REVIEW MB

RECREATIONAL DRUGS AND ITS IMPACT ON MUSIC

LITERATURE AND ART
J. Radenkova – Saeva
Emergency Hospital “N. I. Pirogov”, Clinic of Toxicology, Sofia, Bulgaria
Correspondence to: Julia Radenkova – Saeva
E-mail: jrsaeva2@yahoo.co.uk

ABSTRACT
Drug use is a practice that dates to prehistoric times. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances
dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years.
Psychoactive substances are used by humans for a number of different purposes, both legal and illicit. Many psychoactive
substances are used for their mood and perception altering effects, Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been
used for religious purposes since prehistoric times.
Drugs have also had an undeniable influence on art and culture. Many artists, especially in the XIX century, used various drugs
and explored their influence on human life in general and particularly on the creative process. Drugs play an important role in
various subcultures, such as reggae music and hippy movements.
In every culture, man has used drugs to dispel anxiety, stimulate productivity, and to increase the feelings of joy and satisfaction.
Drug abuse particularly affects young people and has become one of the most important and widely discussed issues in society.
It is therefore an important task in medical science to find answers to how drugs exert their effect and what leads to addiction
and permanent consumption.
Keywords: psychoactive substances, recreational drugs, art, hallucinogens, including jimsonweed, psilocybin mushrooms,
literature, culture and cannabis have been used in religious ceremonies for
centuries. There is speculation that hallucinogenic mushrooms
Introduction and cacti greatly influenced the major religions of India, North
Drug use is a practice that dates to prehistoric times. There is and South America, the Middle East, and Europe, including
archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances Christianity (13, 30).
dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of The use of entheogens for religious purposes resurfaced in
cultural use over the past 5,000 years (25). the West during the counterculture movements of the 1960s
Psychoactive substances are used by humans for a number and 70s. Under the leadership of Timothy Leary, new religious
of different purposes, both legal and illicit. Many psychoactive movements began to use LSD and other hallucinogens as
substances are used for their mood and perception altering sacraments (6). In the United States, the use of peyote for ritual
effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and purposes is protected only for members of the Native American
psychiatry. Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally Church, which is allowed to cultivate and distribute peyote.
However, the bona fide religious use of Peyote, regardless
include:
of ancestry, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico,
Stimulants, which elevate the central nervous system. These Nevada, and Oregon (17).
are used recreationally for their euphoric and performance-
Drug subcultures are examples of countercultures,
enhancing effects;
primarily defined by recreational drug use. Drug subcultures are
Hallucinogens, which induce perceptual and cognitive groups of people loosely united by a common understanding of
distortions; the meaning and value (good or otherwise) of the incorporation
Hypnotics, which are used recreationally to because they into life of the drug in question. Such unity can take many
induce inebriation; forms, from friends who take the drug together, possibly
Analgesics, which are used recreationally because of their obeying certain rules of etiquette, to full-scale political
euphoric effects (20, 28). movements for the reform of drug laws. The sum of these parts
In many cultures, possessing or having used recreational can be considered an individual drug’s “culture”.
drugs is seen as a status symbol. For example, in ancient There are multiple drug subcultures based on the use of
Egypt, gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic different drugs - the culture surrounding cannabis, for example,
plants (7). Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, is very different from that of heroin, due to the different sort of
have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. experiences, sentiment amongst the crowd who is attracted to the
Native Americans have used mescaline-containing peyote cacti drug in question, as well as the problems the users encounter.
for religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years (12). The Drugs also play an important role in various other
muscimol-containing amanita mushroom was used for ritual subcultures, such as reggae music and hippy movements.
purposes throughout prehistoric Europe (35). Various other Many artists, especially in the XIX century, used various
656 BIOTECHNOL. & BIOTECHNOL. EQ. 22/2008/2
drugs and explored their influence on human life in general
and particularly on the creative process. A prime example is
“Artificial Paradises” by Charles Baudelaire.
Drug slang is often used in music, most notably hip-hop but
also Alternative rock and Punk rock.
Although cannabis has been used for its psychoactive effects
since ancient times, it first became well known in the United
States during the jazz music scene of the late 1920s and 1930s.
Louis Armstrong became a prominent and life-long devotee. It
was popular in the blues scene as well, and eventually became a
prominent part of 1960s counterculture (4).
Hashish is a preparation of cannabis. It contains the same
active ingredients as cannabis (but in higher concentrations)
and produces the same psychoactive effects.
Hashish is solid, of varying hardness and pliability, softening
under heat. Its colour can vary from reddish brown to black or
it can be golden coloured or greenish if it contains surplus plant
material. It is consumed in much the same way as cannabis buds,
often being smoked in joints mixed with tobacco.
The Club des Hashischins, was a Parisian group dedicated
to the exploration of drug-induced experiences, notably with
hashish. It was active from about 1844 to 1849 and counted
the literary and intellectual elite of Paris among its members,
including Dr. Jacques-Joseph Moreau, Théophile Gautier,
Charles Baudelaire, Gérard de Nerval, Eugène Delacroix and
Alexandre Dumas, père. Monthly “séances” were held at the
Hôtel de Lauzun on the Île Saint-Louis. Gautier wrote about the
club in an article entitled “Le Club des Hachichin” published in
the Revue des Deux Mondes in February 1846, recounting his
recent visit. While he is often cited as the founder of the club,
in the article his says he was attending their séances for the
first time that evening and made clear that others were sharing
a familiar experience with him (14).
Cocaine is obtained from the leaves of the South American
coca plant. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system and
an appetite suppressant, giving rise to what has been described
as a euphoric sense of happiness and increased energy. It is
most often used recreationally for this effect. Nonetheless,
cocaine is formally used in medicine as a topical anesthetic,
specifically in eye, nose and throat surgery.
In modern Western countries, cocaine has been a feature
of the counterculture for over a century. There is a long list
of prominent intellectuals, artists, politicians, and musicians
who have used the drug, ranging from Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
and Sigmund Freud to former U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant.
Its possession, cultivation, and distribution are illegal for non-
medicinal and non-government sanctioned purposes in virtually
all parts of the world. Although its free commercialization is
illegal and has been severely penalized in virtually all countries,
its use worldwide remains widespread in many social, cultural,
and personal settings (9).
Originally consumed without any processing, the chewing
of coca leaves was popular among South American natives
long before the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century.
The leaves were chewed in a manner consistent with modern
use of coffee, chewed for a small burst of energy or stamina.
The Spanish explorers noticed how the natives used the coca
leaves and themselves partook in some cases, but the practice
of chewing the raw leaves did not become especially popular
BIOTECHNOL. & BIOTECHNOL. EQ. 22/2008/2
among Europeans. Coca’s turning point in Europe came in
1860 when Albert Niemann extracted pure cocaine powder
from coca leaves. This refinement allowed the use of cocaine
in many different medicinal products and beverages, most
notably Coca-Cola and Vin Mariani (3).
Freud began experimenting with cocaine around this time,
consuming small quantities to combat depression, sharing his
experience with other European physicians who also found
cocaine to be an effective topical anesthetic. Freud became a
fervent supporter of the use of cocaine as an anti-depressant,
even publishing a manuscript detailing its virtues, although he
later changed his position and came out against the drug.
Conan Doyle stood alone in the late 19th century depicting
the destructive qualities of cocaine in his consulting detective,
Sherlock Holmes (9).
As cocaine’s popularity increased, health risks were
noted and seized upon by American egislators, who made the
substance all but illegal in 1916 (33, 34).
Following the discovery of the properties of lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD), by Albert Hofmann, in 1943, its early
utilization was limited to the medical profession in treatment
of psychiatric disorders (15), and in research to understand the
etiology of schizophrenia since LSD induced symptoms of the
latter (11). The CIA also was investigating the possibility of
using LSD as a possible speech-inducing drug (19). However,
by the mid 1960s, widespread use of LSD, as a recreational
drug had occurred. This was largely due to the efforts of
Timothy Leary, on east coast, who became its biggest advocate,
espousing the spiritual benefits of the drug. At the same time,
Ken Kesey, on the west coast, also advocated LSD usage, but
as a recreational drug rather than as a means of becoming
more spirtual and would figure prominently in the start of
psychedelic music.
The 1960s was a time of great change, in the United States,
which was spearheaded by a younger generation that rejected
the conservative norms of society to establish a counter-culture
where they would be in control of their own destiny. Among
the counter-culture were the youths referred to as the Hippies.
Originally, this subculture had no name for themselves, but were
later mockingly referred to as hippies (junior grade hipsters)
by members of the Beat Generation. The Beat Generation,
Beats or Beatniks were the bohemians of the 1950s and looked
down upon the hippies as poor imitations of themselves. They
saw them as lacking in intellect and interested only in sex,
drugs and rock n roll. While these were some of the interests
among Hippies, they were also influenced by the philosophy
of Buddha, Gandhi and Jesus, they criticized the middle-
class values by which they were raised, spoke out against the
Vietnam War and opposed nuclear weapons. Whether it is
perceived as being good or bad, the legacy of hippies can be
seen throughout our society, today. We have greater freedom of
expression to voice dissent, selection of alternative life styles
and sexual preference. Our eating habits have changed as a
result of the popularity of natural food stores that carry herbal
remedies, and diet supplements. Men with moustaches, beards
and long hair are now commonplace where they were once
frowned upon, during the 1950s and early 1960s. And of course
their influence in music and art, which is today’s topic (10).
657
 While Timothy Leary played an important role in the
widespread, recreational use of LSD, he did not have any
influence on the beginning of psychedelic music, i.e. music
inspired by LSD. This genre of music would find its origin,
in the west coast, largely due to the efforts by Ken Kesey and
Chandler Laughlin.
Ken Kesey is best known as an American author, who wrote
One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest, but was also a member of
the counter-culture who became an LSD advocate. Prior to
Kesey’s introduction to drug, he would seem to be an unlikely
advocate of LSD.
LSD had an enormous effect on popular music during the
1960s. Rock music during the early 1960s was perceived as
being formulae and simplistic. Their sentiments are described
here by David Quanta, narrator of the BBC documentary History
of Psychedelia. Inspired by their LSD experienced, musical
groups began making their musical compositions more complex,
and added more sound effects to their music. Their music was
an attempt to recreate their experience while still under LSD.
As an example, here is Donovan describing his composition
and recording of Sunshine Superman. Unlike Donovan, some
groups, such as the Jefferson Starship (nee Jefferson Airplane),
did attempt to create their music while under the influence of
LSD. Their second album, After Bathing at Baxters, was an
example of such an experiment, and is described here by former
band member, Paul Kantner. Some groups expressed their
psychedelic music in the composition of their songs and had only
modest experimentation, with respect to their instrumentation.
Here is Chris Dreja, rhythm guitarist, for The Yardbirds and Joe
McDonald of Country Joe and the Fish explaining their uses of
special effects, during the 60’s (32).
The Beatles began as a pop group in the early 60’s. Even
before the onset of the psychedelic era, The Beatles began
experimenting with their music and were demonstrating that
they were not just another teenybopper group settling with a
tried formula. Subtle changes could be seen starting in their
Rubber Soul album, in 1965, but a radical change would take
place the following year with the release of their Revolver
album. There was little doubt with the release of this album that
the music was inspired by LSD. The album covers mostly line
drawn, in the psychedelic art style. The most controversial part
of the album, however, would be the last cut, Tomorrow Never
Knows. The beginning of the song, “turn off your mind, relax,
and float downstream...” was taken from the introduction of
the book, The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual based on the
Tibetan Book of the Dead, by Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner
and Richard Albert. This would be The Beatles first effort into
psychedelic music and was not their last. This was followed
by the double-sided hit, Strawberry Fields, Forever and Penny
Lane, and in 1967 by what is often regarded as the best album
ever recorded, and the inspiration for all the music that was to
follow, Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band.
There were many recording artists who would try their hand
at psychedelic music. Few of these would ever become known
and a few would have one song that would become a financial
success in mainstream pop music. Relatively few would have
long careers. Some of the successful groups include: Jefferson
Airplane, Jimi Hendrix, The Doors, Cream (32, 37).
There is a rich and longstanding literature by and about
opium users. Thomas De Quincey’s Confessions of an English
658
Opium-Eater is one of the first and most famous literary accounts
of opium addiction written from the point of view of an addict,
and details both the pleasures and the dangers of the drug. De
Quincey writes about the great English Romantic poet Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, another famous literary opium addict.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, references to
opium and opium addiction abound in English literature, as can
be seen, for example, in the opening few paragraphs of Charles
Dickens’s unfinished novel The Mystery of Edwin Drood. In
Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes short story The Man
with the Twisted Lip, Holmes visits an opium den in order to
pursue his investigations, but his lucidity upon shedding his
disguise outside the den suggests that he did not partake of
the drug. Other works from nineteenth century Britain include
“The Lotus-Eaters” by Alfred Lord Tennyson and (some
would argue) “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti, which
depicts thinly-veiled experiences of addiction and withdrawal.
Oftentimes, characters in Edgar Allan Poe works are opium
users (“The Oval Portrait” and “Ligeia”), and sometimes
the usage of drugs and its corresponding hallucinations or
experiences are depicted. Poe himself is not believed to have
used opium. Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem “Kubla Khan” is
also widely considered to be a poem of the opium experience.
In 1957 the physician Douglas Hubble wrote an article called
“Opium Addiction and English Literature” that chronicles the
use of opium by prominent English writers, and its influence
on their works. Jack Black’s memoir You cannot Win chronicles
one man’s experience both as an onlooker in the opium dens of
San Francisco, and later as a “hop fiend” himself. In the House
of the Scorpions, Mexico becomes a place where opium is
planted. Oscar Wilde also wrote of opium use in The Picture of
Dorian Gray when the main character visits a den to alleviate
his chronic thinking and to add to the dark reputation that the
lead character develops (16).
In the twentieth century, as the use of opium was eclipsed
by morphine and heroin, its role in literature became more
limited. In The Good Earth by Pearl S. Buck, Wang Lung,
the protagonist, gets his troublesome uncle and aunt addicted
to opium in order to keep them out of his hair. William S.
Burroughs autobiographically describes the use of opium
beside that of its derivatives. The book and subsequent movie,
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, may allude to opium at one point
in the story, when Dorothy and her friends are drawn into a
field of poppies, in which they fall asleep.
Hector Berlioz’ Symphony Fantastique tells the tale of
a man who overdosed on the drug thinking of the woman he
loves. Each of the symphony’s five movements takes place at a
different setting and with increasingly audible effects from the
drug. For example, in the fourth movement, Marche au Supplice,
the artist dreams that he is walking to his own execution. In the
fifth movement, Songe d’une Nuit du Sabbat, he dreams that
he is at a witch’s orgy, where he witnesses his beloved dancing
wildly along to the demented Dies Irae (21, 22).
Heroin has inspired countless writers, musicians and other
artists over the past century of use. However, its influence
is often misunderstood or unfairly assumed; many creative
people have used or been addicted to heroin, but the extent to
which the drug affected their creativity is debatable. Relatively
few artists with great talent have credited heroin use with
major epiphanies. The 1996 Danny Boyle film Trainspotting,
BIOTECHNOL. & BIOTECHNOL. EQ. 22/2008/2
based on the book by Irvine Welsh, depicts heroin users in the
areas around Edinburgh in Scotland. Other movies that deal
with heroin users include the 1955 Frank Sinatra film The Man
with the Golden Arm; the 1971 Al Pacino film, Panic in Needle
Park; the 2000 film Requiem for a Dream; and More (26, 29).
Drug-using behavior and the responses it elicits are
dynamic, multifaceted phenomena which are constantly
changing and which cannot be understood apart from the
sociocultural and historical contexts in which they occur (27).
The comparison of different time periods in the same society
approximates the powerful experimental method of measuring
the effect of change in one condition while holding all other
conditions constant (5).
The study of drug history can help us distinguish between
the direct pharmacological effects of a substance and those
external factors which influence an individual’s experience
with a drug, the spread of its use, and society’s response. It can
help identify which changes in a society effect changes in drug
use, which populations are most susceptable to the attraction
of certain substances and under what conditions, why certain
drugs have affected different societies in different ways, why
drug use spreads to certain locations and not to others, why its
use waxes and wanes, which characteristics of a society have
moderated or aggravated the disruptive potential of drug-using
behaviors, and how drug use has been affected by past social
responses, public policies, and laws (27).
In every culture, man has used drugs to dispel anxiety,
stimulate productivity, and to increase the feelings of joy and
satisfaction. Drugs have also had an undeniable influence on
art and culture (36). Drug abuse particularly affects young
people and has become one of the most important and widely
discussed issues in society. It is therefore an important task in
medical science to find answers to how drugs exert their effect
and what leads to addiction and permanent consumption.
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