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Classification of piles based on the results of low

strain pile integrity tests – Case studies of selected
piles in Lagos and Port-Harcourt, Nigeria

Ademola Bolarinwa, Roohollah Kalatehjari & Adewale Daniel Ogunwole

To cite this article: Ademola Bolarinwa, Roohollah Kalatehjari & Adewale Daniel Ogunwole
(2018) Classification of piles based on the results of low strain pile integrity tests – Case studies
of selected piles in Lagos and Port-Harcourt, Nigeria, DFI Journal - The Journal of the Deep
Foundations Institute, 12:1, 50-56, DOI: 10.1080/19375247.2017.1422336

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Published online: 22 Jan 2018.

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Classification of piles based on the results of low
strain pile integrity tests – Case studies of
selected piles in Lagos and Port-Harcourt,
Nigeria
Ademola Bolarinwa 1
*, Roohollah Kalatehjari 1
and Adewale Daniel Ogunwole2
This paper presents the performance of low strain pile integrity test (LSPIT) based on data collected
from selected piles in Lagos and Port-Harcourt industrial cities of Nigeria. Two types of piles were
considered in this paper, namely bored piles (BP) and auger cast-in-place piles (ACIP). A brief
review of LSPIT was carried out and the case studies were introduced. Wireless pile integrity tester
(PIT-W) manufactured by Pile Dynamics Incorporation was applied for data collection and analysis.
Basically, seven major categories of LSPIT can be introduced based on velocity curves reflection.
These categories of piles are well detailed in the result section as AA, AB, ABx, PFx, PDx, IVx and
IR. The classification above improves existing ones because information is available on precise pile
length at which, soundness and defects of pile can be detected. Results obtained from case
studies indicated that tested piles were primarily of the AA, AB, PFx and PDx categories/type. The
study areas were chosen because most of the industrial application of piles in Nigeria can be
found in these two cities. Summarily, all tested BP were structurally sound, about 78% of the all
tested piles (BPs and ACIPs) were reported to be structurally sound, while 22% have impedance
changes indicating slight soil intrusion, negligible voids within concrete mass without severe effect
on the structural soundness of piles and they were typically ACIPs. The term ‘anomaly’ in this paper
is used to describe piles with slight positive reflection for small necking, voids, cracks, etc.
Keywords: Low Strain Pile Integrity Test (LSPIT), Non-destructive Tests (NDT), Quality Control, Piles

Introduction and general background
The trend of increased requirements for quality control/
quality assurance, dimension quantification and existing
condition verification on piling contracts has necessitated
an accurate interpretation of data obtained from non-
destructive tests (NDT). Consequently, NDT methods
such as low strain pile integrity test (LSPIT) have gained
appreciable popularity in piles testing. The NDT methods
for shaft integrity tests can be classified into the surface
reflection and borehole methods (Davis 1998). In particular,
the Sonic Echo (SE), Impact Echo and Impulse Response
(IR) methods, which are together classified as the surface
1
Department of Built Environment Engineering, School of Engineering, Com-
puter and Mathematical Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auck-
land, New Zealand
2
Technical Department, Trevi Foundations Nigeria Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria
*Corresponding author, email ademola.bolarinwa@fuoye.edu.ng
reflection method have been used extensively to check the
length and integrity of shafts and are more cost-effective
than the borehole methods (Ni, Huang, Lo and Charng
2011). Other methods recently used by Pile Dynamics Inc.
(PDI) include: Crosshole Sonic Logging and Thermal Integ-
rity Profiling. High strain dynamic tests are also used to
evaluate the bearing capacity and structural integrity of
piles. Jiunnren, Chih-Peng and Shu-Tao (2006) presented
some cases of the impedance log technique of NDT. Detailed
historical development of these technologies is well docu-
mented by Paikowsky and Chernauskas (2003), Hussein
and Goble (2004), and Thilakasiri (2006). The LSPIT was
developed many years ago, as a NDT post construction
method for evaluating the structural integrity of cast-in-
place and driven piles. It is commonly applied in the piling
industry because it is cost efficient, quick and its results are
reliable if processed by trained professionals. However, a
major limitation of LSPIT is the limit of length to diameter
(slenderness) ratio (L/D) of the pile shaft that should be

© 2018 Deep Foundations Institute

Published by Taylor & Francis on behalf of the Institute
Received 10 July 2017; accepted 23 December 2017
DOI 10.1080/19375247.2017.1422336 The Journal of the Deep Foundations Institute 2018 VOL 12 NO 1 50
 Bolarinwa et al. Classification of piles based on the results of low strain pile integrity tests
usually not greater than 40. Albrecht and Cannon (1993),
Paikowsky and Chernauskas (2003), and Ni, Isenhower
and Huang (2012) discussed the advantages and limitations
of the LSPIT.
LSPIT identifies defects such as major cracks, necking,
bulging, soil inclusions or voids and, in some cases, can
determine the unknown length of the piles that supports
existing structures. The determination of the substantial
length of a pile exhibits a high value in practical appli-
cation, particularly when evaluating the integrity of existing
foundations such as piles with cap after earthquakes, Liao,
Tong, Chen and Wu (2006). LSPIT, otherwise known as
‘pulse echo’ or ‘sonic echo’ testing (Rausche, Likins and
Ren Kung 1992), uses a hand held hammer to impact the
pile top and generate compressive stress wave in the pile,
hence, this process is based on a dynamic one-dimensional
stress-wave theory for accurate interpretations and impli-
cations of test results, Varma, Gopalakrishnan, Kumar
and Sakaria (2013). Three devices are required to perform
LSPIT: the hammer (with or without force sensor), the
accelerometer (sensor) and processor (Fig. 1), Ni et al.
(2012).
Theoretical background and development of LSPIT are
well researched in various literatures (Rausche et al. 1992;
Rausche, Likins and Hussein 1994; Likins and Rausche
2000; Massoudi and Teferra 2004; Thilakasiri 2006; Jiunn-
ren et al. 2006; Chai, Wei, Phoon and Yang 2011; Ni et al.
2011; Varma et al. 2013). The basic concepts are stated
below:
For a linear elastic pile having a length an order of mag-
nitude greater than its width, stress waves travel in the pile at
a wave speed, c, such that;
√
c = (1/r), (1)
where, 1 is the pile material elastic modulus and ρ is its mass
density.
The applied force, F, imparted by hammer impact and
the particle velocity, ν, at any point are related such that:
F = Zn, (2)
where, Z is proportionality constant, also known as impe-
dance which is a measure of pile resisting change in velocity.
1 LSPIT setup with test components (modified after Ni et al. 2012) and test in progress
The Journal of the Deep Foundations Institute
Pile impedance for various pile size can be defined as:
Z = 1A/c (3)
Change in impedance is related to change in pile cross-sec-
tional area, A, as well as pile material quality. Increase in
pile impedance or soil resistance forces results in a decrease
in measured pile top velocity. Conversely, decrease in pile
impedance results in increased velocity. By observing
changes in impedance, pile quality can be assessed and
dimensions can be estimated. One of the strategies for
detecting relative variation in pile impedance is to analyse
the wave reflections from the anomalies based on the one-
dimensional stress-wave theory. In the current practice, sev-
eral difficulties remain to be resolved in interpreting the
wave patterns (Chai et al. 2011). Attempts have also been
made to numerical model LSPIT by Chai et al. (2011), Ni
et al. (2011) and Ni et al. (2012).
To the authors’ knowledge, this paper is the first
research to evaluate the application of LSPIT in pile
foundation in Nigeria, which is common in most industri-
alised areas such as Lagos and Port-Harcourt. Both cities
fall within sedimentary basin of the Nigerian geological
settings (Dessauvagie 1975; Longe, Malomo and Olorun-
niwo 1987). Piles installed in these areas are prone to soil
liquefaction due to collapsible nature of sand and silt that
majorly occupy the area. This paper, therefore, aims to
present case studies of LSPIT in Nigeria with the main
objectives of producing an adequate interpretation of
the velocity curves, ascertaining the as-built dimensions
(length and diameter) of the tested piles and detecting
any defect such as necking, bulging and soil intrusions
in the piles.
Materials and method
Materials
The test piles and testing facilities for LSPIT were provided
by Trevi Foundations Nigeria Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria. This
company was the piling contractor of the case histories pro-
jects in the study areas of Lagos and Port-Harcourt in
Nigeria.
2018 VOL 12 NO 1 51
Bolarinwa et al. Classification of piles based on the results of low strain pile integrity tests
Studied cases
Bored piles (BP) installed for a proposed oil tank farm at
Tincan Island, Apapa, Lagos, Nigeria were tested and ana-
lysed (Case-1). Four piles (numbered as PR002B, P003B,
PR033 and PR053) were studied in this site. The diameter
of all tested piles were confirmed 600 mm with correspond-
ing lengths of 14.0 m below the existing ground level as
revealed in the LSPIT velocity curves. The subsoil con-
dition is such that about 80% of the soil profile is made
up of loose to dense sandy materials with occasional thin
layers of peaty clay.
Also, piles installed for a proposed OML-58 oil facilities
at Ogbogu Flow Station, Port-Harcourt, River State,
Nigeria were studied (Case-2). All tested piles (numbered
P1, P07-2, P15-2, P7 and P23-1) were of the continuous-
flight-auger (CFA) type and have nominal diameter of
600 mm. The cluster area piles had reported lengths of
approximately 14 m. Information on subsurface condition
indicated that soil profile of the study area is generally
made up of firm clay to medium dense and dense sand.
Methods
The adopted methodology is called stress-wave propagation
based on non-destructive pile integrity testing (Rausche
et al. 1992, 1994; ASTM D5882-07 2007; ASTM D5882-
16 2016). The equipment used for the integrity testing
included a PIT-W collector, an accelerometer, and hammer
with nylon and/or Lexan tips, all manufactured by PDI.
Excavation to expose the piles and cleaning of the pile
head in preparation for the PIT tests was carried out at
the site before the test. PIT-W collector acquired the pile
top acceleration records under series of hammer blows.
Records from each series were then averaged, and the aver-
age record was stored in the PIT-W collector for subsequent
data processing. The PIT-W collector also displayed
records of velocity curves so that a field assessment of the
pile integrity could be made. The data were filtered and
exponentially amplified to reduce the effects of internal
shaft damping and external soil resistance on the records.
After checking and adjusting the field input parameters
for amplification and filtering, the processed velocity curves
were plotted. These records were evaluated for reflections
from the pile toe and for variations in the impedance
above the pile toe. Wave speeds were calculated for each
tested pile by dividing the constructed pile length by the
wave travel time from the pile toe signal, if apparent. Other-
wise, a site average wave speed was assigned.
Results and discussion
Based on the collected LSPIT records, piles in the two
studied scenarios were classified into categories similar to
classification proposed by Rausche et al. (1994) but modi-
fied with more details as follows:
AA: Indication of sound shaft integrity; a clear pile toe
reflection can be identified corresponding to the reported
length and a wave speed with acceptable range, records in
this category may indicate normally accepted variations
of size or material quality.
52 The Journal of the Deep Foundations Institute 2018
AB: No indications of major anomaly; the records indi-
cate neither reflections from significant reductions of pile
size or material quality nor a clear toe response. Records
in this category do not give indications of a significant
deficiency; however, neither do they yield positive evidence
of consistency in shaft cross sectional size over its full
length.
ABx: No major anomaly indicated to a depth of x (m);
because of interpretation method limitations of the record
for the full length is not possible. For example, long piles
or shafts and those with high soil resistance and/or major
bulges fall under this category.
PFx: Indication of a probable anomaly at an approxi-
mate depth x (m) and clear toe reflection is apparent in
addition to at least one reflection corresponding to an
unplanned reduction of size or material quality. Additional
quantitative analysis may help identify the severity of the
apparent anomaly.
PDx: Indication of a probable anomaly at an approxi-
mate depth of x (m); the records show a strong reflection
corresponding to a major reduction of size or material qual-
ity occurring; a clear toe reflection is not apparent.
IVx: Inconclusive record below depth of x (m) due to
spurious vibrations; data is inconclusive due to vibrations
generated by construction machinery or heavy reinforce-
ment extending above the pile top concrete; retesting is
advisable under certain circumstances.
IR: Inconclusive record; data is inconclusive, possibly for
reasons such as:
. poor pile/shaft top quality or low concrete strength (test
has been conducted too early); retesting after waiting
and/or pile top cleaning is advisable,
. planned impedance changes or joints generate signals
which prevent toe signal identification.
A comprehensive discussion of LSPIT results for the two
case studies are carefully explained below.
Case-1
From the results of the LSPIT test performed on the BP in
Lagos and as shown in Fig. 2, all the piles were classified
under Category AA. Table 1 shows the basic pile properties;
however, PR002B and PR003B do not show a comment. In
those cases, the records conform to the definition of Cat-
egory AA: clear toe signal and no indication of a reflection
from an anomaly.
In two cases, piles PR033B and PR053B of Lagos
(Table 1), a 5% early reflection from the toe was noted as
a comment. This was attributed to a wave speed increase
and these two piles can, therefore, be categorised as AA.
The piles under Category AA exhibit sound toe reflection
at the pile termination depth found to be at about 14.0 m
below the existing ground level. A structurally sound
shaft is indicated by: (a) clear reflection from the shaft toe
and (b) only relatively minor variations (impedance
changes or +ve/–ve reflections slightly above nominal
cross section of the PIT velocity curve) of the record ampli-
tudes between impact and toe reflection. Negative velocity
reflection, which is often caused by so-called bulges, may
also be classified as a sound shaft. Bulges may result from
an enlargement of drilling hole due to either softer soils
VOL 12 NO 1
 Bolarinwa et al. Classification of piles based on the results of low strain pile integrity tests

2 LSPIT velocity curves for studied piles in Case-1 (Lagos)

Table 1 Summary of LSPIT interpretation for investigated wave speed was assigned. In the present case an average
piles in Case-1 (Lagos) wave speed of approximately 3900 m s–1 was established.
Diameter Length Pile
Wave speed variations of ±5% across a site are not uncom-
Pile ID (mm) (m) class Comments mon depending on factors such as concrete strength, aggre-
gate properties, age of concrete, curing conditions, etc.
PR002B 600 14 AA N/A Hence, wave speeds ranging from 3700 to 4100 m/sec
PR003B 600 14 AA N/A would be within expected variations at this site. Piles with
PR033 600 14 AA Wave speed wave speeds lower than approximately 3700 m s–1 may indi-
+5%
cate zone(s) of lower quality grout/concrete or a greater
PR053 600 14 AA Wave speed
+5% length than the intended. Conversely, piles with wave speeds
greater than approximately 4100 m s–1 may be of higher
grout/concrete strength or shorter length than intended or
or the effect of lateral pressure of the fresh concrete in the assumed. Where wave speeds calculated from constructed
soil while casting. length and time of toe reflection would be higher than
An anomaly is indicated by a positive reflection before 4100 m/sec, it can be considered that the pile is shorter
the toe. This can either indicate a reduction in pile cross sec- than intended.
tion as a result of void presence, soil inclusions, necking or
honeycombing. It can also indicate a reduction in elastic
modulus, which could be due to soil or ground water con- Case-2
tamination of the pile grout during installation. From LSPIT velocity curves studied in Case-2 (Port-
Wave speeds were calculated for each tested pile from the Harcourt), the following conclusions were made in Table 2.
constructed pile length divided by the wave travel time from The pile numbered P1 conformed to the definition of Cat-
the pile toe signal if apparent; if not apparent, a site average egory AA: clear toe signal and no clear indication of an

The Journal of the Deep Foundations Institute 2018 VOL 12 NO 1 53

Bolarinwa et al. Classification of piles based on the results of low strain pile integrity tests

Table 2 Summary of LSPIT interpretation for investigated anomaly. The wave speed was calculated based on the
piles in Case-2 reported time; constructed pile length also fell within the
Pile Diameter Length Pile
expected range.
ID (mm) (m) class Comments Two piles, 600 mm CFA P07-2 and 600 mm CFA P15-2,
were categorised as ‘AB’ due to lack of clear toe reflection
P1 600 14 AA and no indications of a significant anomaly. Figure 3
P07-2 600 14 AB shows the velocity curves for P1, P07-2 and P15-2.
P15-2 600 14 AB Records for pile P7 was categorised as PDx while P23-1
P7 600 14 PD10 5–10% reduction
was categorised as ‘PF’. Despite the presence of a clear toe
P23-1 600 14 PF2 About 10%
reduction response, records exhibited reflections from apparent

3 LSPIT velocity curves for P1, P07-2 and P15-2

4 Profile analysis for pile 600 mm CFA P7

54 The Journal of the Deep Foundations Institute 2018 VOL 12 NO 1

 Bolarinwa et al. Classification of piles based on the results of low strain pile integrity tests
5 Profile analysis for pile 600 mm CFA P23-1
impedance reductions. Piles P7 and P23-1 indicated impe-
dance reductions at respective, approximate depths of 10
and 2 m. Profile analyses were performed as shown in
Figs. 4 and 5 for P7 and P23-1 respectively to estimate the
impedance reduction. As a result, 5–10% reduction starting
around 10 m for pile P7 and approximate 10% reduction
starting around 2 m for pile P23-1 were estimated. Note
that, due to lack of installation information such as cast
concrete volume, the profile analysis result can only give a
rough idea.
Conclusion
The structural quality/integrity of all tested piles in Case-1
(Lagos) are all good since they belong to AA categories of
LSPIT while results obtained in Case-2 (Port-Harcourt)
were classified as AA, AB, PFx and PDx. The tested piles
showed some structural inadequacies in their qualities.
The proposed result categories based on the velocity curves
were stated as (AA) with clear indication of sound shaft and
pile toe reflection, (AB) with no indication of possible pile
shaft anomaly but no toe reflection, (ABx) with no major
pile shaft anomaly indicated to a depth of x (m), (PFx)
with indication of a probable shaft anomaly at an approxi-
mate depth x (m) and a clear toe reflection is apparent,
(PDx) with indication of a probable anomaly at an approxi-
mate depth of x (m) and clear toe reflection is not apparent,
(IVx) with inconclusive record below depth of x (m) due to
spurious vibrations induced by heavy construction machi-
neries near test piles and (IR) with inconclusive record
due to poor pile/shaft quality or signal generation by joints
which prevents toe signal identification. However, the above
LSPIT classification is more comprehensive than the one
proposed by Rausche et al. (1994) and other similar litera-
ture because more information is provided especially at
which specific length a pile is structurally sound or other-
wise. It is recommended that, these results together with
soil borings, pile installation records and information
The Journal of the Deep Foundations Institute
from the structural engineer regarding loads and safety fac-
tors be used for design and choice of piles. However, these
test results cannot be used as the sole basis for establishing
foundation acceptance or rejection criteria. For a group of
piles or in a site with many piles installed, the LSPIT vel-
ocity curves may be applied together with a comprehensive
pile load test (static or dynamic) analysis reports to actually
ascertain the as-built pile structural soundness in corre-
lation with the original proposed pile design.
ORCID
Ademola Bolarinwa http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3262-
534X
Roohollah Kalatehjari http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8596-
5087
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