See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/318855806

Structural Health Monitoring of pavement assets through acoustic signature

Conference Paper · June 2017

DOI: 10.1201/9781315100333-127

CITATIONS READS

10 559

4 authors:

Rosario Fedele Filippo Praticò

Mediterranean University of Reggio Calabria Mediterranean University of Reggio Calabria
38 PUBLICATIONS   174 CITATIONS    325 PUBLICATIONS   1,561 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Riccardo Carotenuto Francesco Giuseppe Della Corte

Mediterranean University of Reggio Calabria Mediterranean University of Reggio Calabria
134 PUBLICATIONS   935 CITATIONS    266 PUBLICATIONS   2,486 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Highly linear and sensitive temperature sensors based on SiC diodes for a wide range o temperature View project

Unconventional Neural Networks View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Rosario Fedele on 27 September 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Bearing Capacity of Roads, Railways and Airfields – Loizos et al. (Eds)
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-29595-7

Structural Health Monitoring of pavement assets

through acoustic signature

R. Fedele, F.G. Praticò, R. Carotenuto & F.G. Della Corte

University Mediterranea of Reggio Calabria, Italy

ABSTRACT:  Traffic causes damages, vibrations and acoustic waves. These affect maintenance, rehabili-
tation, asset management, health issues in bystanders, and damages to historical buildings. Consequently,
structural health monitoring and damage detection are vital. The main scope of the study described in this
paper was the detection and analysis of the vibro-acoustic signature of a pavement. Traffic-induced vibra-
tions and acoustic waves were analyzed. Accelerated loading tests were carried out. A set of asphalt con-
crete slabs was built and tested through a linear kneading compactor (EN 12697-22:2007). A microphone
was placed in a hole drilled in the slab and signals were sampled and processed, before and after cracks
appearance. Comparative analyses before-after were carried out. Results are encouraging about the pos-
sibility to associate to a given pavement condition a specific acoustic signature, based on course properties
and state of health (structural health monitoring). Results can benefit both practitioners and researchers.

1  INTRODUCTION
Noise and vibrations from road traffic cause
“health” issues for both people and infrastructures
and originate in the wheel-pavement interface
(Praticò & Vaiana 2015, Praticò et  al. 2015, De
Maio & Vitetta, 2015). Hence, Structural Health
Monitoring (SHM) and Structural Health Assess-
ment (SHA) are needed.
Different methods for SHM/A of civil engineer-
ing structures and infrastructures can be used: i)
Acoustic emission (Rehman et  al. 2016, Behnia
et  al. 2014); ii) Impact echo (Hola & Schabowicz
2010); iii) Sonic tomography (Rehman et al. 2016,
Choi et al. 2016); iv) Ultrasonic tomography (Hola
& Schabowicz 2010, Hoegh et al. 2011); v) Impulse
response (Hola & Schabowicz 2010); vi) Acoustic
emission techniques (Behnia et al. 2014); vii) Ther-
mography and ultrasound (Rayleigh waves) (Agge-
lis et  al. 2010); viii) Pulse velocity test (IAEAV
2002); ix) Ultrasound Pulse Echo testing (IAEAV
2002); x) Relative amplitude method (IAEAV
2002); xi) Velocity versus rebound number curves
(IAEAV 2002); xii) Ultrasonic guided waves (Pahl-
avan et al. 2016, Pahlavan & Blacquière 2016).
Most of the methods above were designed for
SHM/A of buildings and bridges and they are
not always applicable for the detection of inho-
mogeneities and cracks in road pavements. Road
infrastructures can be monitored through different
approaches.
One of these is the analysis of the surface char-
acteristics in terms of texture (Praticò & Vaiana
2015), roughness (Mubaraki 2016), sound absorp-
tion (Praticò et  al. 2017), and cracks and defects
of the wearing course through visual inspection or
image analysis (Wang et al. 2016, Koch et al. 2015,
Schnebele et  al. 2015). Another approach refers
to the estimation of the status of the “bulk prop-
erties” of pavement layers. In this case, various
devices and techniques can be used, like the ground
penetrating radar or GPR (Pitonak & Filipovsky
2016, Rodés et  al. 2015, Porubiaková et  al 2014,
Krysiński & Sudyka 2013), the thermal imager
(Solla et al. 2014), the Light Weight Deflectometer
or LWD (Gosk 2016). A further way refers to the
analysis of the response of the pavement material
(asphalt concrete mixtures) at different stress lev-
els (Gao et al. 2015, Liu et al. 2014, Mounier et al.
2012). Recently, sensors-based SHM systems were
developed (Miraliakbari et  al. 2014, Lajnef et  al.
2013, Yu et al. 2013, Lu et al. 2002).
The acoustic methods are gradually proving
their effectiveness for the purposes cited above
(Alavi et al. 2016, Praticò et al. 2016).
The study presented in this paper focuses on
SHM for transportation infrastructures through
acoustic/vibrational methods. In more detail, the
acoustic signals of road pavements are analyzed
in the aim of detecting and studying their specific
properties (signature of the signal) which describe
the actual pavement condition (fault detection).
2  OBJECTIVES
The main objectives and scopes of this study are to
set up a new method for the analysis of the acoustic

869
signals generated by a pavement in order to identify Table  2.  Factorial plan of experiments (Task  5 and
its acoustic signature and to allow monitoring its Task 6).
Structural Health Conditions (SHM) and to opti-
mizing the pavement management process. This Groove Type
dimensions of load
paper illustrates the results of the preliminary stage Type of
of the research program. Test ID mm Slab ID groove kN

1 0 × 0 × 0 UC* TR** 0.7

3  DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS 2 260 × 10 × 3 LC* TR** 0.7
3 260 × 10 × 3 HC* TR** 0.7
In pursuing the above objectives, in order to gather
the signals, the design of the experiments included * UC, LC, HC stand for Un-Cracked, Lightly, and
a first set of activities on Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) Highly Cracked slabs respectively.
samples produced and tested in the laboratory. ** TR: Transversal to the wheel path. The grooves have
The main tasks of the research program are a length of 260 mm, a width of about 3 mm and two dif-
ferent depths, i.e. 10 mm for the LC slab and 20 mm for
shown below: the HC slab.
Task 1. Mechanistic analysis of the pavement.
Task 2. Set up of the hardware (slab, embedded/
in-hole microphone, cable, and laptop).
Task 3. Matlab® coding for acoustic signals
recording and analysis.
Task 4. Preliminary tests.
Task 5. Design of the tests.
Task 6. Tests (see Table 2).
Task 7. Results analysis.
The study presented in this paper refers to the
preliminary tests.
In Task  1, the KENPAVETM (Huang 2004)
method was used in order to study the critical lay-
ers for a given class of pavements. Based on the
analysis carried out, it was possible to derive that
for the types of pavements under investigation,
fatigue failures usually start in the interface between
the HMA bottom and the underneath un-bound
base course. These inferences positively matched
with the international literature (AASHTO 1993,
Asphalt-Institute 1991, Beskou et al. 2016, Pokor-
skia et al. 2016).
Preliminary tests helped define procedures and
methods (see Table 1).
Table 2 illustrates the dimensions of the cracks
(“groove”) created in the bottom surface of the
HMA slabs in order to associate distress type
(groove) and acoustic signature. To this end three
identical HMA slabs were produced (see Figure 2).
Accelerated loading tests (Task  5 and 6) on
asphalt concrete slabs were carried out using the
wheel tracking machine (see the following figure,
Figure 1.  Test setup.

Table 1.  HMA slabs.

Bitumen Filler EN 12697-22:2007). A microphone was placed in

Dimensions percentage Gmb AV percentage a hole drilled in the slab and it was secured to the
Mix slab surface through plasticine (modeling clay).
mm3 % g/g % % Type Afterwards, the test wheel (5) was put down
500 × 260 × 50 5 2.3 8 4 DGFC against the slab and a constant load of 0.7  kN
was imposed between slab and wheel (as per the

870
 Figure 3.  Flow chart of the Matlab codes (Task 3).

For spectral analysis, it may be observed that

the power spectral density (or autospectral density
function, Gxx(  f  )) was used. As is well known, it
can be derived based on Finite Fourier Transforms
Figure  2.  The three slab types under investigation. (Bendat & Piersol 2011):
UC = Un-Cracked; LC = Lightly Cracked; HC = Highly
Cracked. 1 
Gxx ( f ) = 2 lim E X ( f ,T ) 
2
(2)
T →∞ T  

s­ tandard mentioned above). This corresponds to a or simply

pressure of about 280 kPa.

Load =
0.7 kN
=
0.7 kN
0.05 ⋅ 0.05m 2 0.0025m 2 (1)
kg
= 280 kPa ≅ 0.3 2
cm
It is noted that the contact pressure of light vehi-
cles is about 200 kPa, while the contact pressure of
heavy vehicles may be as high as 500 kPa.
Figure 1 illustrates the test setup. In more detail,
once the HMA slab (1) was produced in the labo-
ratory (EN 12697–22:2007), the same slab was
drilled in order of allocating the thermocouples
(2), and the microphone (3). Finally, the slab was
fixed in its metallic box (4), the doors of the ther-
mal camera were closed and the conditioning of
the material was carried out (30°C).
The following figure (Figure 2) shows the slabs
under investigation, i.e. the Un-Cracked (UC) slab,
the Lightly Cracked (LC) slab, and the Highly
Gxx ( f ) =
2
T
E { Xf ,T } 2
(3)
where Gxx( f ) is the one-sided, autospectral density
function (which is twice the two-sided autospectral
density function) and it is defined for 0  <  f  <  ∞,
f is the frequency, T is the record length, E[ ] is
the ensemble average, X( f, T ) is the finite Fourier
Transform of the signal x(t) of length T, t stands
for time, the absolute value of the FFT is squared.
In terms of Power Spectral Density (PSD), it
results:
PSD = Gxx ( f ) = 0, for f < 0 (4)
The finite Fourier Transform X does not have
the same units of measure (and dimensions) of the
signal x(t), being:
T

Cracked (HC) slab. X ( f ,T ) = ∫ x (t ) e − j 2π ft dt (5)

0

4  MODELLING, RESULTS AND Furthermore, the two-sided autospectral den-

DISCUSSION sity function Sxx( f ) can be defined for −∞ < f < ∞,
by setting (Bendat & Piersol 2011):
Figure 3 summarizes the main phases of modeling
1
and compiling process. Power spectra were ana- Sxx ( f ) = ⋅ Gxx ( f ) , when f > 0 (6)
lyzed and centroids were derived. 2

871
and

Sxx ( − f ) = Sxx ( f ) (7)

If the Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT) are used,

then the sampling frequency must be used and the
above formula becomes:
2
FFT
PSD = 2 ⋅ (8)
N ⋅ Fs

where Fs is the sampling frequency (Hz) and N is

the length of the recorded signals.
Based on the literature and based on the above,
PSD expresses the power (Watt) per unit of fre-
quency. The logarithm scale is usually used for the
y-axis.
The analysis of frequencies was carried out in
terms of spectral centroids. The following algo-
rithm was used (Schubert & Wolfe 2006):
N −1

∑p n ⋅ fn
fc = n=0
(9) Figure  4.  Example of test results for the Un-Cracked
N −1
(UC) slabs with the y-axis in: a) logarithmic scale; b) lin-
∑ pn
n=0
ear scale.

where fc is the spectral centroid, i.e. the “center of

mass” of the spectrum; N is the sample length of
the acoustic signal; pn represent the weights, i.e. the
values on the y-axis; fn are the frequencies (x-axis
of the spectrum).
Figures  4 to 6 illustrate the results obtained.
Periodograms (PSD versus Frequency) refer to the
tests carried out on the three classes of slabs under
investigation.
The high sampling frequency used (i.e., 192 kHz)
allowed obtaining periodograms in the frequency
range 0–96 kHz. In the pursuit of better analyzing
the plots, when using the logarithmic scale for the Figure 5.  Example of test results on the Lightly Cracked
y-axis (Figures 4a, 5, 6), a value of −60 dBW/Hz (LC) slabs.
was considered as the lower bound.
In Figure 4a, six main peaks are marked. Note
that the terms peak is herein used in the sense of
area of the plot between relevant minima (valleys).
Figure 4b refers to the same signal, but in this
case the y-axis is the PSD and not its logarithm.
It is important to note that, in this study, all the
passages of the wheel over the UC slab (about 200
passages) were analyzed. In Figures  4a, 5, 6, the
x-axis reports the frequencies (Hz), while the y-axis
refers to the PSD in a logarithmic scale.
Figure  5 refers to the analysis of the recorded
signals and power spectra once slabs were lightly
cracked (Table 2).
These cracks had the following dimensions: Figure 6.  Example of test results on the Highly Cracked
depth 10 mm, length 260 mm, width 3 mm. (HC) slabs.

872
 The cracks crossed the slabs in a direction
orthogonal to the wheel path and were set in the
bottom part of the slab (Test 2 in Table 2).
This configuration of the slab was called Lightly
Cracked (LC).
Figure 6 illustrates an example of output for the
Highly Cracked (HC) slabs.
The crack crossed the slab in a direction orthog-
onal to the wheel path and was set in the bottom
part of the slab.
This crack had the following dimensions: depth
20 mm, length 260 mm, width 3 mm.
Table  3  summarizes the preliminary analy-
ses carried out in terms of spectral centroids
(Equation 9).
Note that due to the dependence of the centro-
ids on p (y-axis), the analyses were carried by refer-
ring to f-PSD plots and data, i.e., without using
the logarithm.
Based on the analyses of the acoustic signatures
of the slabs under investigation (Figures 4–6), i.e.,
in terms of PSD variation when cracks are present
(see Table 3), it can be noted that:
1. The peak N. 1, which belongs to the frequency
range 20–200 Hz, does not undergo appreciable
variations. The maximum is almost constant
(−25 dBW/Hz), as well as its frequency position
(47–54 Hz).
2. The peak N.  2, located in the frequency range
200–380  Hz, increases of about 5  dBW/Hz,
while its spectral position moves from 305 Hz to
356 Hz.
3. The peak N. 3, which refers to the range 380–
500  Hz, increases of about 10  dBW/Hz, while
its frequency position stays almost constant
(427–436 Hz).
4. The peak N. 4 (500–750 Hz) undergoes signifi-
cant deviations in terms of both level and fre-
quency. Its maximum decreases of 10 dBW/Hz,
while its frequency decreases (620 to 539 Hz).
5. The peak N.  5 (750  Hz to 1000  Hz) has vari-
ations in terms of both y-axis (−10  dBW/Hz)
Table 3.  PSD peaks and spectral centroids ( fc ).
PSD-peaks ID
1 2 3 4 5 6
20–200 200–380 380–500 500–750 0.75–1 1–1.5
fc Hz Hz Hz Hz Hz
UC 47 305 427 620 834
LC 54 333 436 551 892
HC 53 356 430 539 880
and x-axis (834–892  Hz), becoming almost
negligible.
6. For frequencies higher than 1 kHz, minor peaks
appear for Lightly Cracked slabs.
5  DISCUSSION
Based on the in-lab tests, procedures and setup have
been greatly improved but several circumstances
call for a sound and more comprehensive study:
  i. Spectrum dependency on a number of factors
(slab small scale, mixture typology, intrinsic
properties of the mixes, see Praticò & Moro
2011, and experimental set up) implies a set
of boundary conditions which call for further
research and on–site testing;
ii. An in-depth study about the best way to cou-
ple the microphone(s) to the pavement has to be
carried out because of the issues which might
emerge when implementing the method in full
scale;
iii. Frequency range affects the reliability of results
shown above. It should be noted that the analy-
ses were carried out in the range 20–1.5  kHz
and not in the full frequency range.
6  CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the results obtained at this stage, it is pos-
sible to state that cracks seem to imply a reduction
of the peak frequency and an increase of the peak
amplitude of part of the vibration phenomenon.
This latter is generated in the wheel-pavement inter-
face, propagates through the slab, and it is recorded
by the microphone. Furthermore, higher loads
seem to correspond to higher peak amplitudes. In
contrast, peak frequency does not undergo appre-
ciable variations based on load. Finally, the PSD
peaks level, power spectrum shape, and peak posi-
tion seem to undergo appreciable variations when
considering Un-Cracked (UC), Lightly Cracked
(LC), or Highly Cracked (HC) slabs.
Results are encouraging about the possibility to
associate to a given pavement its acoustic signa-
ture, based on course properties and state of health
(structural health monitoring). Results can benefit
both practitioners and researchers.
Further research is needed. Based on the above,
other in-lab and on-site tests will be carried out in
the future for three main purposes, i.e., 1. To verify
kHz the effectiveness of the new method; 2. To collect
1089
acoustic signals in order to create a sound data-
1062
base of acoustic signatures of different types of
1274 road pavements; 3. To jointly consider mixes prop-
erties, including thickness and remaining factors.
873
REFERENCES
AASHTO 1993. AASHTO Guide for Design of Pave-
ments Structures. American Association of State High-
way and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
Aggelis, D.G., Kordatos, E.Z., Soulioti, D.V., Matikas,
T.E. 2010. Combined use of thermography and ultra-
sound for the characterization of subsurface cracks
in concrete. Construction and Building Materials 24:
1888–1897.
Alavi, A.H., Hasni, H., Lajnef, N., and Chatti, K. 2016.
Continuous health monitoring of pavement systems
using smart sensing technology. Construction and
Building Materials 114: 719–736.
Asphalt-Institute. 1991. Thickness Design­—Asphalt
Pavements for Highways and Streets. Manual Series 1
(MS-1), Asphalt Institute, Lexington, KY.
Behnia, A., Chai, H.K., Shiotani, T. 2014. Advanced
structural health monitoring of concrete structures
with the aid of acoustic emission. Construction and
Building Materials 65: 282–302.
Bendat, J.S. & Piersol, A.G. 2011. Random Data Analy-
sis and Measurement Procedures. Fourth Edition.
John Wiley & sons, inc., publication.
Beskou, N.D., Tsinopoulos, S.V., Hatzigeorgiou, G.D.
2016. Fatigue cracking failure criterion for flexible
pavements under moving vehicles. Soil Dynamics and
Earthquake Engineering 90: 476–479.
Choi, P., Kim, D.H., Lee, B.H., and Won, M.C. 2016.
Application of ultrasonic shear-wave tomography
to identify horizontal crack or delamination in con-
crete pavement and bridge. Construction and Building
Materials 121: 81–91.
De Maio, M.L., Vitetta, A. 2015. Route choice on road
transport system: A fuzzy approach. Journal of Intel-
ligent and Fuzzy Systems 28: 2015–2027.
Gao, H., Yang, X., Zhang, C. 2015. Experimental and
numerical analysis of three-point bending fracture of
pre-notched asphalt mixture beam. Construction and
Building Materials 90: 1–10.
Gosk, W. 2016. Stiffness Estimation of the Soil Built-in
Road Embankment on the Basis of Light Falling
Weight Deflectometer Test. Procedia Engineering 143:
395–402.
Hoegh, K., Khazanovich, L., Yu, H.T. 2011. Ultrasonic
Tomography Technique for Evaluation of Concrete
Pavements. Transportation Research Record: Journal
of the Transportation Research Board 2232: 85–94.
Hola, J. & Schabowicz, K. 2010. State of the art non-
destructive methods for diagnostic testing of building
structures–anticipated development trends. Archives
of civil and mechanical engineering 10(3).
Huang, Y.H. 2003. Pavement Analysis and Design. Pear-
son Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA.
Huang, Y.H. 2004. Pavement Analysis and Design. 2nd
Edition, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, USA.
International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna (IAEAV).
2002. Guidebook on non-destructive testing of con-
crete structures. Training Course Series (17).
Koch, C., Georgieva, K., Kasireddy, V., Akinci, B., and
Fieguth, P. 2015. A review on computer vision based
defect detection and condition assessment of concrete
and asphalt civil infrastructure. Advanced Engineering
Informatics 29: 196–210.
874
Krysiński, L., and Sudyka, J. 2013. GPR abilities in
investigation of the pavement transversal cracks. Jour-
nal of Applied Geophysics 97: 27–36.
Lajnef, N., Chatti, K., Chakrabartty, S., Rhimi, M., and
Liu, T., Zhang, X-N., Li, Z., and Chen, Z-Q. 2014.
Research on the homogeneity of asphalt pavement
quality using X-ray computed tomography (CT) and
fractal theory. Construction and Building Materials 68:
587–598.
Lu, J.J., Mei, X., & Gunaratne, M. 2002. Develop-
ment of an automatic detection system for meas-
uring pavement crack depth on Florida roadways.
Project sponsored by the Florida Department of
Transportation.
Miraliakbari, A., Hahn, M., and Maas, H-G. 2014.
Development of a multi-sensor system for road condi-
tion mapping. The International Archives of the Pho-
togrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information
Sciences, vol. XL-1.
Mounier, D., Di Benedetto, H., and Sauzéat, C. 2012.
Determination of bituminous mixtures linear proper-
ties using ultrasonic wave propagation. Construction
and Building Materials 36: 638–647.
Mubaraki, M. 2016. Highway subsurface assessment
using pavement surface distress and roughness data.
International Journal of Pavement Research and Tech-
nology 9: 393–402.
Pahlavan, L., and Blacquière, G. 2016. Fatigue crack siz-
ing in steelbridge decks using ultrasonic guided waves.
NDT&E International 77: 49–62.
Pahlavan, L., Mota, M.M., and Blacquière, G. 2016.
Influence of asphalt on fatigue crack monitoring in
steel bridge decks using guided waves. Construction
and Building Materials 120: 593–604.
Pitonak, M., and Filipovsky, J. 2016. GPR application
– non-destructive technology for verification of thick-
nesses of newly paved roads in Slovakia. Procedia
Engineering 153: 537–549.
Pokorskia, P., Radziszewski, P., Sarnowski, M. 2016.
Fatigue life of asphalt pavements on bridge decks.
Procedia Engineering 153: 556–562.
Porubiaková, A., Grin, M., and Slabeja, M. 2014. Non-
invasive and Effective Method of the Pavement
Investigation: Ground Penetrating Radar. Procedia
Engineering 91: 464–468.
Praticò, F. G., and Moro, A. 2011. In-lab and on-site
measurements of hot mix asphalt density: Conver-
gence and divergence hypotheses. Construction and
Building Materials 25(2): 1065–1071.
Praticò, F.G., Della Corte, F., Merenda, M. 2016. Self-
Powered Sensors For Road Pavements, 4th Chinese
European Workshop (CEW) on Functional Pavement
Design. Delft, the Netherlands. Edited by Sandra
Erkens et al., Taylor & Francis Ltd, London, ISBN13
9781138029248.
Praticò, F.G., Fedele, R., Vizzari, D. 2017. A Com-
prehensive study on the precision and accuracy of
in-lab and on-site measurement of pavement acous-
tic absorption. Transportation Research Board 96th
Annual Meeting 2017.
Praticò, F.G., Vaiana, R. 2015. A study on the relation-
ship between mean texture depth and mean profile
depth of asphalt pavements. Construction and Build-
ing Materials 101: 72–79.
Praticò, F.G., Vaiana, R., Iuele, T. 2015. Macrotexture
model-ing and experimental validation for pavement
surface treatments. Construction and Building Materi-
als 95: 658–666.
Rehman, S.K.U., Ibrahim, Z., Memonb, S.A., Jameel,
M. 2016. Nondestructive test methods for concrete
bridges: A review. Construction and Building Materi-
als 107: 58–86.
Rodés, J.P., Pérez-Gracia, V., and Martínez-Reguero, A.
2015. Evaluation of the GPR frequency spectra in
asphalt pavement assessment. Construction and Build-
ing Materials 96: 181–188.
Sarkar, P. 2013. Smart Pavement Monitoring System.
FHWA-HRT-12-072.
Schnebele, E., Tanyu, B. F., Cervone, G., and Waters, N.
2015. Review of remote sensing methodologies for
pavement management and assessment. Eur. Transp.
Res. Rev. 7: 7 DOI 10.1007/s12544-015-0156-6.
875
View publication stats
Schubert, E. & Wolfe, J. 2006. Timbral brightness and
spectral centroid. Acta Acustica United with Acustica
92: 820–825.
Solla, M., Lagüela, S., González-Jorge, H., and Arias, P.
2014. Approach to identify cracking in asphalt pave-
ment using GPR and infrared thermographic meth-
ods: Preliminary findings. NDT&E International 62:
55–65.
Wang, T., Gopalakrishnan, K., Somani, A., Smadi, O.,
and Ceylan, H. 2016. Machine-Vision-Based Road-
way Health Monitoring and Assessment: Develop-
ment of a Shape-Based Pavement-Crack-Detection
Approach. Final Report 2016. Institute for Transpor-
tation, Iowa State University.
Yu, Y., Zhao, X., Shi, Y., and Ou, J. 2013. Design of a
real-time overload monitoring system for bridges and
roads based on structural response. Measurement 46:
345–352.