A BRIEF HISTORY OF DRUGS

Human beings like to feel good and drugs are used to help this happen. It can be legally done
with a range of drugs such as alcohol, caffeine, nicotine and anti-depressants. It can be done
illegally with an equally wide range of illicit drugs, including amphetamines, heroin benzos, or
ecstasy.

The interesting thing is drugs are seen as a modern phenomenon. But down throughout known
history, human beings used drugs to play with the pleasure centres of the brain.

A drug, broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living
organism, alters normal bodily function. There is no single, precise definition, as there are
different meanings in drug control law, government regulations, medicine, and colloquial usage.

In pharmacology, a drug is "a chemical substance used in the treatment, cure, prevention, or
diagnosis of disease or used to otherwise enhance physical or mental well-being." Drugs may be
prescribed for a limited duration, or on a regular basis for chronic disorders.

Recreational drugs are chemical substances that affect the central nervous system, such as
opioids or hallucinogens. They may be used for perceived beneficial effects on perception,
consciousness, personality, and behavior. Some drugs can cause addiction and habituation.

Drugs are usually distinguished from endogenous biochemical by being introduced from outside
the organism. For example, insulin is a hormone that is synthesized in the body; it is called a
hormone when it is synthesized by the pancreas inside the body, but if it is introduced into the
body from outside, it is called a drug.

Many natural substances such as beers, wines, and some mushrooms, blur the line between food
and recreational drugs, as when ingested they affect the functioning of both mind and body.

Etymology
Drug is thought to originate from Old French "drogue", possibly deriving later into "droge-vate" from
Middle Dutch meaning "dry barrels", referring to medicinal plants preserved in them.
Types of Drugs:
Booze

Today’s most widespread recreational drug is alcohol, and it appears to have been first on the
scene. Beer and wine were produced in Persia and in the Mediterranean before recorded history.
Chances are it was discovered when rotten fruit was eaten by the first human not overly
concerned with freshness. Even animals can be observed getting drunk out in the wild, having
discovered the alcohol that can arise from fermented fruit. It is interesting to note that in many
prisons, alcohol is brewed in buckets of rotting fruit or by leaving fruit juice out in the sun for a
few days.

Nicotine

Nicotine is the psychoactive constituent of tobacco and although first used by Europeans in the
sixteenth century, it was also used ritually in the Americas for centuries. Experts believe the
tobacco plant began growing there around 6000 BC, with American inhabitants smoking and
chewing tobacco from around 1000 BC.

Grass

Cannabis, like alcohol, has been used by virtually every culture in recorded history. The earliest
record of cannabis being used is around 6000 BC when cannabis seeds were used as food in
China. The first recorded use of cannabis as medicine also arises in China in 2727 BC. Over time
cannabis spreads across every part of the world as humankind uses it for recreational, religious or
medicinal purposes.

In 500 BC, it is introduced into Northern Europe by the Scythians. An urn containing leaves and
seeds of the Cannabis plant, unearthed near Berlin, is dated to about this time. Around the same
time, the Jewish Talmud mentions the euphoriant properties of cannabis. In the 12th century,
hashish smoking becomes very popular throughout the Middle East. In the 17th century, use of
hashish, alcohol, and opium spreads among the population of what is now Turkey, while the
French and British cultivate cannabis for hemp at their colonies in America. From this point on,
it is used increasingly as a source of fibre for textiles and medicinally.

In 1936, a film called ‘Reefer Madness’ is produced in America, showing young people
murdering and raping under the ‘evil influence’ of grass.

Opiates: opium, morphine & heroin

Evidence suggests that around 30 centuries ago, neanderthals may have used poppy seeds as
food, and possibly their psychoactive effects as well. In 1300 BC, the Egyptians cultivate opium
poppies and trade the item across the Mediterranean into Greece and Europe. Around 300 BC,
opium is used by Arabs, Greeks, and Romans as a sedative and soporific.
In India around 1000 BC, opium is cultivated, eaten, and drunk by all classes as a household
remedy, used by rulers as an indulgence, and given to soldiers to increase their courage.

In 1527, opium is reintroduced into European medical literature by Paracelsus as laudanum

(opium mixed with alcohol). These black pills or “Stones of Immortality” were made of opium
thebaicum, citrus juice and quintessence of gold and prescribed as painkillers.

In the 18th century, the British are making money out of trading opium from India to China. The
Chinese Emperor prohibits this trade to stem the increase of dependent users, so the British
actually go to war and force China to keep the flood of opium coming in. Meanwhile, in Europe,
medicines and opium preparations were available without restrictions. Laudanum was cheaper
than beer or wine and readily within the means of the lowest-paid worker.

The 19th century sees the use of opium as a patent medicine increasing steadily in England,
Europe and the United States, for a wide variety of ailments. Working-class medicinal use of
opiates as sedatives for children was quite high in England. Advertisements told of the benefits
of helping cranky young ones off to sleep. Writers such as Byron, Shelley, Coleridge, De
Quincey and Dickens use opium recreationally, with some well known results such as Kubla
Kahn and Confessions of an Opium Eater being read by the public.

In 1803, morphine is isolated from poppies by 20 year old German pharmacist Friedrich
Wilhelm Adam Serturner. Morphine is lauded as “God’s own medicine” for its reliability, long-
lasting effects and safety.
1898 sees The Bayer Company introducing heroin as a substitute for weaning addicts off
morphine. It does not take long for some doctors to realise that heroin appears to be at least as
addictive as morphine.

The 20th century sees opiates being steadily restricted or made illegal. World War 2 sees
production and trade drop to a historic low. After the war, both production and use of heroin
grow. By the early 1990s, heroin is a leading illicit narcotic and becomes something of a world
drug. Expansion of established opium areas in Burma and Afghanistan, combined with
introduction of the crop into Central Asia and Latin America, lead to a steady increase in world
supply.

Cocaine

Derived from coca leaves, this drug has a long history as medicine and local anaesthetic. From
3000 BC, coca leaves were used by the Incan Empire of Peru. In Europe, however, its medical
usefulness was not fully recognised until the late 1800s when it was used as an anaesthetic.
In 1886, a new soft drink called Coca Cola is released, containing both cocaine and nicotine. The
first snorting of cocaine for recreational use started around 1905. Cocaine quickly became a
popular medicine and tonic in Europe and America, where it was credited with curing a wide
variety of diseases and illnesses. However, reports soon started to appear claiming that cocaine
was a drug with a high social abuse potential and in America it seemed to underpin growing
crime figures.
Freebase cocaine was first developed in the 1970s and was popularised by dealers and
glamorised by Hollywood media. Today, cocaine and its derivatives are still popular local
anaesthetics in operations of the ear, nose and throat. Although cocaine has a high public profile
as a drug of addictive potential, this drug has also had a long and distinguished history as a
medicine and local anaesthetic.

Speed (amphetamines)

Amphetamines were first synthesised in 1887 in Germany. Although of interest to chemists,

nothing was done at first as no medicinal purpose could be found. In the 1920s, research began
to see if it could help with problems such as epilepsy, schizophrenia, alcoholism, opiate
addiction, migraine, head injuries, and irradiation sickness. It was found to raise blood pressure,
enlarge nasal and bronchial passages, and stimulate the central nervous system, so it was first
sold over-the-counter as Benzedrine to treat nasal congestion.

Methamphetamine was discovered in Japan in 1919. Soluble in water, it was eventually to

become ideal for shooting up. In the 1930s, doctors successfully used it to treat narcolepsy and
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in small children. When given amphetamine,
some people with ADHD notably improve their concentration and performance. During World
War 2, amphetamines were commonly used by the military to keep soldiers awake and energetic
over long periods.

In the United States in the 1950s, legally manufactured tablets were widely available and used by
college students, truck drivers, and athletes. Medically, they were used increasingly for weight
control and mild depression. Recreationally the drug steadily gained popularity as it was much
cheaper than cocaine and easy to obtain.
The 1990s saw amphetamines gain popularity in the dance scene as a cheap alternative to
ecstasy, and home labs turning the drug out as easy access was restricted.
In the lab: designer drugs
The past century has seen a huge variety of drugs synthesised in laboratories around the world.
Although done in the name of science and medicine, where a psychoactive effect occurs the drug
will often then be used recreationally. This trend has seen the emergence drugs such as ecstasy,
ketamine, LSD, and more recently, a wide variety of “research chemicals”. Space doesn’t permit
a history of all these hybrids or prescription drugs that are used recreationally.

How governments respond to drug use

The 20th century largely saw governments initially responding to many drugs by banning them
and making their use, supply or trade a criminal offence. During the prohibition era in America,
even alcohol had this approach used for some years. However, globalisation has made many
governments realise that the use of illicit drugs can no longer truly be eradicated. In many
countries such as Australia, there has been a move toward ‘harm reduction’, where the use of
illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure
users have the negative effects of their illicit drug use minimised. This has led to the introduction
of supplying needle and syringes, information on blood-borne viruses and a gradual move from
treating drug dependency as a health issue instead of a legal issue.

A history of drug use shows clearly that humans have not only used drugs for a long time, but
will continue to do so — an important fact that all governments need to take into account when
forming responses to this complex issue. It is interesting to note that the only governments that
ever manage to substantially eradicate illicit drug use were repressive authoritarian regimes, a
working solution that few in the West would accept. Any democracy that respects human rights
and freedoms will need a multi-faceted, equally complex response to illicit drugs.
ARTICLES REGARDING DRUG TRAFFICKING:

Philippines: Government response to drug

trafficking, and state protection available to
police officers involved in the investigation of
drug trafficking (2004 - 2006)
In its 2006 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR 2006), the United States
(US) Department of State described the Philippines as "a drug smuggler's paradise" as a result of
its extensive coastline, most of which is unpatrolled or uninhabited, and as having "deficits in
equipment, training and intelligence sharing" which hamper law enforcement efforts against the
drug trade (Mar. 2006, Vol. 1). According to the US Department of State, the illegal drug trade
in the Philippines has become a billion-dollar industry involving organized crime in China, Hong
Kong and Taiwan, insurgency groups based in the Philippines, and corrupt government officials
involved in money laundering (Mar. 2006, Vol. 2). Along with China, Hong Kong, Thailand and
Vietnam, the Philippines is considered a high-risk country for illegal drug smuggling (The
Philippine Star 10 Mar. 2006) and is known as a source country for methamphetamine
[commonly known as "shabu" in the Philippines (ibid.)], that is consumed in North America (UN
2006, 129).

In response to claims made in the INCSR 2006, the Philippine president's office commented that
law enforcement officers continued to crack down on drug traffickers (The Philippine Star 9
Mar. 2006). While the Press Secretary acknowledged that the Philippines had a "serious drug
problem," he stated that labelling the country a "haven" for drug smugglers was "stretching it too
far" (ibid.). For its part, the Philippine National Bureau of Investigation confirmed that terrorist
organizations such as the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) were securing funds through connections
with the drug trade (The Philippine Star 10 Mar. 2006).

The Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, which replaces a 20-year-old statute on illicit
drugs (AP 30 May 2002), makes the possession of 10 grams of heroin or cocaine, as well as the
possession of 50 grams of "shabu," punishable by life imprisonment or death (Philippines 7 June
2002, Sec. 11). The same penalties apply to persons convicted of unlawfully selling or trading
illicit drugs (ibid., Sec. 5). According to Senator Robert Barbers, one of the authors of the Act,
the 2002 legislation is "the toughest and most potent anti-drug law in Asia" (AP 30 May 2002;
see also BusinessWorld 23 May 2002).

In 2006, however, Philippine president Gloria Arroyo called for the abolition of the death
penalty, arguing that the reinstatement of capital punishment in 1994 to deal with "heinous"
crimes such as rape and drug trafficking had failed to prevent the proliferation of "syndicated
crimes" in the Philippines (The Manila Times 8 June 2006). In 2006, the House of
Representatives and the Senate both approved a house bill to "prohibit the imposition of the
death penalty law" (BusinessWorld 7 June 2006; see also The Manila Times 8 June 2006).
According to a 7 June 2006 BusinessWorld article, all those sentenced to death would receive a
sentence of life imprisonment instead.

Under the 2002 Act, law enforcement officers, along with other public officials (Philippines 7
June 2002, Sec. 36 (d) (e)), are required to undergo yearly mandatory drug testing and are liable
to criminal charges for involvement in the illegal drug trade or for benefiting from the seizure of
illicit drugs (ibid., Sec. 27, 28).

Although Philippine authorities consider the fight against drugs a top priority, the INCSR 2006
states that a lack of resources has translated into weak enforcement of the 2002 Act (Mar. 2006,
Vol. 1). According to the INCSR 2006, the investigation and prosecution of drug cases is further
hampered by obstacles in gathering evidence and by law enforcement and criminal justice
systems plagued by corruption, low morale and a high turnover rate (ibid.). The Deputy Director
of the Philippine National Police (PNP) and Head of the Anti-Illegal Drugs Special Operations
Task Force (AID-SOTF) told the Manila Bulletin that the involvement of some police officers in
the illegal drug trade has impeded the PNP's efforts to counter the trade (27 Feb. 2005). An
article in the Manila Times reported that some of the police officers in Pasig City who had
successfully raided a large illegal "drug den" claimed that some of their colleagues had been
involved in the operation (Manila Times 21 Feb. 2006). Ernesto F. Herrera stated that, in his
capacity as Chairperson of the Citizens DrugWatch Foundation and previously as the
Chairperson of the Senate Ad Hoc Committee on Illicit Drugs, he had "frequently exposed" a
number of police officers, public officials and members of the judiciary who were involved in
drug trafficking or had acted as "protectors" of drug dealers and traffickers (ibid.). According to
the INCSR 2006, however, few arrests of police or other drug enforcement officers involved in
dealing drugs or in selling confiscated chemicals were made in 2005 (US Mar. 2006, Vol. 1).

The INCSR 2006 also reported that, due to a backlog of cases before the courts and the provision
in the 2002 Act that drug cases be heard only in "Special Drug Courts," the pace of judicial
proceedings has been slow (US Mar. 2006, Vol. 1).

In 2003, amendments were made to the Anti-Money Laundering Act of 2001 after it came under
heavy criticism from outside observers for failing to meet international standards (ibid., Vol. 2).
The Act, which criminalizes money laundering, also provides for the establishment of the Anti-
Money Laundering Council (ibid.). The Council serves as a financial intelligence agency
responsible for monitoring and evaluating suspicious transactions, in addition to investigating
and prosecuting money laundering cases (ibid.). According to BusinessWorld, as of 31 March
2006, the Council had filed 92 cases of money laundering with the courts, the Department of
Justice and the Ombudsman (18 May 2006). The Council has also reportedly frozen assets
following requests from the United Nations (UN) Security Council and foreign governments (US
Mar. 2006, Vol. 2). In 2005, the Financial Action Task Force removed the Philippines from its
list of countries considered to be lax in the combat against money laundering (ibid.).
Recent measures taken by the Philippine government against the drug trade include a 2006
injection of funds into the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA) and the transfer of
responsibility for anti-drug efforts from the PNP to the PDEA (BusinessWorld 20 June 2006).
Funds were also allocated to the PNP to carry out "high-impact anti-illegal drugs operations"
(ibid.). In 2002, President Arroyo created the PNP Anti-Illegal Drugs Special Operations Task
Force (US Mar. 2006, Vol. 1). The focus of law enforcement officers in 2005 continued to be the
arrests of major traffickers and large illicit drug operations (ibid.). In 2006, forty police and
military officers completed a four-week training program on countering drug trafficking which
was funded by the US government (Manila Standard 8 May 2006; Xinhua 7 May 2006).

As a result of the INCSR 2006, the Director of the Customs Enforcement Security Service stated
that his department would be monitoring all shipment arrivals from China, Hong Kong and other
countries in South-East Asia identified as "high-risk" for drug trafficking (The Philippine Star 10
Mar. 2006).

The Philippines has ratified the 1988 UN Convention against the Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs
and Psychotropic Substances and the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime as
well as its protocols (US Mar. 2006, Vol. 1). In addition to having signed a Mutual Legal
Assistance Treaty (MLAT) with the US to facilitate cooperation on law enforcement matters (US
Mar. 2006, Vol. 1), the Philippines has also reportedly concluded two agreements with China to
combat transnational crime and the traffic of illicit drugs (The Philippine Star 23 July 2002).

Information on state protection available to police officers involved in law enforcement efforts
against the drug trade could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research
Directorate.

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available
to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to
be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below
the list of additional sources consulted in researching this Information Request.
Mandatory drug testing of congressmen
pushed
MANILA, Philippines (UPDATE) - Marikina 2nd District Rep. Romero Federico Quimbo on
Monday said all congressmen should undergo mandatory drug testing to ensure that all
lawmakers in the House of Representatives are drug-free.

In an interview, Quimbo urged Speaker Feliciano Belmonte and the House leadership to
implement new rules that would require drug testing for all congressmen and employees of the
Lower House.

He said lawmakers have already approved a provision in the House rules "empowering the
Speaker to carry out a drug scheme or plan among House members and employees."

House Majority Leader Rep. Neptali Gonzales II, meanwhile, said he doubts if Congress could
impose mandatory drug testing

He said Congress had tried to amend the Omnibus Election Code that would require all persons
seeking public office to undergo drug testing.

The proposal was deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court since it "adds a qualification
not provided for by the Constitution."

Quimbo said the new proposal for mandatory drug tests of congressmen and House employees
was partly brought on by Ilocos Sur Rep. Ronald Singson's arrest in Hong Kong last July after 26
grams of cocaine were found in his luggage. Quimbo was sent by the chamber to Hong Kong in
August to gather information on Singson’s case.

Singson's lawyer, John Reading, said the Ilocos Sur congressman will plead guilty to the charge
of trafficking a dangerous drug in a hearing on January 26. He said the defense had offered to
admit a lesser charge of "possession" of the drug on two previous occasions but the deal was
rejected by the prosecution who insisted Singson was importing the drug into Hong Kong.

This was disputed by Singson's father, Ilocos Sur Gov. Luis "Chavit" Singson, who said his son
is only admitting to possession of illegal drugs and not trafficking. He said the admission was a
legal strategy so his son would not be jailed before the new year.

Several congressmen have called for the Ilocos Sur congressman's expulsion if he is found guilty
of drug charges.
References:

http://www.saferinjecting.net/stuff-history-drugs.htm
 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug
 
http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/01/04/11/mandatory-drug-testing-congressmen-pushed
 
http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/search/node/drug%20trafficking?page=1
 
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/type,QUERYRESPONSE,,PHL,45f147932f,0.html