i s only.

Thus a d d i t i o n a l measurements of e e and G on l u n a r s o i l

maxs min" s
samples a r e needed t o make maximum u t i l i z a t i o n of a v a i l a b l e d e n s i t y

d a t a w i t h minimum e r r o r .

However, i t should be noted t h a t e o q a r i s o n of g r a n u l a r s o i l s on a

r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y b a s i s i s simply t h e most p r a c t i c a l way of minimizing

e r r o r s of e x t r a p o l a t i o n , b u t i t does n o t e l i m i n a t e them e n t i r e l y . Cases

have been observed i n which g r a n u l a r s o i l s of s i m i l a r g r a d a t i o n have

e x h i b i t e d somewhat d i f f e r e n t p r o p e r t i e s a t t h e same r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y ,

due probably t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n s u r f a c e t e x t u r e , g r a i n shape, and

mineralogy. R e s u l t s from each of t h e Table 3-7 d a t a s o u r c e s w i l l be

summarized i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s , b u t most of t h e d e t a i l s of t h e

r e l a t e d a n a l y s e s w i l l be omitted and r e f e r e n c e d elsewhere,

Core Tube Samples

The thin-walled d r i v e t u b e s used on Agollos 15, 1% and 17

provided t h e f i r s t a c c u r a t e d i r e c t measurements of l u n a r s o i l d e n s i t y

in situ. The v a r i o u s e s t i m a t e s t h a t were made p r i o r t o Apollo 15 were

based on ambiguous d a t a , i n c l u d i n g t h e d e n s i t i e s measured i n t h e

Apollo 11, 1 2 , and 1 4 thick-walled d r i v e t u b e s , A s

e s t i m a t e s of d e n s i t y a r e p r e s e n t e d i n M t c h e l l e t a l . (1972a).

The Apollo 25-17 d r i v e t u b e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e average d e n s i t y

of t h e t o p 30 cm of t h e l u n a r s o i l i s t y p i c a l l y 1.58 g/cm3; from a depth

of 30 cm t o 60 cm, t h e average d e n s i t y i s t y p i c a l l y 1.74 g/cm3, based

on s t a t i s t i c a l averages of cove tube d e n s i t i e s . The d r i v e t u b e d a t a

from t h e s e t h r e e m i s s i o n s a r e s u m a r i z e d g r a p h i c a l l y i n Pig. 3-3. The

e x c e p t i o n a l santple is t h e double c o r e through t h e orange s o i l a t

S t a t i o n 4 on Apollo 17. The d e n s i t i e s i n t h e upper and lower s e c t i o n s

a r e approximately 0.5 g/cm3 g r e a t e r t h a n the a v e r a g e v a l u e s . The h i g h e r

d e n s i t y h a s been assumed ( M i t c h e l l et a l e , 1973a) t o b e due t o a s i g n i f i -

c a n t l y h i g h e r s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y , and consequently d i f f e r e n t composition

than t h e other lunar s o i l s .

The importance of r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y o r d e g r e e of compaction h a s

been noted e a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r i n t h e s e c t i o n on c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

and irrdex p r o p e r t i e s . The s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of l u n a r s o i l s h a s been

found t o be q u i t e v a r i a b l e , ranging from 2.9 t o g r e a t e r t h a n 3.2,

depending on t h e p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e v a r i o u s p a r t i c l e t y p e s , such a s

a g g l u t i n a t e s , b a s a l t s , b r e c c i a s , and g l a s s e s .
 48.

BULK DENSITY OF LUNAR SOIL -P

FIG. 3-3 VARIATION OF DRIVE (CORE) TUBE DENSITIES

WITH DEPTH
 Since t h e a b s o l u t e d e n s i t y of a given s o i l i s d i r e c t l y propor-

tional t o its specific gravity, absolute density is not sufficient t o

q u a n t i f y t h e degree of compactness of t h e s o i l , I n s t e a d , i t is necessary

t o determine t h e r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of t h e s o i l ( s e e Eq, 3 4 1 , Physical

p r o p e r t i e s such a s ther-1 conductivity, sonic velocity, penetration

r e s i s t a n c e , s h e a r s t r e n g t h , c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y , and d i e l e c t r i c c o n s t a n t a r e

extremely dependent on t h e i n s i t u r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y ; some s o i l p r o p e r t i e s

may vary s e v e r a l o r d e r s of magnitude between a r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of 8%

and BOO%.

Mnimum and maximum d e n s i t y d e t e r m i n a t i o n s have t h u s f a r been

performed on only one sample a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a d r i v e t u b e sample from

Apolilo 15-17, The siample, 15601,82, was t a k e n a t S t a t i o n 9A a t t h e r i m

of Hadley Mile, less t h a n 18 meters from a double c o r e t u b e sample:

150ll/l5OLO. Although no i n d e x p r o p e r t i e s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e c o r e
I

sample i t s e l f , s i n c e i t h a s n o t y e t been opened, n o r i s i t h o r n hcaw

t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s might v a r y w i t h depth, t h e 15601,82 d a t a can be used

t o e s t i m a t e r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y v s . depth a t t h i s one l o c a t i o n on t h e

lunar surf ace,

The m5nimurn and m a x i m d e n s i t i e s of l56QL,82 are shown graphi-

c a l l y in F i g , 3-4 a l o n g w i t h t h e average d e n s i t i e g i n t h e double c o r e

t u b e samples, The corresponding average r e l a t i v e d e n s i t i e s a r e 87% and

94%, r e s p e c t i v e l y . mile t h e s e v a l u e s a r e somewhat a r b i t r a r y , they do

i n d i c a t e a high r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y a t t h i s location. T h i s had p r e v i o u s l y

been p r e d i c t e d by M i t c h e l l et a l . (1972a) on the b a s i s of t h e h i g h number

of h a m e r blows r e q u i r e d t o d r i v e t h e c o r e t u b e and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

s o i l s u r f a c e surrounding t h e t u b e heaved s l i g h t l y d u r i n g d r i v i n g .
 BULK DENSITY OF LUNAR SOIL , P
/cm3
O

Cowsr Sect ion

RELATIVE DENSITY, D,- %

FIG. 3-4 PROPOSED V A R I A T I O N OF DENSITY WITH

DEPTH FOR APOLLO 15 STATION 9A
 An i d e a l i z e d d e n s i t y p r o f i l e i s a l s o shorn i n Pig. 3-4 which was

c a l c u l a t e d by assuning t h a t t h e d e n s i t y i n c r e a s e s l o g a r i t h m i c a l l y w i t h

depth, z, from a f i n i t e v a l u e , po, a t t h e s u r f a c e , The f o m of t h e

e x p r e s s i o n is:

The parameters p and k can b e d e t e m i n e d e x p l i c i t l y from t h e given d a t a ,

o
The c a l c u l a t e d d e n s i t y i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y f o r t h e f i r s t 1 0 t o 20 cm m d

t h e n slowly t h e r e a f t e r , The r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y i s 48% a t t h e s u r f a c e , 82%

a t l 0 em, 93% a t 30 cm, and 99% a t 60 cm.

PlEl i d e a l i z e d d e n s i t y p r o f i l e may a l s o be f i t t e d t o t h e average

d e n s i t y v a l u e s obtained from c o r e t u b e saxnples from Apollo 15, 16, and

17 m i s s i o n s . Average c o r e t u b e d e n s i t i e s were computed f o r t h e t o p 30 em

and f o r t h e n e x t 30 cm and awe shorn a s t h e f i r s t two e n t r i e s jm

Table 3-8, The corresponding v a l u e s of r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y were eomguted

u s i n g average v a l u e s of s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and maximm and minimum void

ratios as sh , m e n Equation (3-5) was f i t t e d t o t h e s e a v e r a g e s ,

= 1 . 2 7 g/cm3 and k = 0.121 were o b t a i n e d . These c o n s t a n t s , t o g e t h e r

w i t h Equation (3-51, w e r e used t o e v a l u a t e t h e corresponding average

d e n s i t y i n t h e t o p 15 cm a s shown i n Table 3-8 f o r subsequent comparison

with v a l u e s from a s t r o n a u t f o s t p r i n t and LRV m d MET t r a c k a n a l y s e s .

It i s i m p o r t m t t o n o t e t h a t i f a density-depth r e l a t i o n s h i p is

a r b i t r a r i l y chosen such t h a t p = i s , t h e s u r f a c e i s a t 0%
o 'min , that
r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y , t h e e f f e c t i s t o have even h i g h e r r e l a t i v e d e n s i t i e s

a t s h a l l o w e r depths t h m given by t h e i d e a l i z e d p r o f i l e . Consequently,

one i s l e d t o t h e i n e s c a p a b l e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t w h i l e t h e s u r f a c e may be

a t a low t o medium r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y , t h e s o i l j u s t 1 0 t o 20 cm down i s

t y p i c a l l y a t a very h i g h r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y , much h i g h e r t h a n would be

r e q u i r e d t o s u p p o r t t h e very s m a l l overburden stress i n t h e low l u n a r

gravity.

The r o t a r y - p e r c u s s i o n d r i l l c o r e s used on Apollos 1 5 , 16, and 17

have a l s o been extremely important i n d e t e r m i n i n g l u n a r s o i l d e n s i t y

in situ. Pig. 3-5 p r e s e n t s d e n s i t y v s . depth i n t h e d r i l l s t e m s ; t h e

d e n s i t i e s f o r t h e A p ~ l l o16 and 17 stems have been c o r r e c t e d f o r d i s t u r -

banee s u f f e r e d d u r i n g e a r t h - r e t u r n ( C a r r i e r , 1973b)* The d e n s i t i e s a r e

comparable t o t h o s e measured in t h e d r i v e t%rbes; however, t h e d i s t r i b u -

t i o n s of d e n s i t y a r e considerably more complex. The l u n a r s o i l d e n s i t y

does n o t i n c r e a s e monotonically w i t h depth; i n f a c t , t h e d e n s i t y i n t h e

Apollo 17 c o r e d e c r e a s e s from an i n i t i a l l y h i g h v a l u e of 2 g/cm3. The

t h r e e d i s t r i b u t i o n s suggest d k s t i n c t l y differend deposittonal h i s t o r i e s

f o r each of t h e sites.

The average d e n s i t y i n t h e 30-60 cm depth range i s about t h e same

a s was o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e c o r e t u b e s (1.77 vs 1.74 g/cm3 f o r t h e c o r e

t u b e s ) , b u t t h e d e n s i t y i n t h e 0-30 em r m g e appears t o b e somewhat h i g h e r

f o r t h e l u n a r d r i l l samples than f o r t h e c o r e t u b e s (1.69 v s 1.58 g/cm3) .

However t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i m i f i -

c m t because only t h r e e l u n a r d r i l l v a l u e s are a v a i l a b l e and t h e near-

s u r f a c e d e n s i t y v a l u e s appear t o b e s l i g h t l y skewed due t o t h e one uxrrusually

high v a l u e .

Astronaut F o ~ t p r i n t s

S t a t i s t i c a l v a r i a t i o n i n l u n a r s o i l r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y h a s been

a s s e s s e d (Houston e t al. (1972), M i t c h e l l e t a l . (1973b) through a n a l y s e s

of a s t r o n a u t f o o t p r i n t s . A t o t a l of 776 f o o t p r i n t s were analyzed and t h e

 DENSITY IN DRILL CORE, p
g /cm3

I 1
I
Apollo 16 Apollo 15

I
I

FIG. 3-5 V A R I A T I O N OF DENSITY WITH DEPTH FOR

LUNAR DRILL STEM SAMPLES
r e s u l t s f o r a l l s i x Apol.10 l a n d i n g s a r e s u m a r f z e d i n Table 3-9,

A s i n d i c a t e d by Table 3-7, t h e most r e l i a b l e v a l u e s from f o o t -

p r i n t analyses a r e t h e r e l a t i v e density values. Computation of t h e

p o r o s i t y v a l u e s shown r e q u i r e d on assumption f o r n and nminm The

max
assumed v a l u e s of 58,3% and 31% i n Table 3-9 axe t h e v a l u e s f o r Eernar

S o i l Simulant No. 2 (Bouston, et a l . (19731, Houston and Namiq (1971))

and t h e s e v a l u e s were assumed f o r a l l p r e v i o u s l y published f o o t p r i n t -

d e r i v e d p o r o s i t y d a t a as w e l l ,

The r e s u l t s s r i z e d i n Table 3-9 s u p p o r t t h e following conclu-

sions--derived fa p a r t from previous s t u d i e s .

(1) T h e a v e r a g e p o r o s i t y f o r t h e t o p 1 5 cm i n i n t e r c r a t e r a r e a s

i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same f o r a11 s i x Apollo l a n d i n g s i t e s , although t h e

s b s e w e d average p o r o s i t y f o r Apollo 16 was about 1 to 1.5 percentage

p o i n t s h i g h e r k h a n f o r t h e o t h e r f i v e sites,

(2) The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of p o r o s i t i e s f o r i n t e r e r a t e r a r e a s

i s about t h e same f o r a l l Apollo sites, The a r i t h m e t i c average f o r a11

sites i s about 2.55 percentage p o i n t s .

(3) The average p o r o s i t y on c r a t e r r i m s f o r a l l ApoPlo s i t e s i s

about 2.5 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s h i g h e r t h a n f o r i n t e r e r a t e r a r e a s , The

s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n f o r c r a t e r rims i s a l s o g r e a t e r than f o r i n t e r c r a t e r

areas - 4.3 r a t h e r t h a n 2.55.

(4) A t o t a l of 687 o b s e r v a t i o n s of f o o t p r i n t depth i n d i c a t e t h a t

t h e average r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y f o r i n t e r c r a t e r a r e a s f o r a l l Apollo l a n d i n g

sites i s about 65 t o 66%, I f t h e average v a l u e s of maximum and dnimzmm

p o r o s i t i e s f o r l u n a r s o i l were 58,3% and 31%, t h e corresponding v a l u e of

average p o r o s i t y would be 43,5% - a s i n d i c a t e d i n Table 3-9. Measured

 TMLE 3-9

SUMMARY OF KESULTS OF STATISTICU AMA$YSIS OF

POROSITIES DEDUCED FRQM FOOTPRINT DEPTHS

Location

I n t e r c r a t e r a r e a s , Apoklo 11 30 43.3

I n t e r c r a t e r a r e a s , Agollo 12 88 4%,8

I n t e r c r a t e r a r e a s , Apsl1a 14 38 43.3

I n t e r c r a t e r a r e a s , Apollo 15 117 43.4

I n t e r c r a t e r areas, Apollo 16 273 45.0

I n t e r c r a c e r a r e a s , Apollo 1 7 141 43,4

Intercrater areas,
a l l Apokla sites

Intercrater areas,
a l l Apollo s i t e s

O ~ a s e don assumption t h a t n = 58.3% and nmin = 31X, f o r which emax= 1 . 4

max
ande =0445.
min
t ~ e i g h t e daverage
r Each Apollo s i t e given e q u a l weight r e g a r d l e s s of no. of o b s e r v a t i o n s
v a l u e s of n and nmin on t h r e e one-gram saraples s f r e t u r n e d l u n a r
max
s o i l c i t e d earlier 3.n t h i s c h a p t e r i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e v a l u e s f o r l u n a r

s o i l g e n e r a l l y may b e c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r , however, If s o , i t may b e

n e c e s s a r y t o a d j u s t t h e b e s t e s t i m a t e of a v e r a g e p o r o s i t y upward,

perhaps as much as 7 o r 8 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s .

(5) Although t h e a v e r a g e p o r o s i t y , measured on a r e g i o n a l s c a l e ,

a p p e a r s t o b e about t h e same f o r a l l t h e s o i l - c o v e r e d l u n a r s u r f a c e ,

v e r y s i g n i f i c m t l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s a r e found t o -1st on a s m a l l s c a l e

of one o r a few meters. Core t u b e d e n s i t i e s asrd penetrometer kneasure-

wats have i n d i c a t e d t h a t these s m a l l scale v a r i a t i o n s e x i s t v e r t r c a l l y

a s we11 as l a t e r a l l y .

(6) The r e l a t l i v e d e n s i t y v a l u e s of 65 t o 66% o b t a i n e d from t h e

a s t r o n a u t f o o t p r i n t s t u d i e s (Table 3-91 a g r e e v e r y w e l l w i t h t h e v a l u e

of 64% f o r the s a m e d e p t h range, 8-15 cm, o b t a i n e d in T a b l e 3-8 f o r

average core tube d e n s i t i e s . T h i s c l o s e agreement could b e only

a p p a r e n t , however, b e c a u s e t h e v a l u e s of G and e and emin used i n

SI

Table 3-9 were a v e r a g e s f o r o n l y a v e r y few tests and s i m f f i c a n t

d e v i a t i o n s from t h e a v e r a g e a r e b o r n t o o c c u r ,

LRV and MET Tracks

LRV (15, 1 6 , and 1 7 m i s s i o n s ) and MET (14 m i s s i o n ) t r a c k s as w e l l

a s t r a c k s developed by t h e umanned v e h i c l e Lunokhod 1 have been

analyzed. The r e s u l t s are r e p o r t e d by Costes ( 1 9 7 3 ) , M i t c h e l l e t a l .

(1972a,b and 1973a). The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e a n a l y s e s i n d i c a t e t h a t , a t l e a s t

f o r t h e Apollo 14 t h r o u g h l 7 and Luna 1 4 l a n d i n g s i t e s , t h e s u r f i c i a l

l u n a r s o i l a p p e a r s t o p o s s e s s s i m i l a r a v e r a g e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s a t

a l l i n t e r c r a t e r l o c a t i o n s r e g a r d l e s s of i n i t i a l o r i g i n , g e o l o g i c h i s t o r y ,
o r g r o s s chemical composition and l o c a l environmental conditions,

S i g n i f i c a n t l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s from t h e average w e r e f r e q u e n t , however.

The procedure used t o deduce r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y d a t a from v e h i c l e t r a c k

d a t a i s b r i e f l y a s follows.

a) Use v e h i c l e and wheel geometry and l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s

t o g e t h e r w i t h t r a c k depths t o g e t dimensionless s o i l

m o b i l i t y numbers (Green and Melzer , 1971) .

b) Use c o r r e l a t i o n s between m o b i l i t y numbers and pe-netration

r e s i s t m c e gradLent ( t h e s l o p e of t h e stress v s p e n e t r a t i o n

curve) f o r g r a n u l a r s o i l s t o o b t a i n v a l u e s of p e n e t r a t i o n

r e s i s t a n c e g r a d i e n t f o r the l u n a r s u r f a c e - denoted GL.

c) Adjust G v a l u e s f o r e f f e c t of g r a v i t y t o f i n d corresponding
L
v a l u e s f o r t h e e a r t h ' s environment - denoted %.
d) U s e c o r r e l a t i o n s between G and r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y f o r t e r r e s t r i a l
E
granular s o i l s t o get r e l a t i v e density - denoted D
R"
e) Assume t h a t response t o v e h i c u l a r l o a d i s e o n t r o l l e d e n t i r e l y

by r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y , when g r a v i t y e f f e c t h a s been accounted

f o r and soil g r a d a t i o n s a r e skmil_ar, and t h a t t h e l u n a r s o i l

r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y v a l u e s a r e t h e r e f o r e t h e same a s those

obtained i n s t e p d.

Using t h i s procedure t h e r e s u l t s shorn i n Table 3-18 w e r e obtained.

The v a l u e s f o r s o f t s o i l a r e h e a v i l y weighted by t r a c k depths f o r s o f t

crater rimse Therefpre t h e v a l u e s f a r f % m e r i n t e r c r a t e r a r e a s should

b e compared w i t h corresponding v a l u e s from c o r e t u b e samples and foot-

print m a l y s e s .

Although t h e upper l i m i t of DR = 63% compares v e r y w e l l w i t h t h e

f o o t p r i n t m a l y s e s r e s u l t s , i t appears t h a t t h e v e h i c l e t r a c k d a t a
 TAsLE 3-10

AEEttaGE mTERIIBL PROPERTIES OF SURFICIBX, LmAIR SOIL

AT MOLL0 14-17 M D LmA 17 LMDTNC SITES

= Penetration resistance gradient for lunar

GL
surface

Dr = Relative density =
(emax -e)/(e,-e min I S
based on standard S T M methods

= h g J e of i n t e r n a l friction, based on t r i a x i a l
"' compression tests .
y i e l d somewhat lower r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y v a l u e s on t h e average.

Another b a s i s f o r comparison may b e used, however. me values

of GL from Table 3-10 may be used d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e c o r r e l a t i o n

d e r i v e d by Kouston and N q ( 1 9 7 l ) , t o o b t a i n v a l u e s of void r a t i o , e ,

and r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y therefrom ( u s i n g e = 1 . 4 and emin = 1 ' 4 5 f o r

mast.
LSS No. 2 a s in previous a n a l y s e s ) . Using t h i s procedure t h e v a l u e s

of GL = 0.76 t o 1.35 ~ / c mcorrespond

~ t o a range i n r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of

62% t o 71% - which a g r e e s very c l o s e l y w i t h t h e c o r e t u b e m d f o o t p r i n t

analyses values.

Complete r e s o l u t i o n of t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two procedures

would probably r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d t e s t i n g , b u t i t

appears t h a t much of t h e apparent discrepancy may b e caused by t h e use

of t w o d i f f e r e n t procedures f o r d e t e m i n h g t h e maximum v o i d r a t i o s of

t h e two d i f f e r e n t l u n a r s o i l simulanats involved,

In sumnrary i t may be concluded t h a t r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y d a t a derived

from v e h i c l e t r a c k s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h r e s u l t s from f o o t p r i n t a n a l y s e s

i n t h a t t h e average r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y was e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same f o r a l l

lunar sites s t u d i e d a d s i w i f i e a n t v a r i a t i o n s from t h e average occurred

on a s m a l l s c a l e . F u r t h e m o r e , the nunnerieal v a l u e s of average r e l a t i v e

d e n s i t y may be f o m d t o be c o n s i s t e n t a s w e l l , pending f u r t h e r s t u d y .

Boulder Tracks

T h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s e s (Hovlarad and Mrltchell, 1972; Bovland, 1970) of

I

t h e deformation mechanism a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r o l l i n g b o u l d e r s have l e d t o

t h e development of a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e boulder t r a c k geometry

and t h e mech;unical p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s o i l , i n c l u d i n g p o r o s i t y , through

correlation. Sixty-nine l u n a r boulder t r a c k s from 19 d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s

on t h e moon were examined u s i n g l u n a r o r b i t e r photography. Measure-

ments of t h e t r a c k widths show t h a t some boulders sank: consiklerably

deeper t h a n o t h e r s ,

Usiw b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y t h e o r y and are average v a l u e of cohesion

of 0.5 m/rnZ, t h e average f r i c t i o n a n g l e , 4, of t h e l u n a r s o i l was

e s t i m a t e d f o r each of t h e 69 b o u l d e r t r a c k s ,

TPhe r e l - a t i o n s h i p between 13, and p o r o s i t y ( m d ]B therefrom) f o r

R
LSS No. 2 a s r e p o r t e d by M i t c h e l l e t ax. ( 1 9 7 2 ~ )was used t o o b t a i n

r e l a t i v e density values, The me= and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n f o r t h e 68

b o u l d e r t r a c k s analyzed were 65% and about 20% r e s p e c t i v e l y Fn terns of

r e l a t i v e density. The mnem v a l u e i s t h e same as was o b t a i n e d from t h e

f o o t p r i n t s d e s c r i b e d in a p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n , b u t t h e s k m d a r d d e v i a t i o n

is c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r - - s u g g e s t k g t h a t s o i l p o r o s i t y is mre v a r i a b l e

on s l o p e s a d c r a t e r w a l l s t h a n on g e n e r a l l y l e v e l i n t e r c r a t e r a r e a s ,

The apparent agreement between t h e mean v a l u e s f o r t h e b o u l d e r

t r a c k and f o o t p r i n t d a t a may b e misleading. Due to t h e l a r g e s i z e of

t h e b o u l d e r s , the r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y e s t i m a t e s o b t a i n e d r e p r e s e n t averages

for the upper few meters, tahereas t h e f o o t p r i n t d a t a r e p r e s e n t average

v a l u e s f o r t h e upper 15 cm. It h a s been s h o r n t h a t d e n s i t y g e n e r a l l y

d e c r e a s e s w i t h depth (preceding s e c t i o n on c o r e tube s a q l e s , Mjitchelf

et a l , , 1 9 7 k ; Houston and N a d q , 1 9 7 l ) , although l o c a l e x c e p t i o n s occur.

T h e r e f o r e , agreement between t h e average v a l u e s 5ar b o u l d e r t r a c k and

f o o t p r i n t d a t a i m p l i e s t h a t t h e average r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of t h e t o p 15 cm
I

of t h e b o u l d e r t r a c k s l o p e s must b e lower t h a n t h e v a l u e o b t a i n e d from

I

the f o o t g r h t s f o r level i n t e r c r a t e r areas, but it i s d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i -

mate p r e c i s e l y how much lower,

Penetration R e s i s t a c e
v

I n Chapter 2 i t was noted t h a t s e v e r a l t y p e s of d e v i c e s have

been used t o p e n e t r a t e t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e and t h a t t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e

tests have been used t o o b t a i n d e n s i t y and s t r e n g t h v a r i a t i o n s w i t h

depth.

I n a subsequent s e c t i o n devoted s p e c i f i c a l l y t o p e n e t r a t i o n

r e s i s t a n c e these r e s u l t s a r e presented. This presentation includes a

c o l l e c t i o n of envelopes of stress v s . p e n e t r a t i o n curves f o r Apollos 14,

15, and l J and Lurro&od I. The s l o p e s of t h e s e stress v s , p e n e t r a t i o n

c u r v e s , GL9 v a r y widely from about 1 t o 6.6 ~ / c mwith

~ an average

value of about 3.8 ~ / c m ~ r.h i s average s l o p e v a l u e , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e

c o r r e l a t i o n developed by Houston and N q , (1971) m d v a l u e s of

e = 1 . 4 and emin = 0.45 f o r LSS No. 2 , corresponds t o an average

max

r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y v a h e of about 83% t o 84X, The range i n G

L v
a l u e s
corresponds t o a range i n r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y v a l u e s from about 63% t o 95%.

By comparison w i t h t h e average v a l u e of DI( = 662 f o r t h e f o o t p r i n t

a n a l y s i s t h e average p e n e t r a t i a n resistance r e h t i v e d e n s i t y v a l u e of

83% t o 84% appears considerably h i g h e r . However, t h e f o o t p r i n t a n a l y s e s

r e s u l t s p e r t a i n t o t h e t a p 15 cm whereas t h e p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e

v a l u e s p e r t a i n t o t h e 0-68 cm depth range ( s e e Table 3 - 9 1 . Prom Table 3-8

t h e a v e r a g e r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y o b t a i n e d f o r t h e upper 60 em from c o r e t u b e

samples i s about 83%lwhlch i s i n e x c e l l e n t agreement w i t h t h e v a l u e from

t h e p e n e t r a t t o n r e s i s t a n c e tests.

I n making t h e s d comparisons i t must b e noted, however, t h a t t h e

I

average r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y v a l u e s from p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e tests a r e

based on o n l y about 9 tests and a r e t h e r e f o r e n o t h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t

statistically.
 The r e s u l t s from each of t h e s t u d i e s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n

r i z e d i n Table 3-11. The r e s u l t s i n Table 3-11 and t h e

d i s e u s s i o n s i n t h e preceding s e c t i o n s may b e used ts conclude t h e

following: -

(I) The average relative d e n s i t y a d p o r o s i t y f o r t h e upper 15 cm

in i n t e r c r a t e r areas i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same f o r a l l s i x Agol1.o l a n d i n g

sites and perllaps f o r a l l s a i l - c o v e r e d l o c a t i o n s on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e - - i f

areas a r e c o n s i d e r e d on a s c a l e of a few h m d r e d meters.

(2) The b e s t estiimates for t h e a v e r a g e b u l k d e n s i t i e s f o r the

lunar s u r f a c e a r e as follows:

Depth Range, cm

0-15 1.50 .Q5

0-36 1.58 + .05

30-60 1 . 7 4 2 .05

6-60 l e Q 6 1 .05

(3) The v a r i a t i o n of average bulk density, p, w i t h d e p t h can be

d e s c r i b e d by

p = p, + kln (z+l)

where z - depth in cm

0, = 1.27 g/cm3

k = 0.121

b u t d e v i a t i o n s from t h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n of d e n s i t y i n c r e a s e w i t h depth

m y be v e r y f r e q u e n t and pronounced,

( 4 ) The b e s t e s t i m a t e s f o r t h e a v e r a g e r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y f o r t h e
l u n a r s u r f a c e a r e a s follows:
 TABLE 3-11
OF RESU&TS FROM DEMSPTY AND

POROSIW STUDIES

Source

Core t u b e samples

1 . 5 8 2 .85

1.74 * .85

1.66 +I .05

Lunar d r i l l samples 1.69 2 .08

1.77 It: .08

Astronaut f o o t p r i n t

Boulder tracks

' ~ a l c u l a t e d , based on a v e r a g e Gs = 3.1, e = 1 . 7 and emin = 0.7.

max
 (5) S t a t i s t i c a l s t u d i e s of f o o t p r h t s , LRV and MET t r a c k s , and

boulder t r a c k s show t h a t r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y v a r i e s considerably on a

s c a l e of 1 o r 2 meters l a t e r a l l y and i n d i c a t e t h a t a b e s t e s t i m a t e of

t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i s about 15 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s f o r r e l a t i v e

density. Histograms (Houston, et a l . 1972) of d e n s i t y d a t a i n d i c a t e a n

e s s e n t i a l l y normal, d i s t r i b u t i o n with a s l i g h t s k e m e s s toward t h e high

density s i d e ,

(6) Average v a l u e s of a b s o l u t e and r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y f o r t h e

lunar s u r f a c e c o t a t t h i s t i m e be e a n f i d e n t l y converted t o v a l u e s of

p o r o s i t y Q X void r a t i o because of i n s u f f i c i e n t d a t a an v a l u e s of G and

s
emax and emin f o r l u n a r s o i l . Based on a very s m a l l number of t e s t s - - t o o

s m a l l t o g i v e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t averages--the following averages

have been t e n t a t i v e l y proposed and used i n t h i s and o t h e r s e c t i o n s of

t h i s report.

e e
-
Gs -max P
rnin

I f t h e s e v a l u e s were indeed v a l i d a s averages f a r the l u n a r s u r f a c e , t h e

"best estimate" average v a l u e s of p = 1.50 g/cm3 and DR = 65% f o r t h e

uppermost 1 5 cm given i n conclusions 2 and 4 would correspond t o a void

r a t i o of 1.05 and a p o r o s i t y of 51%.

 (7) The average r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y on c r a t e r rims f o r a l l Apollo

sites i s about 10 t o 1 2 percentage p o i n t s lower t h a n f o r i n t e r c r a t e r

areas. The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n f o r c r a t e r r i m d e n s i t y i s a l s o g r e a t e r

khan f o r i n t e r c r a t e r a r e a s .

(8) I n c o n s i d e r a i o n of t h e d e a t h r a g e s t o which each of t h e

methods i n Table 3-11 apply, t h e boulder t r a c k d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t aver-

age r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y on s l o p e s and c r a t e r w a l l s where b o u l d e r t r a c k s

were g e n e r a l l y observed i s lesser and more v a r i a b l e t h m f o r l e v e l i n t e r -

c r a t e r areas. T h i s o b s e w a t i o n i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e hypothesis t h a t

downslope movements may loosen l u n a r s o i l somewhat.

(9) The apparent mechanism c o n t r o l l i n g t h e r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of

l u n a r s o i l i n t h e p l a h s a r e a s seems t o b e t h a t t h e c o n s t a n t m e t e o r i t e

and d c s s m e t e o r i t e bombardment maintains a l o o s e , s t i r r e d up s u r f a c e ;

but d i r e c t l y beneath t h e s u r f a c e , t h e v i b r a t i o n s due t o innumerable

shock waves shake and d e n s i f y t h e s o i l t o a v e r y h i g h r e l a e v e d e n s i t y .

Tbe sub-surface s o i l may even b e o v e r c m s o l i d a t e d a t some l o c a t i o n s ;

i.e., t h e s o i l may have been d e n s i f i e d under a g r e a t e r confinfng stress

at some time i n t h e p a s t than i s p r e s e n t l y a p p l i e d t o i t by t h e o v e r l y i n g

soil*
 PENETRATION RES I STMCE

A s n o t e d i n Chapter 2 a v a r i e t y of t y p e s of p e n e t r a t i o n tests

h a s been used t o probe t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e , r a n g i n g from t h e pushing

and d r i v i n g of f l a g p o l e s and c o r e t u b e s t o q u a n t i t a t i v e nreasurements

u s i n g t h e Self-Recording Penetrometer, The r e s u l t s of t h e s e tests

have been used t o i n f e r d e t a i l s of v a r i a b i l i t y and s t r a t i g r a p h y a s

w e l l as a b a s i s f o r q u a n t i t a t j i v e estinzates of d e n s i t y , p o r o s i t y , and

s t r e n g t h parameters,

An a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e l o c a l m d r e g i o n a l v a r i a b i l i t i e s i n s o i l

c o n d i t i o n s is importarnt f o r a t l e a s t two reasons:

(1) Some i n s i g h t i s provided i n t o t h e complexity of l u n a r

s u r f a c e h i s t o r y and p r o c e s s e s .

( 2 ) Some assessment can b e made of t h e p r o b a b l e v a r i a t i o n s i n

t h e numerical v a l u e s of s o i l p r o p e r t i e s t h a t may be e w e c t e d

f o r a l m a r s o i l model w i t h s p e c i f i e d average v a l u e s .

M i t c h e l l e t a l . (197213, 1973b) have shown how t h e p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t

d a t a o b t a i n e d d u r i n g t h e Apollo 16 mission could be used t o deduce

d e t a i l s of t h e n e a r - s u r f a c e s o i l s a t t h e D e s c a r t e s laanding s i t e . Pig, 3-6

shows good c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e v s , depth

d a t a a t a p o i n t on Stone Mo~mtainmd t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y s h o w i n r a ~ n

a d j a c e n t double c o r e t u b e sample, Treadwell (L974) h a s shown t h a t pene-

t r o m e t e r tests can b e a s e n s i t i v e i n d i c a t o r of l a p r i n g i n soil d e p o s i t s

of a t y p e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e on t h e M a n , P r e v i o u s l y Houston a d Namiq

(1971) had shown t h a t p e n e t r a t i o n test r e s u l t s could b e used t o assess

t h e s u i t a b i l i t y s f a l u n a r s o i l simulant t o c h a r a c t e r i z e a c t u a l l u n a r

s o i l behavior.
 Abundant coarse rock f rggmentls

Distinctly dinar grained material

Coarse - grained layer with

abundant rock f ragmerats
decreasing with depth

Fins-grained tone with sparse

rock fragments
Layer of rack f r a g maraDs
Finest grained layer in core lube

Fine-grained mafiarial; denser

than overlying layer

250 508 750 10BQ 1250 lSOO 17s

STRESS- k ~ / m ~

FIG. 3 - 6 CORRELATION OF APOLLO 16 STATION 4

DOUBLE - CORE - TUBE STRATIGRAPHY WITH
SRP TEST 4
 An approximate s o i l , p r o f i l e between t h e S t a t i o n 10 double c o r e

tube s i t e and t h e deep d r i l l s i t e i n t h e fiSEP a r e a of Apollo 16 i s

s h o w i n F i g , 3-7. P e n e t r a t i o n test d a t a i n conjclmetion w i t h

X-radiographs of t h e d r i l l - c o r e stem and t h e S t a t i o n 10 c o r e sample

w e r e used t o develop t h i s p r o f i l e , These examples, a s w e l l a s t h e

d i s c u s s i o n of s t r e n g t h i n t h e next s e c t i o n and t h e a n a l y s e s of p o r o s i t y

and d e n s i t y p r e s e n t e d p r e v i o u s l y , p r o v i d e evidence of t h e u s e f u l n e s s

of p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t i n g f o r e v a l u a t i o n of s o i l p r o p e r t i e s i n s i t u ,

Because such tests a r e s i m p l e and r a p i d and a p p a r a t u s of extreme sophis-

t i c a t i o n i s n o t r e q u i r e d , t h e y o f f e r much p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e e x p l o r a t i o n

of e x t r a t e r r e s t r i a l b o d i e s i n t h e f u t u r e .

A l l p e n e t r a t i o n d a t a a b t a i n e d on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e a v a i l a b l e t o

t h e a u t h o r s a r e i n c l u d e d i n Fig. 3-8, where t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e

penetrometers used a r e a l s o i n d i c a t e d . The zones s h o w encompass

d a t a obtained u s i n g t h e SRP, t h e Apollo Simple Penetrometer, and t h e

S o v i e t Lunokhod I; a d d i t i o n a l d a t a were o b t a i n e d an Lunokhod 11 b u t

have n o t been published.

From F i g , 3-8 i t may b e s e e n t h a t :

(1) A c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n e x i s t s between t h e r e s u l t s o f

d i f f e r e n t p e n e t r a t i o n tests.

(2) Although t h e 327 Lunokhod I t e s t r e s u l t s a 1 1 f e l l w i t h i n

a r a t h e r narrow band, t h e depth i n v e s t i g a t e d was smaL1,

( 3 ) On Apollo 16 g r e a t e r s o i l v a r i a b i l i t y was encountered on

t h e s l o p e s of Stone Mountain ( S t a t i o n 4) t h a n i n t h e Plains

a r e a ( S t a t i o n 10) ,

( 4 ) The average p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e on t h e P l a i n s i s g r e a t e r
t h a n on Stone Mountain,
 Lunar surface
\

Double -
core- tube
site and
S R P tests
I and 2

HORIZONTAL DISTANCE - m

FIG. 3-7 APPROXIMATE SOIL PROFILE BETWEEN APOLLO 16

STATlON 10 DOUBLE - CORE -TUBE SlTE AND DIEEP-
DRILL-STEM SlTE IN ALSEP AREA
 In a d d i t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s have i n d i c a t e d t h a t p e n e t r a t i o n

r e s i s t a n c e a t S t a t i o n 4 on S t o n e Momtain b e a r s l i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p

t o l o c a l s l o p e o r s u r f a c e appearance. Thus g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s concern-

i n g t h e s t r e n g t h of s o i l s on s l o p i n g t e r r a i n are n o t p o s s i b l e ,

ILITY AND ST

Introduction

A v a r i e t y of methods has been used f o r deduction of t h e s t r e n g t h

of l u n a r s o i l s a s h d i c a t e d i n Chapter 2, Most approaches have r e s u l t e d

tes of cohesion a d f r c c t i o n a n g l e (Eqn. 2-1) and have been

based on a n a l y s e s of f a i l u r e c o n d i t i o n s . L i k e t e r r e s t r i a l s o i l s of

comparable g r a d a t i o n , t h e evidence i n d i c a t e s c l e a r l y t h a t t h e cohesion

and f r i c t i o n asagle of l u n a r s o i l s depend s t r o n g l y on p o r o s i t y and

r e l a t i v e density, V a r i a t i o n s i n f r l c t i o n a n g l e and cohesion w i t h

p o r o s i t y f o r a crushed b a s a l t l u n a r s o i l simulant a r e s h o r n i n F i g s ,

3-9 and 3-10, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Information on the d e f o r m a b i l i t y of l u n a r s o i l s a t s u b - f a i l u r e

stresses i s very l i m i t e d . No s t r e s s - s t r a i n d a t a h a s been o b t a i n e d f o r

tests on u n d i s t u r b e d s o i l s e i t h e r i n s i t u o r i n t h e l a b s r a t o y .

Although moduli of deformation might be e s t i m a t e d from s e i s m i c wave

v e l o c i t y d a t a , t h e v a l u e s o b t a i n e d can b e expected t o p e r t a i n t o

b e h a v i o r a t only very low s t r a i n s ,

A number of e s t i m a t e s o f eohesfon and f r i c t i o n a n g l e were

developed from d a t a o b t a i n e d p r i o r t o t h e Apollo m i s s i o n s , These v a l u e s

are s u m a r i z e d in Table 3-12. The f a c t t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n

e x i s t s between t h e e s t i m a t e d v a l u e s i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g i n view of t h e
 a = VOID RATIO
I/~,WHERE =n/ (I- n)

FIG. 3-9 FRICTION ANGLE: AS A FUNC"TION OF POROSITY FOR

LUNAR SOIL SlMULANT NO. 2 (GROUND BASALT)
FIG. 3-10 COHESION AS A FUNCTION OF POROSITY FOR
LUNAR SOIL SIMULANT NO. 2 (GROUND BASALTI
assumptions and u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e m a l y s e s . It i s important a l s o

t o n o t e t h a t t h e r e s u l t s of subsequent a n a l y s e s have s h a m t h a t such

v a r i a t i o n s can b e real, a r i s i n g mainly a s a eonseguenee of v a r i a t i o n s

i n density.

During t h e last and t h e f i r s t t h r e e Apollo m i s s i o n s , no f o r c e o r

deformation measuring d e v i c e s were used t o d e t e r n i n e d i r e c t l y t h e i n -

p l a c e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of l u n a r s o i l . Consequently, i n f e r e n c e s on

t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s were made from ( a ) observed deformations r e s u l t i n g

from t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e s o i l w i t h o b j e c t s of known geonetry and

weight i n c l u d i n g t h e I E T , t h e LRV, and A s t r o n a u t s boot-; (b) assumptions

on t h e ranges of l o a d s a p p l i e d by t h e a s t r o n a u t s i n pushing s h a f t s ,

p o l e s , and t u b e s i n t o t h e ground; ( c ) s l o p e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s e s a p p l i e d

t o n a t u r a l c r a t e r s l o p e s , i n c i p i e n t s l o p e f a i l u r e s i n soft-rimmed

c r a t e r s due t o l o a d s i q o s e d by walking a s t p o n a u t s , the c o l l a p s e of

t h e s o i l mechanics t r e n c h during Apollo 15 and Apollo 16; (d) LM

l a n d i n g dynamics and s o i l e r o s i o n by t h e LM e n g i n e e h a u s t ; ( e ) pene-

t r a t i o n tests on l o o s e and densely compacted Apollo 1%b u l k sample;

( f ) a n a l y s i s of open h o l e s t a b i l i t y ; (g) b o u l d e r t r a c k a n a l y s i s

(Apollo 17); and (h) s t u d i e s on s i m u l a t e d l u n a r s o i l . Quantitative data

obtained u s h g t h e Self-Recording Penetrometer were used t o deduce

s t r e n g t h parameter v a l u e s f o r l o c a t i o n s a t t h e 40110 15 and Apollo 1 6

l a n d i n g sites. D i r e c t s t r e n g t h measurements have been made u s i n g one

sample of s o i l r e t u r n e d by Apollo 12 mission ( c a r r i e r e t al., 1972, 1973).

A s u m a r y of t h e s t r e n g t h e s t i m a t e s made u s i n g t h e s e methods is

given i n Table 3-13. D e t a i l s of t h e a n a l y s e s can b e found i n t h e i n d i c a t e d

references.
 77.

The p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e curves o b t a l n e d d u r i n g Apollo 16 u s i n g

t h e SRP i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e s o i l i s n o t homogeneous w i t h depth a t t h e

p o i n t s t e s t e d i n t h e Descartes region, and v a r i a t i o n s i n l a t e r a l

d i r e c t i o n s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t t o p r e c l u d e d i r e c t conagarison of

p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e curves f o r cones of two s i z e s . As a r e s u l t a

utlique s o l u t i o n f o r c and c) i s p o s s i b l e only i n s p e c i a l c a s e s , such

as seen t h e soil is homogeneous w i t h depth. One such c a s e was f o r a

test a t S t a t i o n 4 u p h i l l from t h e LRV. For t h i s c a s e t h e v a l u e s of

c = 0.6 m/m2 and 4 = 46.5' (Table 3-13) were obtained. I n most c a s e s ,

however, t h e r e s u l t s a r e b e s t expressed i n terms of cohesion a s a

f u n c t i o n of f r i c t i o n a n g l e r e q u i r e d t o g i v e t h e measured p e n e t r a t i o n

r e s i s t a n c e f o r a given p e n e t r a t i o n depth. T h i s h a s been done f o r t h e

remainder of t h e SRP r e s u l t s from Apolllo 16.

Flg. 3-41 shows comlsinations of c and 4 t h a t would account f o r

t h e measured v a l u e s of p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e f o r t h r e e a d d i t i o n a l tests

a t S t a t i o n 4, Apollo 16. R e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e shown f o r v a l u e s of t h e

r a t i o of d e p t h t o eone-base diameter (D/B) of 10, 20, and 30, which

correspond t o a c t u a l depths of l 2 , 8 , 25.6, and 37.4 em. A point is

aPso shown on F i g s . 3 - l l ( a ) and 3 - l l ( b ) t o show t h e s t r e n g t h given i n

Table 3-13.

It i s c l e a r from Fig. 3-11 t h a t a l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s in s o i l

s t r e n g t h w i t h i n t h e l o c a l i z e d a r e a of S t a t i o n 4. Low and h i g h s t r e n g t h

a r e a s a t depth a r e n o t r e a d i l y d i s c e r n i b l e by o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e s u r f a c e

o r even on t h e b a s i s of b o o t p r i n t s .

Fig. 3-12 shows t h e c-4 r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r a p o i n t n e a r t h e double

c o r e t u b e s i t e a t S t a t i o n 10, Apollo 16. The c u r v e s i n d i c a t e t h a t s o i l

 NOTE -
R e l a t i v e positions of c - 4
relationship for d i f f e r e n t D / B
values i n d i c o t e decrease in s o i l
density wifh depth for 8 = 5.3
to 17.5 c m a t Station IQ, test I .

Station 10
SRP t e s t i
(index 10)

25 30 35 40 45 50 55
ANGLE OF INTERNAL F R I C T I O N , + - DEG

FIG. 3-12 R E L A ~ O N O O I S I P SF COHESION AS A FUNCTION OF

FRICTION ANGLE REQUIRED TO DEVELOP MEASURED
PENETRATION RESISTANCES AT AWLLO 16 STATION 10,
TEST I .
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s t r e n g t h (and t h e r e f o r e probably d e n s i t y ) d e c r e a s e w i t h depth, which

i s t h e o p p o s i t e of what would b e expected i f t h e s o i f d e p o s i t were

homogeneous. Fig. 3-12 shows a l s o t h a t a t a depth of 6 em, %he s o i l

a t S t a t i o n 10 was s t r o n g e r t h a n t h a t f o r one test a t S t a t i o n 4 .

The r e s u l t s of two S W tests i n t h e S t a t i o n 10 a r e a suggested

t h a t t h e s o i l was s u f f i c i e n t l y homogeneous t h a t s p e c i f i c s o l u t i o n f o r

c a d @ c o u l d be made based on t h e p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e s a t

two d e p t h s (12.8 a d 25.6 em.). These r e s u l t s a r e a l s o l i s t e d i n

Table 3-13.

DPs c u s s ken

From t h e h f o m a t i o n s u m a r i z e d i n Table 3-13, a s w e l l a s consider-

a t i o n of a l l o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s of l u n a r s o i l behavior as r e l a t e d t o

p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t - a c e and s t r e n g t h , t h e following g e n e r a l p i c t u r e has

evolved :

1. The s t r e n g t h of l u n a r s o i l s r e s u l t s from b o t h f r i c t i o n a l ( s t r e s s -

dependent) and cohesive coqonen&S.

2. The f r i c t i o n m g l e in most c a s e s W p e a r s t o be w i t h i n t h e

range of 35 t o 508, w i t h t h e higher v a l u e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h lower

p o r o s i t i e s and h i g h e r d e n s i t i e s .

3. The cohesion is i n t h e range of 0.1 t o 1 . 0 m/mZ(.015-0.15 psi),

a g a i n w i t h t h e h i g h e r v a l u e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i @ d e n s i t y a d law p a r a s i t y .

T e r r e s t r i a l s o i l s of comparable g r a d a t i o n do n o t g e n e r a l l y exIaibit a

cohesion of such a l a r g e magmritude. A d e t a i l e d s t u d y of t h e meehaxlism of

cohesion development i n l m a r s o i l i s i n p r o g r e s s .

4. On t h e average, s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s w i t h depth, which i s

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e f i n d i n g t h a t i n g e n e r a l d e n s i t y i n c r e a s e s w i t h depth,

as shorn e a r l i e r .
 5, S u b s t a n t i a l v a r i a t i o n s i n s t r e n g t h may e x i s t between p o i n t s

only a few cm, a p a r t . T h i s i s n o t s u u p r i s i n g , however, i n view of t h e

s u b s t m t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e n s i t y and p o s s i b l y g r a d a t i o n t h a t may

a l s o e x i s t between t h e same p o i n t s .

6. Although t h e evidence i s n o t e x t e n s i v e o r c o n c l u s i v e , s t r e n g t h

v a r i a b i l i t y appears t o b e less on p l a i n s than on s l o p e s .

7. LacaE s l o p e and s u r f a c e a p p e a r m c e provide l i t t l e i n d i c a t i o n

of whether t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e u n d e r l y i n g soil i s h i g h o r l o w ,

8, I n s u f f i c i e n t d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e o r have been analyzed a s y e t

t o p r o v i d e s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n s between r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y and s t r e n g t h

parameters f o r l u n a r s o i l s of t h e sme o r similar g r a d a t i o n , Such

c o r r e l a t i o n s are expected t o e x i s t , h m e v e r , m d a d d i t i o n a l s t u d y i s

recomended.

9, a t h a u g h n o t y e t s h o w s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e r e should b e some

dependence of s t r e n g t h on composition as p a r t i c l e sines, shapes, and

d u r a b i l i t y a r e c s n t r o l l e d by t h e i r mineralogy,

To our h o w l e d g e t h e only d i r e c t measurements of t h e s t r e n g t h of

r e t u r n e d l u n a r s o i l samples w e r e t h o s e of Gromow e t a % , (1971) and

C a r r i e r et a l e (1932, 1973). I n t h e l a t t e r ease, t h r e e d i r e c t shear

t e s t s were done u s i n g S m p l e No. 12001, 119 f rom Apollo 1 2 , The sample

was r e t u r n e d t o t h e LRL a t a p r e s s u r e of lom2 t o r r and t h e n s t o r e d a t

lom9 t o r r f o r more than a y e a r b e f o r e t e s t i n g . T e s t specimens were

prepared at a p r e s s u r e less t h a n 2 x lom6 t o r r and t e s t e d a t Less than

5 x 1 0 t o~
rr.~
 The t h r e e tests were i n s u f f i c i e n t t o allow independent d e t e r -

mhnation of 6: and $. The cohesion was probably i n t h e range of 0 t o

0.7 w/m2. Although t h i s o r d e r of magnitude i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e

v a l u e s of cohesion deduced on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e (0.1 t o 1.0 w/m2),

t h e f r i c t i o n a n g l e s , 28" f o r a l o o s e sample and 34-35" f o r medium

dense samples, w e r e somewhat less thaft i n d i c a t e d i n Table 3-13 f o r

the s o i l in-situ, These v a l u e s of $ a r e a l s o l e s s than h a s been found

f o r ground b a s a l t of c o w a r a b l e g r a d a t i o n ,

Carrier et a1. (1972, 1973) s u g g e s t t h a t w h i l e t h e e x a c t cause

f o r t h e lower s t r e n g t h of t h e l u n a r s o i l t h a n t h e s i m u l m t i s n o t k n o w ,

it may be a r e s u l t of p a r t i c l e composition d i f f e r e n c e s . The ground

b a s a l t c o n s i s t s of s t r o n g , coherent rock f r a p e n t s ; whereas, t h e leznar

sizmple c o n t a i n e d many b r e c c i a s , a g g l u t i n a t e s , and o t h e r weakly cemented

p a r t i c l e s .wrhif:h could break down. d u r i n g s h e a r , A s i d has been e s t a b l i s h e d

t h a t r e d u c t i o n of p a r t i c l e s i z e i n s i m u l a n t s l e a d s t o a d e c r e a s e i n

f r i c t i o n a n g l e , t h e s a m may have been t r u e f o r t h e l m a r s m p l e ,

I f t h i s i n t e w r e t a t i o n i s c o r r e c t concerning t h e r e l a t i v e

s t r e n g t h s of t h e sample and t h e s i m u l a n t , i t s t i l l remains t o account

f o r t h e low v a l u e s of 4 f o r t h e sample a s compared t o t h e i n - s i t u v a l u e s

l i s t e d i n T a b l e 3-13. Exposure t o an atmospheric p r e s s u r e of torr

d u r i n g e a r t h r e t u r n w i t h consequent contamination of p a r t i c l e s u r f a c e s

i s one p o s s i b i l i t y . Alternatively, or additionally, p a r t i c l e b r e a k d m

during compression and s h e a r may have been a f a c t o r ,

Reference t o Carrier e t a l . 8 ~d a t a i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e samples were

s u b j e c t e d t o v e r t i c a l normal s t r e s s e s of 30 t o 70 m/m2 p r i o r t o shear.

S e m s s e s of t h e s e magnitudes would correspond to p r e s s u r e s a t depths of

9 t o 2 1 meters on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e . assuming a d e n s i t y of 2.0 gm/cm3.

The v a l u e s in Table 3-13 a r e f o r s o i l a t d e p t h s g e n e r a l l y l e s s than

a few ten.s of em, where t h e confining p r e s s u r e s a r e ars o r d e r of magnitude

less. Thus the compressive s t r e s s e s i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y tests may have

been w e l l i n t o t h e range where p a r t i c l e breakdown becorns important;

whereas, on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e t h e s t r e n g t h was not iinflueneed by this

e f f e c t * Nore s t u d y of t h e s e q u e s t i o n s i s needed.
 The eompressibil i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of l m a r s o i l have been

d e r i v e d p r i m a r i l y from. t h e following two s o u r c e s :

a) Laboratory tests on l u n a r s o i l s i m u l m t s whose o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s

have been found t o b e s i m i l a r t o l u n a r s o i l

b) Compression d a t a o b t a h e d a s a p a r t of a d i r e c t s h e a r test

program ow, r e t u r n e d Agollo 12 s o i l ( C a r r i e r , e t a l e , 1972,

19731,

An additional. s o u r c e of d a t a f o r d e r i v a t i o n of c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of l u n a r s o i l i s t h e c o l l e c t i o n of measured a s t r o n a u t

f o o t p r i n t depths. A methad f o r u t i l i z i n g t h i s h o t p r i n t d a t a w i l l b e

outlined,

En a d d i t i o n , a procedure f o r making i m e d i a t e u s e of t h e f o o t -

p r i n t depth rrmeasurements t o compute moduli of subgrade r e a c t i o n w i l l

be d i s c u s s e d ,

Lunar S o i l Simulants

P a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e lurnar s o i l sanrpfes becaflpe

a v a i l a b l e , l w a r s o i l s i m u l a n t s were used t o i n f e r t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y

of l u n a r s o i l s . Many s i m u l a n t s were developed and s t u d i e d a t t h e

U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o m i a , Berkeley (UC13) , MSC, WFC, and Waternays

Experiment S t a t i o n (WES). The simulant which appears t o match t h e

v1
averageq8a c t u a l l u n a r s o i l b e s t , p a r t i c u l a r l y from among those developed

a t UCB, i s d e s i g n a t e d Lunar S o i l Simulant No. 2 (LSS No, 2),

C o m p r e s s i b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of LSS No. 2 a r e shown i n

Figure 3-13 i n terns of t h e void r a t i o - l o g p r e s s u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r

various i n i t i a l densities,
 Tbe compression curves were s l i g h t l y curved, b u t t h e s t r a i g h t

l i n e s d r a m i n F i g , 3-13 a r e very good approximations of t h e raw d a t a ,

S t r a i g h t l i n e s were drawn s o t h a t s i m p l e two-paranreter e q u a t i o n s could

be w r i t t e n f o r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p ( M i t c h e l l , et a l . l 9 7 l b ) ,

Gravity s t r e s s e s on t h e test s a p l e s i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y a r e

n e g l i g i b l e compared t o t h e a p p l i e d stresses. he ref o r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n

t e r r e s t r i a l and l u n a r g r a v i t y should n o t s e r v e t o i n v a l i d a t e t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n F i g s , 3-13 f o r a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e l m a r s u r f a c e ,

LSS No. 2 has a g r a d a t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h e average f o r mst lurnar

s o i l s ( s e e Fig. 3-2 and M i t c h e l l e t a l e , l 9 7 l b ) .

The c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y d a t a i n Fig, 3-13 were used t o estimate t h e

probable v a r i a t i o n i n s o i l d e n s i t y w i t h depth f o r l u n a r s o i l , assuming

t h e s o i l . w e r e d e p o s i t e d a t t h e s u r f a c e i n t h i n l a y e r s of one o r two

c e n t i m e t e r s t h i c k n e s s and subsequently compressed under the weight of

new soil d e p o s i t e d on top, w i t h o u t s t i r r i n g o r mixing ( M i t c h e l l and

Houston, 1973) . The r e s u l t s of t h e s e computations f o r l u n a r g r a v i t y

are shown i n Fig, 3-14,

It should b e emphasized t h a t t h e p r o f i l e s shown i n Fig. 3-14 a p p l y

only t o e a s e s where s o i l mixing and d i s r u p t i o n a r e a b s e n t . It i s

b e l i e v e d t h a t meteroid impact causes s u f f i c i e n t mixing t o make u n i f o m

p r o f i l e s , a s shown i n Fig. 3-14, v e q rare on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e . The

p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a c e v s , depth r e l a t i o n s h i p s A t a i n e d u s i n g t h e SW

provided s t r o n g evidence t h a t non-unifom v a r i a t i o n s of d e n s i t y with

depth was more t h e r u l e than t h e exception.

It is mre probable t h a t segments of t h e Fig. 3-14 p r o f i l e s are

f r e q u e n t l y interbedded, w i t h t h e denser l a y e r s sometimes o v e r l y i n g l o o s e r

l a y e r s , although d e n s i t y i n c r e a s e w i t h depth i s probably much more common.

 for Gs = 3.1

P REDICTED V A R I A T I O N OF V O I D RATIO
FIG. 3-14
WITH DEPTH FOR ACTUAL LUNAR SOIL
UNDER LUNAR GRAVITY
It i s a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t micrsmeteroid impacts have e f f e c t i v e l y

loosened t h e upper few cm. of s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l and t h a t deeper m a t e r i a l

may have been d e n s i f i e d by shock v i b r a t i o n from medium t o l a r g e meteroids,

Thus t h e a c t u a l r a t e of d e n s i t y i n c r e a s e w i t h depth, on t h e average, i s

b e l i e v e d t o b e somewfiat h i g h e r thrsln t h a t i n d i c a t e d by Pig. 3-14 (see

s e c t i o n on Density and P o r o s i t y ) ,

A l i m i t e d n u d e r of one-dimensional compression and d i r e c t s h e a r

t e s t s were perfoaned by C a r r i e r e t a l . ( 1 9 7 3 a ) s n j u s t a v e r 200 g o$ scail

from A p o l l s 12 (Sample Noe 12001,1119) under a vacuusln of less than

E x torr.

T e s t specimens were compressed one-dimensionally p r i o r t o s h e a r i n g

and the compression d a t a o b t a i n e d h a s been p l o t t e d i n Fig. 3-15 f o r

cornparison w i t h curves o b t a i n e d f o r LSS No. 2. This comparison i n d i c a t e s

t h a t LSS No. 2 h a s comparable c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y at low i n i t i a l void r a t i o

b u t s l i g h t l y h i g h e r corrnpressibility a t h i g h e r i n i t i a l void r a t i o ,

However, c o m p r e s s i b i l i t i e s o f two g r a n u l a r s o i l s a r e b e s t compared

when t h e d e n s i t i e s have been n o m a l i z e d by comparing t h e s o i l s a t t h e

same r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y . A comparison of t h e Apollo 12 l u n a r s o i l w i t h

LSS Na. 2 on a r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y b a s i s i s d i f f i c u l t because of Back of

d a t a on t h e maximum and mknimum d e n s i t y v a l u e s f o r t h e l u n a r s o i l .

Houston et a l . (1973) chose v a l u e s of 1 . 7 and 0.7 f o r e and e

max min
f o r "average" l u n a r s o i l , b u t t h e d e v i a t i o n s from t h e average a r e known

t o be l a r g e . I f t h e v a l u e s pmin = 1.15 g/cm3 and pmax = 1.93 g / c m 3

o b t a i n e d by J a f f e (1972) f o r an Apollo 1 2 sample a r e used t o g e t h e r w i t h

an assumed v a l u e of Gs = 3.1, v a l u e s of 1.7 and 0.6 a r e o b t a i n e d f o r

e
max
and e
min
. Jaf f e ' s v a l u e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h e
max
= 1.4 and e
min
= .45

f o r LSS No. 2, were used t o contpare t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l f t y of LSS Noe 2

and t h e Agollo 12 sample on a r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y b a s i s i n F i g . 3-16. The

cararpressibilities compare q u i t e c l o s e l y w i t h LSS No, 2 appearing very

s l i g h t l y less compressible when compared t h i s way,

These compayisons s u g g e s t t h a t s i m u l a n t s , and LSS No. 2 i n

p a r t i c u l a r , may reasonably b e used t o e s t i m a t e l u n a r s o i l c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y ,

a t l e a s t u n t i l a d d i t i o n a l d a t a become a v a i l a b l e ,

h t r o s r a u t Footprints--Extensive a s t r o n a u t f o o t p r i n t depth seasdies

have been p e r f o m e d f o r t h e Apolls l u n a r l a d i n g d s s i o n s and a r e r e p o r t e d

i n Houston e t a l e (19721, M i t c h e l l e t al. (1972b) and M i t c h e l l e t ale (1973a).

Astronaut f o o t p r i n t s w e r e modelled a s p l a t e load tests a s a part of an

e x t e n s i v e l u n a r s o i l s i m u l a t i o n s t u d y u s i n g LSS N s , 2 . The s t u d y inc?.uded

l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g , w i t h p l a t e h a d model tests and t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s e s

using f i n i t e element s o l u t i o n s t o model reduced g r a v i t y . One of t h e

f i n d i n g s of t h i s s t u d y was t h a t , f o r v e r y l o o s e s o i l d e p o s i t s , t h e

deformation mechanism was e s s e n t i a l l y one of conpression ( d e n s i f i c a % i o n ) - -

w i t h a very s m a l l f r a c t i o n of t h e s e t t l e m e n t a r i s i n g from d e f o m a t i o n a t

c o n s t a n t volume ( s h e a r d i s t o r t i o n ) .
Thus as a f i r s t approximation i t may be assrnmed t h a t t h e f o o t p r i n t s

formed i n very l o o s e l u n a r s o i l c o n s t i t u t e a f i e l d compression t e s t , and

compression d a t a can be d e r i v e d u s i n g t h i s assumption,

Although t h e c o n t a c t stress w i t h aaz a s t r o n a u t " l u n a r weigE.tt on a

s i n g l e boot i s known t o be about 7 m/m2 (" 1 p s i ) , a d i f f i c u l t y arises

from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a p p l i e d stress and omp press ion s t r a i n d i s s i p a t e

w i t h depth--making i t d i f f i c u l t t o a s s o c i a t e an average s t r a i n v a l u e

with t h e surface settlement. However, a t r i a l and e r r o r s o l u t i o n may

be o b t a i n e d a s follows:

a) U s e the results of the p l a n e s t r a i n f i n i t e element s o l u t i o n s

f o r very loose deposits t o estimate the s t r e s s distribution

w i t h d e p t h , w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e in

the s h a p e of t h e boot and t h e shrspe r e q u i r e d f o r plane s t r a i n ,

b ) Assume a compression p a t t e m f o r t h e l o o s e l u n a r s o i l ,

s i m i l a r t o taB o r AC in Fig. 3-17,

c) Using the compression p a t t e r n from b ) and t h e stress d i s t r i b u -

t i o n w i t h depth from a ) , e s t i m a t e t h e v e r t i c a l s t r a i n magnitude

at successivefy g r e a t e r depths btntil i t becomes n e g l i g i b l y

small,

d) I n t e g r a t e t h e s t r a i n w i t h r e s p e c t t o depth t o o b t a i n a s u r f a c e

set t l e n r e r ~ tand compare with the observed s e t t l e m n t .

e) Repeat b) through d) u s i n g new a s s m e d c a p r e s s i o n p a t t e r n s

u n t i l s a t i s f a c t o r y convergence i s o b t a i n e d ,

The p r e c e d i n g procedure i s s u g g e s t e d a s a method f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y

of l u n a r s o i l c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y and a s a b a s i s f o r t e s t i n g c u r r e n t and

f u t u r e models of compressfbi l i t y which may be developed,

MODULUS OF SUBG E REACTION FOR THE LT4NAR SURFACE

The r w u l t s of f o o t p r i n t depth s t u d i e s have shown t h a t t h e p o r o s i t y

and r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e a r e extremely v a r i a b l e fram

p o i n t t o p o i n t on a s c a l e of a meter o r less. These b o o t p r i n t studies

s u g g e s t a m e a n s of e s t i m a t i n g t h e s t a t i s t i c a l v a r i a t i o n of t h e modulus of

subgrade r e a c t i o n of t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e and t h e r e b y of p r e d i c t i n g t h e

p r o b a b i l i s t i c s e t t l e m e n t of s t r u c t u r e s .
 A s t h e a s t r o n a u t walks a c r o s s t h e l u n a r landscape, h e is also

performing a series of s i m p l e p l a t e b e a r i n g tests. The modulus of sub-

grade r e a c t i o n may t h e n b e c a l c u l a t e d from t h e following r e l a t i o n s h i p :

where k = modulus of subgrade r e a c t i o n , i n m/m2/m

F = a p p l i e d load, i n kN

A = a r e a of a p p l i e d load, i n m2

d = depth of b o o t p r i n t , i n m

S i n c e F/A f o r a b o o t p r i n t i s 7 m/m2, Equation ( 3 - 6 ) may b e s i m p l i f i e d

to:

The s t a t i s t i c a l v a r i a t i o n of d from t h e b o o t p r i n t s t u d i e s is then used

t o e s t i m a t e t h e s t a t i s t i c a l v a r i a t i o n of k . I n F i g . 3-18, two h i s t o g r m s

of t h e percentage of occurrence of t h e modulus of subgrade r e a c t i o n a r e

s h m , based on 776 b o o t p r i n t s from Apollo 11-17'. The f i r s t histogram

was determined simply by averaging a l l of t h e measurements, T h e second

histogram was determined by f i r s t c a l c u l a t i n g t h e percentage of occur-

rence of k s e p a r a t e l y from each mission and t h e n averaging t h e i n d i v i d u a l

d i s t r i b u t i o n s without weighting. It can b e s e e n t h a t t h e r e i s very l i t t l e

d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two averaging procedures, Consequently, these

b s o t p r i n t s c o n s t i t u t e a s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e set f o r t h e l u n a r

s u r f ace.

It can b e s e e n i n Fig. 3-18 t h a t t h e mean and median v a l u e of k

f a l l s i n t h e range of 800 t o 1600 w/m2/m. For most s t r u c t u r e s , a v a l u e

of 1000 w / m 2 / m w i l l be s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r d e s i g n of t h e foundation dimensions.

For example, c o n s i d e r a l o a d , F, e q u a l t o LO kN; i t is r e q u i r e d t h a t

t h e s e t t l e m e n t , on t h e average, b e less t h a n 0,02 m, Then, re-arranging

Equation ( 3 - 6 ) ,

i t can b e c a l c u l a t e d t h a t t h e a r e a of t h e f o o t i n g should b e g r e a t e r t h a n

o r e q u a l t o 0.5 mL. On t h e o t h e r hand, v e r y s e n s i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s , such

as t e l e s c o p e s , may have very s t r i n g e n t requirements, For example, i t

might b e r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e s e t t l e m e n t b e less t h a n 0.01 m w i t h a prob-

a b i l i t y of about 95%. k f e r r i n g a g a i n t o Fig. 3-18, more t h a n 95% of

t h e v a l u e s of k a r e g r e a t e r t h a n 200 w / m 2 / m . Using t h i s v a l u e , t h e

a r e a of t h e f o o t i n g would have t o be 5 m2.

This approach t o e s t i m a t i n g s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e i s of

c o u r s e l i m i t e d t o a p p l i e d p r e s s u r e s r e l a t i v e l y similar t o t h a t a p p l i e d

by t h e a s t r o n a u t boot, o r 7 m/m2. F u r t h e m o r e i t should b e noted t h a t

no c o n s i d e r a t i o n h a s been given t o t h e dependence of modulus of subgrade

r e a c t i o n , a s d e f i n e d by Equation ( 3 - 6 ) , on f o o t i n g s i z e . Bn a d d i t i o n a l

refinement could be made by u s i n g t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by Namiq (1971)

f o r l m a r s o i l s i m u l a n t s f o r which i t was found t h a t modulus of subgrade

r e a c t i o n was p r o p o r t i o n a l t o B-%, where B i s t h e f o o t i n g s i z e i n t h e

same u n i t s used f o r s e t t l e m e n t and n

v a r i e s from 0.27 f o r very l o o s e
P
s o i l t o about 0,46 f o r medium and dense s o i l . These c o n s t m t s were

obtained f o r f o o t i n g s i n t h e 2 t o 12 cm range. AppLying t h i s refinement,

v a l u e s s f k o b t a i n e d from Equation (3-7) would b e considered a p p l i c a b l e

f o r a 12.5 em f o o t i n g ( t h e a s t r o n a u t boot width) and would b e m u l t i p l i e d

n
by t h e f a c t o r (12.5/B) f o r adjustment t o o t h e r f o o t i n g s of s i z e B e

A d d i t i o n a l refineaoents would b e r e q u i r e d t o account f o r e f f e c t s of f o o t i n g

shape.
 It should a l s o be n o t e d t h a t t h e compactness of t h e l u n a r s o i l

h a s been observed t o i n c r e a s e w i t h depth, s o t h a t burying a f o o t i n g

would reduce t h e s e t t l e m e n t . Alternatively, the construction site

could b e compacted beforehand which would a l s o reduce s e t t l e m e n t s ,

 LOO.

General Performance of LfaPf

I n f o m a t i o n on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e Lunar Roving Vehicle w i t h

t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e has been d e r i v e d from (1) crew d e s c r i p t i o n s ; (2) photo-

g r a p h i c coverage of t h e EVA a c t i v i t i e s ; and (3) real-time r e a d o u t s

from t h e Rover amp-hour i n t e g r a t o r s and n a v i g a t i o n s y s tem components,

On t h e b a s i s of crew o b s e r v a t i o n s and c l o s e examination of photo-

graphs of Rover t r a c k s o b t a i n e d d u r i n g Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions, i t

appears t h a t t h e v e h i c l e developed e x c e l l e n t f l o t a t i o n and t h e inter-

a c t i o n between t h e wheels and t h e s o i l d i d n o t extend t o any a p p r e c i a b l e

depth below t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e , The depth of wheel t r a c k s was on t h e

average of about 1-114 cm and v a r i e d from an i m p e r c e p t i b l e amount t o

about 5 cm, w i t h t h e h i g h wheel s i n k a g e developed a t t h e r i m s of s m a l l

fresh craters, The 58 p e r c e n t Chevron-covered, wire-mesh wheels of t h e

Rover developed e x c e l l e n t t r a c t i o n w i t h t h e l u n a r s u r f i c i a l m a t e r i a l ,

I n most c a s e s , a s h a r p i m p r i n t of t h e Chevron t r e a d was c l e a r l y d i s c e r n -

i b l e , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e s u r f i c i a l s ~ i possessed
l some cohesion and t h a t

t h e amount of wheel s l i p was minimal, The l a t t e r o b s e r v a t i o n i s a l s o

c o r r o b o r a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e maximum p o s i t i o n e r r o r of t h e LRV naviga-

t i o n system, which was b i a s e d w i t h a c o n s t a n t wheel s l i p of only 2.3 p e r -

c e n t , was of t h e o r d e r of only 100 m i n each of t h e t h r e e Apollo 17 EVA"*

S i m i l a r c o r r o b o r a t i o n was o b t a i n e d from t h e Apol1o 15 and 1 6 missions.

On t h e b a s i s of crew d e b r i e f i n g s and photographic coverage i t

appears t h a t t h e Rover was o p e r a t e d on s l o p e s ranging from 0' t o 12' on

Apollo 15, from 0' t o 18' on Apollo 16, and from 0' t o 2Q0 on Apollo 1 7 .

Thus t h e f u l l slope-climbing c a p a c i t y was n o t u t i l i z e d on Apollo 15,

b u t i t was t h e impression of t h e Apollo 16 and 17 crews t h a t t h e LRV was

approaching t h e l i m i t of i t s slope-climbing a b i l i t y on t h e 1 6 and 17

missions. On t h e b a s i s of e x t e n s i v e wheel-soil i n t e r a c t i o n tests

performed w i t h p r o t o t y p e LRV wheels on emshed-basalt lunar s o i l simulmts

(Green and Melzer, 1971, Melzer, 1971), t h e maximum s l o p e climbing cap-

a b i l i t y of t h e Rover w a s e s t h a t e d t o b e w i t h i n t h e s l o p e a n g l e r m g e

of 19" t o 2 3 O , Thus i t appears t h a t t h e s e s i m u l a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s were

q u i t e v a l i d f o r t h i s purpose,

Maneuvering on s l o p e s d i d n o t p r e s e n t any s e r i o u s o p e r a t i o n a l

problems from a wheel-soiP i n t e r a c t i o n p o i n t of view, and t h e s o i l

b e h a v i o r appeared t o r e f l e c t l o c a l d e f o m a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s and n o t any

deep-seated mechanical a c t i o n . I n g e n e r a l , t h e v e h i c l e could b e c o n t r o l l e d

more e a s i l y upslope t h a n downslope. Parking t h e v e h i c l e on s t e e p s l o p e s

posed some problems because of i t s tenderacy t o s l i d e down s l o p e ,

Under nominal d r i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s , no p e r c e p t i b l e amour of s o i l

appeared t o b e c o l l e c t e d i n s i d e t h e wire-mesh wheels, Under t h e a c t i o n

of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g t h e r o t a t i n g motion of t h e LRV

wheels, i t appears t h a t f i n e - g r a i n e d m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d i n s i d e t h e

wheels was c o n s t a n t l y e j e c t e d outward, ricochetinng a t t h e f e n d e r s and

f i l l i n g t h e s p a c e between t h e i n s i d e s u r f a c e of t h e f e n d e r s and t h e

o u t s i d e s u r f a c e of t h e wire-mesh tires. When t h e b r a k e s of t h e v e h i c l e

were a p p l i e d , t h i s l o o s e mass of f h e - g r a i n e d m a t e r i a l f e l l o u t , These

o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e i n agreement w i t h o b s e r v a t i o n s made on t h e behavior of

t h e l m a r s o i l . simulant used i n t e r r e s t r i a l LRV w h e e l - s o i l i n t e r a c t i o n

tests.

A t h i g h v e h i c l e a c c e l e r a t i o n s a r o o s t e r t a i l was developed by s o i l

e j e c t e d from t h e wheels. During t h e performance of t h e wheel-soil

i n t e r a c t i o n t e s t (Apollo 15 Grand P r i z ) , t h e m a x i m h e i g h t of t h e t r a -

j e c t o r y of t h e e j e c t e d m a t e r i a l was e s t i m a t e d t o b e about 4.5 m ,

The d u s t generated by t h e wheels w i t h o u t f e n d e r s o r w i t h o u t m y

s f t h e f e n d e r e x t e n s i o n s was i n t o l e r a b l e . Not o n l y was t h e Apollo 1 7

crew covered w i t h d u s t , b u t a l s o a l l mechanical components which were

n o t s e a l e d , r e s u l t i n g i n v a r f o u s malfunzctims,

On t h e b a s i s of LRV t r a c k depth, shape, and t e x t u r e , t h e r e a r e no

d i s c e r n i b l e v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e average c o n s i s t e n c y of t h e s u r f i c i a l s o i l

throughout t h e r e g i o n s t r a v e r s e d d u r i n g t h e Apollo 15, 16, and $7

missions. S i m i l a r o b s e v a ~ a t i ~ nwse r e m d e on t h e c o n s i s t e n c y of t h e

s u r f i c i a l m a t e r i a l a t t h e Pra-Mauro s i t e of t h e Apollo 1 4 mission, based

on w h e e l - s o i l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e of t h e Modularized

Equipment T r a n s p o r t e r (MET) ( H t c h e L l e t a l e , 1972) .

ERV t r a c k s and t r a c k s developed by t h e unmanned v e h i c l e Lunolchod 1

a t t h e Mare lraibrium l m d i n g s i t e of t h e S o v i e t s p a c e c r a f t Luna 17,

(Vinogradov e t a l . , 1973) were analyzed by Cos tes (1973) , The a n a l y s i s

followed t h e g e n e r a l procedure f o r MET t r a c k s o u t l i n e d i n M i t c h e l l et a l e ,

(1972), b u t i t was modified t o a c c o m t f o r t h e wheel c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and

mode of o p e r a t i o n of t h e powered LRV and Lmokhod v e h i c l e s .

The r e s u l t s of t h i s a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e t h a t at: l e a s t f o r t h e Apollo 14

through 17 and Luna 17 l a n d i n g sites, t h e s u r f i c i a l l u n a r s o i l appears t o

p o s s e s s s i m i l a r mechanical p r o p e r t i e s r e g a r d l e s s of i n i t i a l o r i g i n ,

g e o l o g i c h i s t o r y , o r g r o s s chemical composition and l o c a l environmental

conditions. These f i n d i n g s , which a r e i n accord w i t h t h e r e s u l t s of f o o t -

p r i n t m d boulder t r a c k m a l y s e s , a r e a l s o c o r r o b o r a t e d by c a f c u l a t f o n s
on t h e LRV e n e r g y consumption a t t h e Apolao 15, Apollo 16, and Apollo 1 7

sites, s h o m i n Fig. 3-19. These c a l c u l a t i o n s were made on t h e b a s i s of

one s o i l model which f o r t h e Apollo 15 m i s s i o n y i e l d e d t h e least Root-

Mean Square d e v i a t i o n from t h e measured energy consumption f o r all. t h r e e

EVA'S ( C o s t e s e t a l , 1972).

As shown i n F i g , 3-19, t h e sme s o i l model, which had been based

on Surveyor d a t a f o r s o i l n e a r t h e s u r f a c e ( S c o t t and Roberson, 1 9 6 8 ~ ) ~

y i e l d s r e s u l t s t h a t a r e i n c l o s e agreement w i t h t h e measured LRV energy

consumption a t b o t h the Apollo 16 and t h e Apollo 17 sites.

The p a r a m e t e r s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h i s s o i l model, d e s i p a t e d as S o i l

Nodel ""B1$ a r e s h o m i n Pig. 3-19. The symbols 4 and e designate

r e s p e c t i v e l y t h e s o i l f r i c t i o n a n g l e and cohesion, k is a n o r m a l i z i n g

c o n s t a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g t h e amomt of s h e a r s t r e n g t h , hence, t h r u s t

m o b i l i z e d by t h e s o i l a t a g i v e n wheel s l i p , and k kc, and n d e s c r i b e

o9
t h e p r e s s u r e - s i n k a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s o i l under wheel l o a d s

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e x p r e s s i o n developed by Bekker (19 69)

i n which p = wheel c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e , ~ / c m *

b = wheel f o o t p r i n t w i d t h , cm

z = wheel s i n k a g e , cm

I f f o r a g i v e n wheel t h e p r e s s u r e - s i & a g e relationship is l i n e a r (n = I ) ,

the coefficients k and k

C cP are analogous t o t h e s a i l ' s p e n e t r a t i o n
r e s i s t a n c e g r a d i e n t G.

From t h e s e parameters p u l l v s . s l i p and t o r q u e v s . s l i p r e l a t i o n -

s h i p s were c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g m a l y t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s developed by Bekker

and c o - k ~ o r k s r s(1969) which were t h e n used as computer i n p u t d a t a , a l o n g

w i t h o t h e r h f o m a t i o n r e l a t i n g t o t h e mission, t e r r a i n and v e h i c l e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t o c a l c u l a t e t h e LRV energy consumption a t each s i t e

(Costes, e t a l . , 1972) .
Because of t h e s m a l l m o u n t of wheel sinkage, t h e LRV wkeef-soil

i m e r a e t i o n w i t h t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e Fnvolved predomFnantly s u r f a c e s h e a r .

Accordingly, a value of $ = 3 s 0 , which c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e f r i c t i o n a n g l e

of S o i l Model "B", i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h average f r i c t i o n a n g l e v a l u e s

deduced from t h e m a l y s i s of ERV t r a c k s ( s e e Apallo 97, BSR) on t h e

b a s i s of fn-place p l a t e s h e a r tests p e r f o m e d on t h e l u n a r s o i l s i m u l m t

used f o r t h e s e s t u d i e s (Green and Melzer, 1971, Melzer, l 9 7 1 ) , Also,

because t h e exponent n i n e q u a t i o n (1) i s e q u a l t o one f o r S o i l Model

"B", t h e v a l u e s of c o e f f i c i e n t s kc and k a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e average

G v a l u e s deduced from LRV t r a c k s (Apollo 1 7 BSR).

In g e n e r a l t h e soil-Rover i n t e r a c t i o n d a t a support t h e conclusion

t h a t t h e s u r f i c i a l l u n a r s o i l i s less compact, more d e f o m a b l e and

compressible, and p o s s e s s e s lower s t r e n g t h than t h e s u b s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l ,

These d a t a a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e average c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e s u r f i c i a l

s o i l does n o t v a r y s i g r n i f k a n t l y over the l u n a r s u r f a c e , a l t h o u g h v e r y

sigmificaint l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s a r e earnon, The f a c t t h a t t h e t r a f f i c a b i l i t y

parameters f o r S o i l Model "I%'$w e r e s o c o n s i s t e n t w i t h LRV energy

constnmptions f o r a l l t h r e e o f t h e Rover m i s s i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e

parameters r e p r e s e n t a good " f i r s t e s t i m a t e " f o r u s e i n planning any

f u t u r e v e h i c u l a r e x p l o r a t i o n s of the l u n a r s u r f a c e . It must be noted,

however, t h a t Fsgi~en t h e s u r f i c i a l . s o i l i s moderately f i r m i n corngarison

t o t h e wheel l o a d s a p p l i e d , a s i s t h e e a s e f o r t h e LRV on t h e l u n a r

s u r f a c e , t h e major f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o energy consumption are t e r r a i n

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e s t e e p n e s s of t h e s l o p e s t o be t r a v e r s e d .
 CONCLUSIONS

INTRODUCTION

From t h e r e s u l t s of t h e Apollo S o i l Mechmics Experiment QS-200)

much h a s been Learned about t h e n a t u r e and behavior of l u n a r s o i l . In

t h i s f i n a l c h a p t e r t h e r e s u l t s of t h e work a r e s u m a r i z e d i n terms of

(1) t h e n a t u r e of l u n a r s o i l , (2) l m a r h i s t o r y rnnd p r o c e s s e s , (3) e n g h e e r -

h g a p p l i c a t i o n s and i q I i c a b s % o n s f o r f u t u r e l u n a r e q l o r a t i o n , and

(4) recommendations f o r furkkrer s t u d y u s i n g Gipollo d a t a .

THE NATURE AND BEHAVIOR OF LmAR SOIL

Lunar s o i l is produced p r i m a r i l y by m e t e o r i t e impacts on t h e

I m a r s u r f a c e ; u s u a l t e r r e s t r i a l a g e n t s o f s a i l f o m a t i o n a r e absent on

t h e moon. These impacts cause both c a m i n u t i o n and aggregation of

p a r t i c l e s , and t h e s o i l s c o n s i s t of complex mixtures of m i n e r a l f r a g -

ments, miscellaneous g l a s s e s , a g g l u t i n a t e s , and b a s a l t i c and b r e c c i a t e d

l i t h i e fragments. Although t h e p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t i c l e

types a r e v a r i a b l e , t h e g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r s o i l s elrposed t o

m e t e o r i t e reworking f o r 100,008,000 y e a r s sr more f a l l w i t h i n a r e l a t i v e l y

narrow band and are c l a s s i f i e d a s well-graded s i l t y sands t o sandy

silts. The average p a r t i c l e s i z e by weight g e n e r a l l y v a r i e s from 0.04 mrrn

t o 0.13 m e Grain shapes range from p e r f e c t l y s p h e r i c a l t o extremely

i r r e g u l a r , i n c l u d i n g some p a r t i c l e s w i t h r e e n t r a n t s u r f a c e s .

'The s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of samples c o n t a i n i n g s u b m i l l i m e t e r s i z e d

p a r t i c l e s v a r i e s from 2.90 t o 3.24, w i t h i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s having

v a l u e s from 1 . 0 t o more t h a n 3.32.

 The r e s u l t s of d e n s i t y and p o r o s i t y s t u d i e s u s i n g d a t a from a

v a r i e t y of s o u r c e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e a v e r a g e r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y and

p o r o s i t y f o r t h e slpper 1 5 cm i n i n t e r c r a t e r a r e a s i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e

same f o r a l l s i x Apollo l a n d i n g sites and perhaps f o r a l l s o i l - c o v e r e d

l o c a t i o n s on t h e l u n a r surface--if a r e a s a r e c o n s i d e r e d on a s c a l e of

a few hundred m e t e r s . It was concluded t h a t t h e a b s o l u t e b u l k d e n s i t y

and t h e r e l a t i v e d m s i t g r a r e r e l a t i v e l y Bow a t t h e s u r f a c e a d i n c r e a s e

r a p i d l y w i t h depth--more r a p i d l y t h a n w a s o r i g i n a l l y assumed i n e a r l y

lunar s a i l p r o f i l e studies, The f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p appears t o

d e s c r i b e v a r i a t i o n of l u n a r s o i l average b u l k d e n s i t y , p, w i t h d e p t h , z ,

v e r y well::

The b e s t e s t i m a t e s f o r t h e average b u l k d e n s i t i e s and r e l a t i v e

d e n s i t i e s f o r t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e are:

Depth Average Relative

Range cm- Density, p - g / c m 3

S t a t i s t i c a l s t u d i e s of f o o t p r i n t s , LRV and mT t r a c k s , and b o u l d e r

t r a c k s show t h a t r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y on a s c a l e of 1 o r

2 meters l a t e r a l l y and i n d i c a t e t h a t a b e s t e s t i m a t e of t h e s t a n d a r d

d e v i a t i o n is about 15 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s f o r r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y . Histogrms
of d e n s i t y d a t a i n d i c a t e an e s s e n t i a l l y n o m a l d i s t r j i b u t i o n w i t h a s l i g h t

skewness toward t h e h i g h d e n s i t y s i d e .

Average v a l u e s of a b s o l u t e and r e l a t k e d e n s i t y f o r t h e l u n a r

s u r f a c e cannot a t t h i s t i m e b e con£i d e n t l y converted t o v a l u e s of

p o r o s i t y o r void r a t i o because of i n s u f f i c i e n t d a t a on v a l u e s of Gs

and e and e f o r lmar s o i l . Based on a v e r y s m a l l n u d e r of tests--

max m&n
two s m a l l t o g i v e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c m t averages--the following

averages have been t e n t a t i v e l y proposed and used i n t h i s r e p o r t .

e
P
max

I f t h e s e v a l u e s were indeed v a l i d as averages f o r t h e l u n a r

s u r f a c e , t h e " b e s t e s t i m a t e " average v a l u e s of p = 1.50 g/cm3 and

D R 1 65% f o r t h e uppermost 15 cm given above would correspond t o a v o i d

r a t i o of 1.05 and a p o r o s i t y of 51%.

The average r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y on c r a t e r r i m s f o r a l l Apollo s i t e s

is about 10 to 12% p e r c e n t a g e p o h t s lower t h a n f a r i n t e r c r a t e r a r e a s ,

The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n f o r c r a t e r r i m d e n s i t y i s a l s o g r e a t e r t h a n f o r

i n t e r c r a t e r areas.

Based on t h e s m a l l amouw.t of l u n a r s o i l c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y d a t a

a v a i l a b l e i t w a s concluded t h a t l u n a r s o i l i s n o t h i g h l y u n u s u d i n i t s

c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s when compared w i t h t e r r e s t r i a l s o i l s of

similar gradation, I n f a c t i t appears t h a t c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y parameters

developed from UGfB Lunar S o i l S&.mulant No. 2 are reasonably a p p r o p r i a t e

f o r l u n a r s o i l and may b e used u n t i l more test r e s u l t s become a v a i l a b l e ,

The s t r e n g t h of l u n a r s o i l r e s u l t s from f r i c t i o n a l (stress-dependent)

a d cohesive csmponents. The f r i c t i o n a n g l e f a l l s in t h e range of 35 t o 50°

with t h e higher values associated with the higher densities, Cohesion

i s i n t h e range of 0.1 t o 1.0 w/m2, a g a i n with t h e h i g h v a l u e s

associated with the high densities. Ora t h e average, s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s

w i t h depth, S u b s t m t i a l v a r i a t i o n s i n s t r e n g t h may e x i s t between

p o i n t s only a few cm a p a r t , Limited e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t s t r e n g t h

v a r i a b i l i t y may b e less on p l a i n s than on s l o p e s , Local s l o p e and

s u r f a c e appearance p r o v i d e l i t t l e i n d i c a t i o n of whether t h e s t r e n g t h

of t h e underlying s o i l i s h i g h o r low,

The important e f f e c t of c o n f i n i n g stress on t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y y

stress-strah, and s t r e n g t h behavior of l u n a r s o i l must b e borne i n mind.

b y models developed f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of behavior; e . g . s e i s m i c

v e l o c i t i e s and defamation moduli, must t a k e t h e dependence on, a s w e l l

a s l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s i n , d e n s i t y i n t o account,

Traf f i c a b k l i t y d a t a were derived p r i m a r i l y from ERV' energy

consumption and i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e LRV, t h e MET, and t h e l u n a r

surface, These d a t a show t h a t t h e LRV developed e x c e l l e n t f l o t a t i o n

and t r a c t i o n and i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e s o i l was confined t o t h e upper

few c e n t i m e t e r s . It a p p e a r s t h a t t h e f u l l slope-climbing c a p a c i t y of

t h e ERV was n o t u t i l i z e d on Pipollo 15 b u t t h a t i t was approaching i t s

l i m i t on t h e 16 and 17 missions where s l o p e s up t o about 20 degrees

were t r a v e r s e d .

Mmeuverfng on s l o p e s d i d n o t p r e s e n t any s e r i o u s o p e r a t i o n a l

problems m d i n g e n e r a l t h e v e h i c l e could b e c o n t r o l l e d move e a s i l y

up s l o p e than dawn s l o p e , Dust generated by t h e wheels without f e n d e r s

o r without any of the f e n d e r e x t e n s i o n s was i n t o l e r a b l e .

A s i n g l e set of t r a f f i c a b i l i t y s o i l parameters was found t o y i e l d

e x c e l l e n t e s t i m a t e s of t h e LW energy consumption f o r Apollo missions 15,

16, and 1 7 , These parameters, d e s i ~ a t e dS o i l Model ""B-n the text

of t h i s r e p o r t , t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t a good ""first e s t i m a t e " f o r use i n

planning any f u t u r e v e h i c u l a r l u n a r e x p l o r a t i o n s .

EUNAW. HISTORY AND PROCESSES

S o i l mea3kanics d a t a fronl a l l s o u r c e s s u p p o r t t h e g e n e r a l conclu-

s i o n t h a t p r o c e s s e s a f f e c t i n g the e n t i r e l u n a r s u r f a c e , such a s meteroid

impact and s o l a r wind, c o n t r o l t h e average propertigis such a s g r a i n s i z e

d i s t r i b u t i m and r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y , whieh a r e n e a r l y t h e same a t a l l

sites, On t h e average t h e s o i l on s l o p e s is less dense than t h e s a i l

on l e v e l a r e a s because of t h e e f f e c t s of d o m s l o p e movement;, Local

geology and topographg. on a s m a l l scale and s p e c i f i c c r a t e r i n g e v e n t s

appear t o c o n t r o l t h e v a r i a t i o n about t h e average t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t

the s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n can be r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e ,

Mass movement of s o i l on t h e moan appears t o have occurred mainly

a s a r e s u l t of impact e v e n t s , with l a r g e impacts r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e

t r a n s p o r t of l a r g e masses t h r o m from c r a t e r s c a r r i e d long d i s t a n c e s .

Large s c a l e movennent d m s l o p e a s a r e s u l t only of impact-or moonquake-

induced s h a k h g does n o t apperar probable u n l e s s gas l i q u e f a c t i o n was

induced d u r i n g s l o p e f a i l u r e , Slow d s l o p e movement of t h e s u r f a c e

m a t e r i a l a s a r e s u l t of c r e e p induced by s h e a r m d / o r the

appears p l a u s i b l e , a s evidenced by t h e presence o f f i l l e t s on t h e

u p h i l l s%de of r o c k s ,

The apparent mecb.anism c o n t r o l l i n g t h e r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of l u n a r

s o i l i n t h e p l a i n s a r e a s seem t o b e t h a t t h e e m s t a n t m e t e o r i t e m d

ankro-meteorite bo&ardment m a i n t a i n s a l o o s e , s t i r r e d up s u r f a c e ; b u t

d i r e c t l y beneath t h e s u r f a c e , t h e v i b r a t i o n s due t o lnnumerable shock

waves shake and d e n s i f y t h e s o i l t o a v e r y h i g h r d a t i v e d e n s i t y . The

sub-surface s o i l may even be o v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d a t some l o c a t i o n s ; f e e , ,

t h e s o i l may have been d e n s i f i e d under a g r e a t e r c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s a t

some t i m e in t h e p a s t t h a n is p r e s e n t l y a p p l i e d t o it by t h e overlying

soil*

]ENGINEERING CONSIDEEIATIONS

S o i l mechanics r e s u l t s were u t i l i z e d d u r i n g Apollo f o r problem

s o l v i n g i n connection w i t h o t h e r experiments and l u n a r s u r f a c e a e t i v i t i e s .

Exanples i n c l u d e design of t h e LRV asld p r e d i c t i m of i t s perfomance,

redesign of t h e core t u b e s f o r Missions 1 5 through 17, development of

s i m u l a n t s f o r d r i l l i n g s t u d i e s , p r e d i c t i o n of open h o l e s t a b i l i t y f o r

c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e Neutron Flux Probe experiment, and s l o p e s t a b i l i t y

under s t a t i c and dynarrnic l o a d i n g s ,

I n f o m a t i o n ob t a i n e d should prove invaluab l e when man again r e t u m s

t o t h e moon, Enough i s known ( q u a n t i t a t i v e l y ) about t h e p r o p e r t i e s t o

do p r e l i m i n a r y p l m i n g and design f o r almost any l o c a t i o n . For mst

s t r u c t u r e s t h a t d g b t be proposed shallow f o u n d a t i o n s ( f o o t i n g s o r mats)

could b e used w i t h a d e s i g n based on c o n s e r v a t i v e average p r o p e r t i e s .

Because of t h e extreme v a r i a b i l i t y of t h e s o i l d e p o s i t s , however, a mre

d e t a i l e d investigation m u l d be required f o r precision h s t a l l a t i o n s ;

e.g., o b s e r v a t i o n s where s e v e r e s e t t l e m e n t l i r n f t a t i o n s would be r e q u i r e d .

The f a c t s t h a t e x c a v a t i o n s can b e made w i t h o u t b l a s t i n g o r r i p p i n g ,

t h e s o i l can s t a n d unsupported on s l o p e s , and t h a t i t can b e compacted

w i l l a l l i n f l u e n c e t h e t e c h n i q u e s adopted. Although v e h i c l e s have y e t t o

t r a v e r s e t r u l y mountairmous t e r r a i n on t h e moon, t r a f f i c a b i l i t y h a s been

shown t o b e no problem i n t e of s o i l p r o p e r t i e s and design p e r f o m a n c e

p r e d i c t i o n s can. b e made w i t h some confidence.

 As a r e s u l t of t h e S o i l Mechanics Experiment i t has been p o s s i b l e

t o develop good l u n a r s o i l simulants and a n a l y t i c a l techniques t h a t make

p o s s i b l e t e r r e s t r i a l t e s t i n g and a n a l y s i s f o r s t u d y of f u t u r e problems.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

Although a c t i v e e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e moon a s represented by t h e

Apollo Program i s now a t an end, much remains t o b e done t o extend and

r e f i n e t h e information t h u s f a r obtained. Of utmost immediate importance

i s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t s of a l l Apollo experiments t h a t provided

d a t a on o r used assumptions about t h e l u n a r s o i l . Of i n t e r e s t h e r e i n

a d d i t i o n t o S o i l Mechanics a r e t h e P a s s i v e and Active Seismic Experiments,

Heat Flow Experiment, Surface E l e c t r i c a l P r o p e r t i e s Experiment, Traverse

Gravimeter Experiment. F i e l d Geology, Lunar Neutron Probe, and B i s t a t i c

Radar, among o t h e r s . A comprehensive physical-mathematical model of

t h e l u n a r s o i l over i t s f u l l depth i s needed t h a t i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

observations and d a t a from a l l sources. A proposal f o r f u r t h e r s t u d i e s

i n t h i s a r e a h a s been submitted which w i l l emphasize i n p a r t i c u l a r

development of a model t h a t is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h composition, mechanical

p r o p e r t i e s , thermal p r o p e r t i e s , e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , and s e i s m i c

properties.
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G r o l i c r , N. J,, Goddard, E, N a , N a i t , Me H e , H o l t , H. E., Larson, K a B

e ,

Rennilson, J. J . , Schaber, G. G . , S c h l e i c h e r , D. L., Schmitt, H e H e , S u t t o n ,

R. L., Swann, 6. A , , W a t t e r s , A. C . , and West, M. N. (1969) "Geologic
S e t t i n g of t h e Lunar S a ~ n a l e sReturned on t h e Apollo I1 Nission," Apollo I1
P r e l i m i n a r y Science Report, NASA SP-214, pp, 41-83,
Shoemaker, E. M , , Batson, R, M., Bean, A, L , , Conrad, C., J r . , Dahlem,
D, H . , Goddard, E, N . , H a i t , M. H . , Larson, K , B . , Schaber, G. G.,
S c h l e i c h e r , D. L. , S u t t o n , R e L.,

Swann, G, A , , and Waters, A. C, 0 9 7 0 )
"Geology of t h e Apollo 12 Landing S i t e , " P a r t A of "preliminary Geologic
I n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e Apollo 12 Landing Si.tse,'' ~ ~ o l 12 l oP r e l i m i n a q
S c i e n c e Report, NASA SP-235, pp, 113-156.

Shoemaker, E. M. (1971) '"rigin of Fragmental Debris an t h e Lronar Surfaee-

and t h e H i s t o r y of t h e Bombardment of t h e Moon," I m t i t u t o d e I n v e s t i g a -
c i o n e s Geologicas de l a Disputation P r o v i n c i a l , Universidad de Barcelona,
Spain, Vol. , pp, 27-56.
Swann, G, A * , Bailey, N. G , , Batson, R, M e , Eggleton, R e E
, , N a i t , M. H , ,
H o l t , H. E . , t a r s o n , K. B e , McEwen, M. C , , M i t c h e l l , E, D , , Schaber, @. G . ,
S e h a f e r , J. B . , Shepard, A. B , , S u t t o n , R. L , , Trask, N, J , , U l r i c h , 6. E , ,
V i l s h i r e , H. G . , and Wolfe, W. W e (1971) ' p r e l i m i n a r y Geologic I n v e s t i -
g a t i o n s of t h e Apollo 14 Landing S i t e , " Apollo 14 P r e l i m i n a r y Science
REport, NASA SP-272, g g , 39-85.

Swann, 6, A., B a i l e y , N o G . , Batson, R. Pa,, Freemmn, V. L,, H a i t , M e H e ,

Head, J, W . , Hold, H, E , , Howard, K , A., I r w i n , J , B e , Larson, K, B . ,
Muehlberger, W. R . , Reed, V, S , , Rennflson, J, J , , Schaber, 6, G , , S c o t t ,
D, R , , S i l v e r , L, T . , S u t t o n , R. L., U l r i c h , 60 E . , W i l s h i r e , N. G., and
Wolfe, E. We (1972) '"reliminary Geolagie I n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e ApoLlo 1 5
Landlng S i t e , " Apollo 1 5 P r e l i m i n a r y c i e n c e Report, NBSA SP-289,
pp. 5-l--5-112,

Treadwell (1974) PheDo d i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of C i v i l Engineering

U n i v e r s i t y s f C a l i f o r n i a , Eerkely, C a l i f o r n i a , i n p r e s s ,

Vinogradov, A, P, (1973) " P e r e d v i z h a y a L a b o r a t o r i y a n a Lunokhod-1.

Nanka P u b l i s h e r s , Moscow ( T r a n s l a t i o n by J o n t Pub%. Res. S e r v i c e , JPRS
54525).

Wadell, H. (1935) "Volme Shape and Rsmdness of Quartz P a r t i c l e s , " Journal.

of Geology, VoL. 43, pp. 250-280.

Williams, R. J, (1972) '"Lithifieation and Metmorghism, of Lunar Breceias,"

E a r t h and P l a n e t a r y Science L e t t e r s , Vol, 1 6 , pp. 250-256.
 A3PPENDIX I -
PUBLICATIONS WSWTING FROM

L W U RESEmCN BY SOIL MEC ICS TEAM MmBERS

"Current Lunar S o i l Reseaxch,'"by James K. M i t c h e l l ) , J o u r n a l of t h e S o i l

Mechanics and Foundations D i v i s i o n s , ASCE, Vol, 90, No, SM3, pp, 53-83,
%y 1964.

Lunar S o i l Engineering and Engineering G e ~ l o g y , ' ((by

9I ~ James K. M i t c h e l l
and T. M. Lambe) P o s i t i o n paper f o r NASA 1967 S u m e r Conference on Lunar
E x p l o r a t i o n and Science a t Santa Cruz, J u l y 3% - August 1 3 , 1967.

" s o i l Mechanics Surface Sampler: Lunar Surface T e s t s and Analyses," (by

R e F. S c o t t and F. I. Roberson), Chap. I V of Suvveyor 111 Mission Report,
Part X I : Science R e s u l t s , TW2-1177, J e t P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory, C a l i f o r n i a
I n s t i t u t e of Technology, pp. 69-110, June 1, 1967,

"Surveyor I16 - S o i l Mechanics S u r f a c e Sampler: Luna S u r f a c e T e s t s , & s a l t s ,

and A n a l y s i s , " (by R. F. S c o t t and F. I. Roberson), J o u r n a l of Geophysical
Research - 73, 4045-4080, 1968.

" S o i l Mechanics Surface Sampler,"" (by R. F. S c o t t , and F, I. Roberson), Chap.

V of Surveyor V I I Mission Report, P a r t I%: Science R e s u l t s , TR32-1264, J e t

P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory, C a l i f o r n i a I n s t i t u t e of Technoloty pp. 135-185,

March 1 5 , 1968.

" S o i l Mechanics Surface ~ampBer,'"by R , R. S c o t t and Fa I , Roberson) , Sur-

veyor P r o j e c t F i n a l Report, P a r t 11: Science R e s u l t s , T e c h n i c a l Report
32-1265, JPL, Pasadena, C a l f f o r n f a , pp, 195-206, 1968,

"Apollo 11 S o i l Mechanics I n v e s t i g a t i o n , " (by N. C. Costes, W e D. C a r r i e r , III,

James K. M i t c h e l l and R. F, S c o t t ) , P r e l i m i n a r y Science Report, NASA SP-214,
gp, $5-922, Bcstber 1969.

"Apollo 11 S o i l Mechanics I n v e s t i g a t i o n , " (by N . G. Costes and J . K. Mitchell.),

Proceedings of t h e Apollo 11 Lunar Science Conference, Vol, 3, pg. 2025-2044.

"Determination of Lunar S o i l P r o p e r t i e s Using Penetrometers," (by James K.

M i t c h e l l ) , Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e Lunar S o i l Mechanics S e s s i o n , ASCE Conven-
t i o n , Chicago, I l l i n o i s , October 1 7 , 1969.

' % a t e r i a l s S t u d i e s Related t o Lunar S u r f a c e ~ x p 1 o r a t i o n , " (by J . K. M i t c h e l l ,

R, E. Goodman, J , F r i s c h , I?, A. Witherspoon and F, E. Heuze), Report t o
f i r s h a l l Space F l i g h t Center, NASA, 5 v o l s , p l u s S r y Report, March 1969.
"Preliminary Examination of Lunar Samples from Apollo 11," (by Lunar Sample
P r e l i m i n a r y Examination Team), Science, Vol. 165, No. 3899, pp, 1 2 1 1 4 2 2 7 ,
September 19, 1969.

" s o i l Mechanics Surface Sampler," (by R. F. S c o t t and F. I. Roberson),

Surveyor Program R e s u l t s , NASA SP-184, pp, 171-179, 196ge

"Apollo 11 Drive-Tube Core Samples: An I n i t i a l P h y s i c a l A n a l y s i s of Lunar

S u r f a c e sediment,lP (by R. F r y x e l l , D. h d e r s o n , D. C a r r i e r , W. Greenwood
and G. Heiken), Science, Vol. 167, No. 3918, pp. 734-737, J a n . 30, 1970.

"Apollo 11 Drive-Tube Core Samples: An I n i t i a l P h y s i c a l A n a l y s i s of Lunar

Surface Sediment," (by Roald F r y x e l l , Daniel Anderson, David C a r r i e r ,
William Greenwood and Grant Heiken), Proceedings of t h e Apollo 11 Lunar
Science Conference, Vol. 3, pp. 2121-2126, Pergamon P r e s s , New Vork, 1970,

"Apollo 11 S o i l Mechanics I n v e s t i g a t i o n , " (by N. C. C o s t e s , W. D. C a r r i e r ,

J. K. M i t c h e l l and R.
F. S c o t t ) , Science, Vol. 167, pp. 739-741, Jan. 30,
1970.

"Apollo 11: S o i l Mechanics R e s u l t s , " (by N. C. Costes, W. D. C a r r i e r , III,

J, K. M i t e h e l l and R, F. S c o t t ) , J o u r n a l of t h e S o i l Mechanics and Founda-
t i o n s D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol, 96, No, SM6, Paper 7704, pp. 2045-2080, Nov. 1970.

"Lunar S o i l Mechanics on t h e Apollo Missions," a b s t r a c t , (by W. David

C a r r i e r , I I I ) , Texas C i v i l Engineer, Vol. 40, No. 4, p. 7, A p r i l 1970,

11 Lunar S u r f a c e Engineering P r o p e r t i e s Experiment D e f i n i t i o n , " (by J. K.

M i t c h e l l , K. Drozd, R. E. Goodman, F, E. Heuze, W. N , Houston, D, R. W i l l i s ,
P. A. Witherspoon), 4 v o l s . p l u s Summary Technical Report, prepared f o r
Marshall Space F l i g h t Center, H u n t s v i l l e , Alabama, under NASA Contract
NAS 8-21432, J a n . 1970.

"Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s of t h e Lunar R e g o l i t h , " (by R. F. S c o t t , W. D.

C a r r i e r , N. C. C o s t e s , and J. K. M i t c h e l l ) , P a r t C (pp. 161-1821 of re-
l i m i n a r y Geologic I n v e s t i g a t i o n of Apolbo 1 2 Landing s i t e , " by b y M.
Shoemaker, e t a l . ( p p . 113-182), Apollo 1 2 P r e l i m i n a r y Science Report, NASA
SP-235, 1970. AIso,"Lunar S c i e n c e - I I I , Revised A b s t r a c t s of p a p e r s presented
a t t h e Third Lunar Science Conference ( e d i t o r Carolyn Watkins), pp.545-546,
Lunar Science I n s t i t u t e C o n t r i b u t i o n no* 88, 1972.

" P e n e t r a t i o n R e s i s t a n c e of Lunar S o i l s , " (by W. N. Houston and L. I. Namiq),

Proceedings of t h e Symposium on Off-Road 'Plobility, Los Angeles, C a l i f o r n i a ,
Nov. 3-4, 1970. TRW Systems Group and I n t e r n a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r T e r r a i n
Vehicle Systems, (Also published i n t h e J o u r n a l of T e r r a Mechanics, Vol. 8 ,
No. 1, pp. 59-69, 1979.

" ~ r e l i m i n a r yExamination of Lunar Samples from Apollo 12," (by Lunar Sample
P r e l i m i n a r y Examination Team), Science, 167, No. 3923, pp. 1325-1339,
March 6, 1978.
"Preliminary Geologic I n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e Apollo 1 2 Landing S i t e : P a r t C *
Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s of t h e Lunar ~ e g o l i t h , " (by J. K. M i t c h e l l , R. F.
S c o t t , W e C, C a r r i e r , and N, C . C o s t e s ) , P r e l i m i n a r y Science Report, NASA
SB-235, pp. 161-181, 1970.

"Pressure D i s t r i b u t i o n and S o i l F a i l u r e Beneath a Towed, Rigid S p h e r i c a l

Wheel i n A i r Dry Sand," (by J. K. M i t c h e l l and H. J . Hovland) , Proc. ,
ISTVS-TRW Off-Road Mobility S y p o s i u m , Los h g e l e s , C a l i f . , pp. 107-127,
Nov. 3-4, 1970.

"Apollo 1 2 S o i l Mechanics I n v e s t i g a t i o n , " (by R. F. S c o t t , W. D. C a r r i e r ,

I L L , N . 6 . C o s t e s , and J , K, M i t c h e l l ) , Geotechnique, Vol, 21, No, 1,
pp. 1-14, March 1971,

' t o n e P e n e t r a t i o n R e s i s t a n c e T e s t - An llpporaeh t o E v a l u a t i n g In-Place

S t r e n g t h and Packing C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Lunar S o i l s , " (by N. C. Costes,
G . T . Cohron and D , C 1 Moss), Proceedings of t h e Second Lunar Science
Conference, Vol. 3 , The MIT P r e s s , pp. 1973-1987, 1971, @

"Disturbance i n Samples Recovered w i t h t h e Apollo Core Tubes," (by W. David

C a r r i e r , 111, Stewart W. Johnson, Richard A. Werner, and Ralf Schmidt),
Proceedings of t h e Second Lunar Science Conference, Vo1. 3 , The MIT P r e s s ,
pp. 1959-1972, 1971.

" h n a r Core Tube Sampling," (by W, N. IIouston and J. K. M i t c h e l l ) , Proc.,

AyolZo 1 2 Lunar Science Conference, VoI. 3 , Houston, Texas, pp. 1953-1958,
Jan. 1971,

"Lunar S o i l ~ e c h a n i c s , " ((by Stewart W. Johnson and W. David C a r r i e r , LLI),

The M i l i t a r y Engineer, Vol, 63, No, 415, pp. 324-327, Sept.-Qct., 1971,

"Lunar S u r f a c e Closeup S t e r e o s c o p i c Photography on t h e Ocean of Storms

(Apollo 1 2 Landing S i t e ) , " (by Grant Heiken and W. David C a r r i e r , 111, NASA
Technical Memorandum TE X-58078, December, 1971.

'"echanics of R o l l i n g Sphere-Soil Slope I n t e r a ~ t i o n , ' (by ~ H. J. Nsvland

and J e K. M i t c h e l l ) , F i n a l Report, V s 1 . II of I V , NASA C o n t r a c t 8-21432,
Space S c i e n c e s Laboratory, U n i v e r i s t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley, 1971,

" s o i l Ilec'nanics Experiment," ((by James K. M i t c h e l l , L. G. Bromwell, W. D,

C a r r i e r , 111, N. C. Costes and R. R. S c o t t ) , Chapter 4 of Apollo 14 Pre-
l i m i n a r y Science Report, NASA SP 272, pp, 87-108, 1971.

'@The; Lunar S o i l a s Revealed by Apollo Core "I"be Samples, Trenching, and

t h e Simple Penetrometer," a b s t r a c t , (by W. David C a r r i e r , III, and Stewart
W. Johnson, Texas C i v i l Engi-neer, Vole 4 1 , No. 3, pp. 13-14, March 1971,
"A P e t r o g r a p h i c and Chemical D e s c r i p t i o n of Samples from t h e Lunar High-
l a n d s , " (by Lunar Sample P r e l i m i n a r y Examination Team), A p l l o 1 6 P r e l i m i n a r y
S c i e n c e R e p o r t , NASA SP-315, pp. 7-1 t o 7-24, 1972.

"Apollo 16 S p e c i a l Samples,'' (by F r i e d r i c h HArz, W. D. C a r r i e r , 1 x 1 , J e W.

Young, C. M. Duke, J. So Nagle and R. F r y x e l l ) , Appollo 1 6 P r e l i m i n a r y
S c i e n c e R e p o r t , NASA SP-315, pp. 7-24 t o 7-54, 1972.

"Core Sample Depth R e l a t i o n s h i p s : Apollo 14 and 15," (by W. Do C a r r i e r , I I L ,

S. W. Johnson, L. N. C a r r a s c o , and R. Schmidt), Proc. T h i r d Lunar S c i e n c e
Conference, Vol. 3 , pp. 3213-3221, MIT P r e s s , 1972,

"Flow of Gases i n G r a n u a l r Media a t Low P r e s s u r e s , " A b s t r a c t , (by S. W.

Johnson, R. T. M a r t i n , W. D. C a r r i e r , 111, and J. L. W i n k l e r ) , T r a n s a c t i o n s ,
American Geophysical Union, Vol. 53, No. 4 , p. 440, A p r i l , 1972,

" ~ u n a r S o i l P o r o s i t y and i t s V a r i a t i o n as E s t i m a t e d from F o o t p r i n t s and

Boulder T r a c k s , " ( w i t h W e N. Houston, 3'. K. M i t c h e l l , and H. V. HsvPand) ,
P r o c , T h i r d Lunar S c i e n c e Conference, Supplement 3 , Geochemica e t Cosmochimica
Acta: 3 , pp, 3255-3263, HIT P r e s s , 1972.

" ~ u n a rS u r f a c e Closeup S t e r e o s c o p i c Photography a t F r a Mauro (Apollo 1 4

~ite),'"by bJ. D. C a r r i e r , 1 x 1 and 6 . H e i k e n ) , NASA T e c h n i c a l Memorandum
TM x-58072, J a n u a r y , 1972.

"Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s of Lunar S o i l : D e n s i t y , Cohesion, and Angle of I n t e r n a l

F r i c t i o n , " (by J. K. M i t c h e l l , R. F, S c o t t , W. N. Houston, N. C. C o s t e s ,
W. D. C a r r i e r , 111, and L. G. Bromwell), Proc. T h i r d Lunar S c i e n c e Confer-
Vol. 3, pp. 3235-3253, MIT P r e s s , 1972.
a l s o : "Lunar S c i e n c e 111," Revised A b s t r a c t s of P a p e r s P r e s e n t e d a t t h e
T h i r d Lunar S c i e n c e Conference ( e d i t o r Carolyn Watkins), Lunar S c i e n c e
I n s t i t u t e C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 88, pp, 545-546, 1972.

"Mobility Performance of t h e Lunar Roving V e h i c l e : T e r r e s t r i a l S t u d i e s -

Apollo 1 5 R e s u l t s , " (by N. C. C o s t e s , J . E. Farmer and E. 33. George),
Proc. of t h e 4 t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r
T e r r a i n - V e h i c l e Systems, Stockholm and K i r u n a , Sweden, April. 24-28, 1972.
Also: NASA TR R-401.

"Model S t u d i e s of t h e F a i l u r e Mechanism A s s o c i a t e d w i t h a S p h e r e R o l l i n g
Down a S o i l Slope," (by H. 3'. HovLand and J . K. M i t c h e l l ) , J o u r n a l of
Terramechanics, Vol, 9 , No. 1, pp. 37-50, 1972.

" P o l y u r e t h a n e Foamed P l a s t i c s i n S o i l G r o u t i n g , " (by T. S. Vinson and J. K.

M i t c h e l l ) , J o u r n a l of t h e S o i l Mechanics and Foundations D i v i s i o n , ASCE,
VoL. 98, No. SM6, Proc. Paper 8947, pp. 479-602, J u n e , 1972.

" P r e l i m i n a r y A n a l y s i s of S o i l Behavior," (by J. K. M i t c h e l l , L. G . Bromwe l l ,

W e D. C a r r i e r , 111, N, C e C o s t e s , W. N. Houston and R. F. S c o t t ) , Apollo
1 5 P r e l i m i n a r y S c i e n c e R e p o r t , NASA SP-289, pp. 7-1 t o 7-28, 1972.
"Preliminary D e s c r i p t i o n of t h e Apollo 1 5 Lunar samples," (by Lunar Sample
P r e l i m i n a r y Examination Team), Apollo 1 5 P r e l i m i n a r y Science Report, NASA
SP-289, pp. 6-1 t o 6-25, 1972.

" s o i l Mechanics," (by J. K. M i t c h e l l , W. D. Carrier, 111, W. N. Houston,

R. F. S c o t t , L. G. Bromwell, H. T. Durgunoglu, H. J. Hovland, D. D.
Treadwell, and N. C. C o s t e s ) , Sec. 8 of Apollo 16 P r e l i m i n a r y Science
Report, NASA SP-315, pp. 8-1 t o 8-29, 1972.

" S o i l Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s of t h e Apollo 14 site," (by J. K. M i t c h e l l ,

L. G. Bromwell, W. D. C a r r i e r , 111, N. C. Costes, and R. F. S c o t t ) , J o u r n a l
of Geophysical Research, Vol. 77, No. 29, pp. 5641-5664, October, 1972.

" ~ o i kP' r o p e r t y Determination by Impact Penetrometer," (by J. K. M i t c h e l l

and James B. Thompson), Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e Conference on Rapid Penetra-
t i o n of T e r r e s t r i a l M e t e r i a l s Held a t Texas A & M U n i v e r s i t y , February 1-3,
1972.

" S t r a t i g r a p h y of t h e Apollo 1 5 D r i l l core," (G. Heiken, M. Duke, R. F r y x e l l ,

J. S. Nagle, Re S c o t t , and G. A. S e l l e r s ) , NASA TMX-58101, 1972.

"Strength and C o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of Returned Lunar S o i l , " (w. D. C a r r i e r , 111,

L. G. Bromwell, and R. T. M a r t i n ) , Proc. Third Lunar Science Conference,

Vol. 3 , pp. 3223-3234, MIT P r e s s , 1972.

Also: "Lunar Science 111, Revised A b s t r a c t s of Papers p r e s e n t e d a t t h e

Third Lunar S c i e n c e conference," ( e d i t o r Carolyn Watkins), Lunar Science

I n s t i t u t i o n C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 88, pp. 119-121, 1972.

"The Apollo 1 5 Lunar Samples: A P r e l i m i n a r y ~ e s c r i p t i o n , " Science, Vo.. 175,

No. 4020, pp. 363-375, January, 1972.

" V a r i a b i l i t y of Lunar S u r f a c e M a t e r i a l s a s I n d i c a t e d by Boulder ~ r a c k s , "

(by H. J. Hovland, and J. K. M i t c h e l l ) , Science, 1972, submitted f o r publi-
c a t ion.

"Apollo D r i l l Core Depth el at i o n s h i p s , I 1 (by W. D. C a r r i e r , 111) Submitted

t o The Moon, A p r i l , 1973.

"Behavior of Returned Lunar S o i l i n Vacuum," (by W. D. C a r r i e r , 111, L. G.

Bromwell, and Re T. M a r t i n ) , ASCE, JSFMD, Vol. 99, No. SM11, pp. 979-996,
November, 1973.

"Boulder Tracks and Nature of Lunar s o i l , " (by H e J. Hovland, and J. K O

M i t c h e l l ) , The Moon, Vol. 6 , pp. 164-175, 1973.

"Downslope Movement of Lunar S o i l and Rock Caused by Meteoroid ~ m p a c t , "

(by W. N. Houston, Y. Moriwaki, and C. S. Chang) , Proc. Fourth Lunar
Science Conference, 1973.
"Fabric-Mechanical P r o p e r t y R e l a t i o n s h i p s i n F i n e G r a n u l a r S o i l s , "
(by A. Mahmood). T h e s i s s u b m i t t e d i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of t h e r e q u i r e -
ments f o r t h e d e g r e e of Doctor of Philosophy a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a ,
Berkeley.

" I n - S i t u S t r e n g t h by S t a t i c Cone P e n e t r a t i o n T e s t , " (by H . T. Durgunoglu

and J . K. M i t c h e l l ) , P r o c . E i g h t h I n t . Conf, on S o i l Mech. and Found. Eng.,
Moscow, Aug. 1973.
11
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II
Lunar S u r f a c e Engineering P r o p e r t i e s Experiment D e f i n i t i o n , ' ' (by J . K .
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S c i e n c e s L a b o r a t o r y , S e r i e s 11, I s s u e 48, J u l y , 1971.

'%echanics of Wheel-Soil ~ n t e r a c t i o n , " (by H. J . Hovland), G e o t e c h n i c a l

E n g i n e e r i n g R e p o r t , Space S c i e n c e s L a b o r a t o r y S e r i e s 1 4 , I s s u e 23, Univ-
e r s i t y of C a l i . f o r n i a , Berke~ley, A p r i l , 1973.

" ~ r e l i m i n a r ys t r a t i g r a p h y of t h e r e g o l i t h a t t h e Apollo 1 5 s i t e , " (by

G . H . Heiken, U. S. Clanton, D . S . McKay, M. B . Duke, R . F r y x e l l , C . A.
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"Regiona1 V a r i a t i o n s i n P h y s i c a l and Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s of Lunar S u r f a c e

R e g o l i t h , " (by N. 6 . C o s t e s ) , Lunar S c i e n c e I V , J . W . Chamberlain and
6 , Watkins, e d . , p p . 159-161, Lunar S c i e n c e I n s t i t u t e , J a n u a r y 1973.

" S o i l Mechanics," (by W . D . C a r r i e r , W. N. Houston, R . I?. S c o t t , 1,. 6 .

Bromwell, H e T. Durgunoglu, H. J. Wovland, D. D . T r e a d w e l l and N . C . C o s t e s ) ,
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" S t a t i c P e n e t r a t i o n R e s i s t a n c e of S o i l s , " (by H. T . Durgunoglu and J , K I

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(by t h e Lunar Sample P r e l i m i n a r y Examination 'ream), S c i e n c e , Vol.. 179,
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and Arshud Mahmood), ASCE, JSMFD, October 1973, 99 SMIO, pp. 813-832.

h he R e l a t i v e D e n s i t y of Lunar S o i l , " (by W. David Carrier, 111, J . K.

M i t c h e l l and A. M a h o o d ) , P r o c e e d i n g s , Fourth Lunar S c i e n c e Conference, 1973,

Ph.D, D i s s e r t a t i o n , Department of C i v i l Engineering, U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a ,

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" s o i l M e c h a n i c s , ' y b y J . K. M i t c h e l l , W. D. C a r r i e r , 111, N . C. C a s t e s ,

W. N. Houston, R. F.Scott and H. J . Hovland), Apollo 17 P r e l i m i n a r y Science
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