Geotechnical engineering is an important area of research.

It is an ever-so-changing and
developing environment. Problems and challenges are constantly occurrent. Unceasing gaps
need to be filled with novel studies, research, and techniques that increase the human in-depth
understanding and interpretation of the particular field. As urbanization continually accelerates,
advanced construction projects are also gradually increasing. Consequently, geotechnical
engineering technology needs to keep up with it. Researchers call for an innovative, safer,
better, and quality alternative for the current geotechnical feats we have to compensate for the
rapid growth of science and technology with no or less environmental degradation. Moreover, to
mitigate infrastructure damages in the event of an earthquake or any natural disasters,
geotechnical engineers are also persistently seeking for effective measures to attain necessary
soil and structural stability during these unfortunate circumstances.
Many geotechnical developments prompted from the challenges encountered during
construction of a project. Geotechnical engineers addressed these problems and analyzed what
was lacking and what was needed to be done. In accordance, they discovered numerous
methodological, analytical, and technological innovations which were both used in-situ and in
laboratory investigations (Cardoso, 2015). In the course of time, geotechnologies have
considerably improved. Notable progress led to a comprehensive apprehension in the field of
study which subsequently paved way to a more accurate prediction of the behavior of soils. In
this paper, the author will discuss various emerging trends of geotechnical engineering that
influenced its development to a great extent.

Large Diameter Pile Foundations

Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation. They are long cylindrical rigid structures
driven or hammered deep into the ground and may appear in the form of concrete, structural
steel, or timber. It provides steady support for the structures above them by transferring the
horizontal loads from superstructures through weaker compressible strata onto a more compact,
less compressible, and high-bearing strata (Designing Buildings, 2021). More often than not,
pile foundations are present if structures are high or near a body of water.
The first use of piles can be traced back in 800 BC where they were installed by drop
hammers (Hannigan, et al., 2016). Since then, scientific approaches regarding its design and
construction have advanced extremely. However, due to the inherent complexities between
piles and soil behavior, our current knowledge concerning the matter are mere approximations,
heavily relying upon empirical correlations on various existing information.
One of the advancements under this type of foundation is the large diameter piles,
specifically open-end piles (which are frequently called LDOEPP or large diameter open-end
pipe piles). Available diameter size of said type ranges from 8 inches to 160 inches. In spite of
the fact that large is relative, Brown and Thompson defined large diameter open-end piles as
those with diameters beyond 36 inches or 3 feet on account of scour or seismic design
considerations (Brown and Thompson, 2015). From the word “open-end”, these piles have open
and clear ends made of steel that are hollow, where concrete can be poured in with or without
steel reinforcement and uplift resisting dowels. Usual applications of LDOEPPs include fender
systems, mooring dolphins, and offshore facilities. As LDOEPPs are commonly driven to bear in
dense sand or soft rock, they are used, in many cases, to support main piers on major river
bridges or other structures with immense lateral resistance demands (Hannigan, et al., 2016).
This discovery led to a substantial reduction of construction cost and schedule as cofferdams,
which are necessary for drilled shafts, are no longer needed in offshore projects (Guo, et al.,
2020). For instance, a bridge project which took place in California, USA. With the use of
LDOEPPs, their construction time was reduced by half and they saved a total of 2.8 million
dollars in their construction cost (Liebich, 2009). In addition, according to a study, increasing the
diameter of the pile consequently increases the depth of the soil and as soil’s depth rises, so as
the soil lateral stiffness. Performance of structural elements will be enhanced when lateral
stiffness suffices (Pender, et al., 2007). Cited studies clearly depict that practitioners have gone
a long way. Yet, despite the fact that massive number of researches were conducted, we still
have inadequate understanding of the intricacy of the matter.

Near-surface Site Investigation by Seismic Interferometry

For many years, engineers have performed contact tests or in-place tests for subsurface
exploration to get an elaborative description of the underground conditions. By boring holes to
the ground and physically testing either disturbed or undisturbed soil, rock, and groundwater,
they were able to determine the underground profile with its properties and measurements. It
provided almost precise and reliable results but this type of test is tedious and causes soil
disturbance. Due to the urge for optimum performance and higher reliability of devices and
processes in engineering, demand for better and more efficient investigation methods surfaced.
This led to the use of seismic interferometry for near-surface site investigation.
Interferometry is a measurement method which uses the phenomenon of interference of
waves. Such measurements may include the waves’ characteristics itself and the materials the
waves interact with. It is an important investigative technique in many branches of science. The
path-length change of laser light caused by deformation, movement, or unevenness of an
object, is measured in this technique. Wave data are gathered and superimposed so as to draw
out information about such waves (Renishaw, 2021).
There are many applications of interferometry in geotechnical engineering. One of which
is the near-surface site investigation by seismic interferometry using urban traffic noise. In 2019,
Zhang et al. evaluated a field test in a city in Singapore to measure the feasibility of passive
seismic survey for bedrock depth determination. By implementing the use of seismic
interferometry, they were able to record the ambient noise field, dominated by urban traffic
noise, to be between 3 Hz and 25 Hz. With the noise data gathered, they were able to establish
that the bedrock depths are well-defined with only a maximum error of 3 m (Zhang, et al., 2019).
In another similar study in Singapore also, bedrock depth was imaged and estimated using
passive seismic based on seismic interferometry through analyzation of the results from both
MASW (multi-channel analysis of surface waves) and tomography (Nilot, et al., 2019). Both
studies utilized vertical geophones and concluded that passive site investigation in densely-
populated areas is economical and efficient, and provides accurate near-surface site
investigation with faster acquisition, fewer receivers, and a smaller acquisition footprint
compared with conventional methods. Undoubtedly, seismic interferometry opened a realm of
opportunities for newer studies, methods, and processes in the field of study.
Electrical Resistivity Imaging or ERI
Today, geotechnical engineers have many tools to choose from when conducting site
characterization and remediation. Geophysical tools can provide non-destructive ways to
observe the inside of the earth, much like how medical imaging let’s us observe inside the
human body. An example is the electrical resistivity imaging or ERI, for short. It is a method for
subsurface investigations and similar to seismic interferometry, ERI is a noninvasive technique.
Although not as popular as ground penetrating radar or GPR, ERI is a widely used geophysical
method for geotechnical studies which has its own advantages and uses. The method is
sensitive to fluid conductivity, interconnected porosity, saturation, clay content, and metallic
materials. Specifically, ERI measures the evident electrical resistivity of subsurface materials
through an array of electrodes which are used to produce data results. Data are then processed
and resistivity contour maps can be derived from them. It shows variations in resistivity along
depth and horizontal positions. Since, the electrical resistivity of subsurface materials is different
from one another due to their compositions and water contents, said resistivity contour maps
can be used to determine and image the subsurface condition. Investigation depth of ERI can
reach to a surprising reach of 50 feet, thus, their applications are quite vast including but not
limited to sinkhole/void locating, mapping of depth to bedrock, groundwater table investigation,
and landfill delineation (Utility Survey Corp., 2017).
Various researches have been published in relation to ERI. In a case study by Waswa,
by mapping the underground river channel through electrical resistivity method, he was able to
indicate the occurrence of subsurface faults 165 meters below the surface of Kabaniti, Nakuru
County in Kenya (Waswa, 2019). This is especially crucial in the prevention and mitigation of
earthquake damages to structures built or to be built nearby. In addition, a research by Sheets,
through completing electrical resistivity surveys, has detected underground mine voids, both air-
filled and water-filled, in two sites along State Route 32 in Jackson and Vinton Counties, Ohio.
Discovery of voids in the mines provided locations for potable water or acid mine drainage and
noticed potentially dangerous roads or building that are susceptible to collapse (Sheets, n.d.).
These are some of the countless studies conducted about ERI. In fact, there’s already an Excel-
based data sheet established to assess the probable outcome of 2D electrical resistivity imaging
for site characterization and remediation monitoring–the Scenario Evaluator for Electrical
Resistivity (SEER) (Dawson, 2020).

Energy Piles
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems in buildings are responsible
for a substantial amount of energy consumption. With the arising demand for energy, the drive
for more efficient and profitable sources of renewable energy is rampant. One of the leading
renewable technologies for thermal management of buildings is the energy piles. Energy piles
or heat exchanger piles is a new type of foundation furnished with individual or several pipe
circuits enabling exchange of heat with the surrounding soil. Function of energy piles can be
broken down into two. The first function being it transfers load from a superstructure into the
bearing layer. The secondary function being it acts as a heat exchanger with the soil, enabling a
heating-cooling cycle. If widespread enforcement of energy piles is observed in appropriate
countries, it could greatly impact the environment positively as this solution is sustainable,
possibly reducing carbon dioxide emissions by up to 40% and saves energy by approximately
45% (Franki Foundations, 2021). Before energy piles can become integral part of new projects,
further studies are necessary to gain a thorough understanding of such innovation. For instance,
in a moderate climate country, although energy piles might seem unprofitable, they are in fact
profitable. In a study conducted by Aresti et al., they have proven that ground heat exchanger
foundation in residential buildings’ is an economical investment and could be an alternative to
the conventional renewable energy systems or RES (Aresti, et al., 2020). Without a doubt, our
current knowledge of energy piles is already sufficient for a chance to be enforced on buildings’
foundations.

Based on the enumerated emerging trends in this paper, the contributions of engineers
to the design of appropriate solutions have been instrumental in the evolution of engineering,
particularly, geotechnical engineering. Globalization, climate change, increase of natural
disasters, unsustainable use of resources, and human needs heavily influenced and motivated
engineers to find new solutions and new approaches to address problems better and quicker.
The never-ending search for the ultimate answer to the underlying problems resulted to a
progressive innovation that is economical, efficient, and convenient in its own ways. Indeed,
geotechnical engineering’s contribution to the 21st century has helped shape and develop the
civilization and gave a brighter outlook of what’s ahead in the future of science, technology, and
engineering.