ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47 (2007) 1214–1228

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmactool

A review on current research trends in electrical discharge machining

(EDM)
Norliana Mohd Abbas, Darius G. Solomon, Md. Fuad Bahari
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
Received 15 November 2005; received in revised form 20 May 2006; accepted 17 August 2006
Available online 17 November 2006

Abstract

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is one of the earliest non-traditional machining processes. EDM process is based on
thermoelectric energy between the work piece and an electrode. A pulse discharge occurs in a small gap between the work piece and the
electrode and removes the unwanted material from the parent metal through melting and vaporising. The electrode and the work piece
must have electrical conductivity in order to generate the spark. There are various types of products which can be produced using EDM
such as dies and moulds. Parts of aerospace, automotive industry and surgical components can be finished by EDM. This paper reviews
the research trends in EDM on ultrasonic vibration, dry EDM machining, EDM with powder additives, EDM in water and modeling
technique in predicting EDM performances.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: EDM; Ultrasonic vibration; Dry EDM; Powder additives; Dielectric; Modeling

1. Introduction machining [1]. Materials of any hardness can be cut as long

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a non-tradi-
tional concept of machining which has been widely used to
produce dies and molds. It is also used for finishing parts
for aerospace and automotive industry and surgical
components [1]. This technique has been developed in the
late 1940s [2] where the process is based on removing
material from a part by means of a series of repeated
electrical discharges between tool called the electrode and
the work piece in the presence of a dielectric fluid [3]. The
electrode is moved toward the work piece until the gap is
small enough so that the impressed voltage is great enough
to ionize the dielectric [4]. Short duration discharges are
generated in a liquid dielectric gap, which separates tool
and work piece. The material is removed with the erosive
effect of the electrical discharges from tool and work piece
[5]. EDM does not make direct contact between the
electrode and the work piece where it can eliminate
mechanical stresses, chatter and vibration problems during
Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 16 218 6521; fax: +60 3 5543 5160.
E-mail address: chelorot@lycos.com (N. Mohd Abbas).
as the material can conduct electricity [6]. EDM techniques
have developed in many areas. Trends on activities carried
out by researchers depend on the interest of the researchers
and the availability of the technology. In a book published
in 1994, Rajurkar [7] has indicated some future trends
activities in EDM: machining advanced materials, mirror
surface finish using powder additives, ultrasonic-assisted
EDM and control and automation.
However, the review presented in this paper is on current
EDM research trends carried out by researchers on
machining techniques viz. ultrasonic vibration, dry EDM
machining, EDM with powder additives and EDM in
water and modeling techniques in predicting EDM
performances. The areas are selected because of the novel
techniques employed (ultrasonic vibration and powder
additives), the environmental aspect (dry machining and
EDM in water) and effort towards validating and
predicting EDM performance (modeling technique). Each
topic will present the activities carried out by the
researchers and the development of the area that brings it
to the current trends. Wire EDM is also discussed in each
topic.

0890-6955/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2006.08.026
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
N. Mohd Abbas et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47 (2007) 1214–1228
2. Ultrasonic vibration
Introduction of ultrasonic vibration to the electrode is
one of the methods used to expand the application of EDM
and to improve the machining performance on difficult to
machine materials. The study of the effects on ultrasonic
vibration of the electrode on EDM has been undertaken
since mid 1980s. The higher efficiency gained by the
employment of ultrasonic vibration is mainly attributed to
the improvement in dielectric circulation which facilitates
the debris removal and the creation of a large pressure
change between the electrode and the work piece, as an
enhancement of molten metal ejection from the surface of
the work piece [8]. Zhang et al. [9] proposed spark erosion
with ultrasonic frequency using a DC power supply instead
of the usual pulse power supply. The pulse discharge is
produced by the relative motion between the tool and work
piece simplifying the equipment and reducing its cost. They
have indicated that it is easy to produce a combined
technology which benefits from the virtues of ultrasonic
machining and EDM.
2.1. Machining of microholes
In 1995 Zhixin et al. [10] has developed an ultrasonic
vibration pulse electro-discharge machining (UVPEDM)
technique to produce holes in engineering ceramics
material. They have confirmed by experiment that this
new technique is effective in obtaining a high material
removal rate (MRR). Ogawa et al. [11] proved that the
depth of microholes by EDM with ultrasonic vibration
becomes as about two times as that without ultrasonic
vibration and machining rate increased. Thoe et al. [12]
dealt with combined ultrasonic and electrical discharge
machining of ceramic coated nickel alloy. They found the
following: when drilling 1 mm diameter single hole using
various tool materials (tungsten, silver steel, mild steel and
copper) with boron carbide abrasive slurry on ceramic
coated nickel alloy work piece, mild steel is found to be the
most resilient whereas the other materials fail as a result of
fatigue fracture or deformation. Using ultrasonic vibration
during EDM greatly increased the MRR of the work piece.
Wansheng et al. [13] introduces ultrasonic vibration into
micro-EDM: Ti–6Al–4 V as work piece material with
32 mm thickness, carbide YG6X electrode, 20 kHz ultra-
sonic vibration and 2 mm amplitude; holes with diameter of
0.2 mm and depth/diameter ratio of more then 15 can be
drilled.
Yan et al. [14] adopted a machining method that
combined micro electrical discharge machining (MEDM)
and micro ultrasonic vibration machining (MUSM). They
showed that the diameter variation between the entrance
and exit (DVEE) could reach a value of about 2 mm in
microholes with diameters of about 150 mm and depth of
500 mm. They obtained microholes with a roundness value
of about 2 mm (the maximum radius minus the minimum
radius). A study on the effects of ultrasonic vibration on
1215
the EDM performance for fabricating microholes in
Nitinol was done by Huang et al. [15]. Fabricating
microholes in nitinol increased the machining efficiency
more than 60 times without significantly increasing the
electrode wear. Yeo et al. [16] investigated the limitations
of microholes machining capabilities as well as current,
attempts to improve micrhole drilling in UEDM. Based on
theories in fluidization engineering and ultrasonic digas-
sing, a method of introducing ultrasonic vibrations into
MEDM processes was conceptualized and developed.
2.2. Vibration, rotary and vibro-rotary
Ghoreishi and Atkinson [17] compared the effects of
high and low frequency forced axial vibration of the
electrode, rotation of the electrode and combinations of the
methods (vibro-rotary) in respect of MRR, tool wear ratio
(TWR) and surface quality (SQ) in EDM die sinking and
found that vibro-rotary increases MRR by up to 35%
compared with vibration EDM and by up to 100%
compared with rotary EDM in semi finishing.
2.3. Theoretical model and fuzzy logic
An adaptive fuzzy control system of servomechanism for
electro-discharge machining with ultrasonic was studied by
Zhang et al. [18] to adjust discharge pulse parameter in a
timely manner and machining gap to optimize the
machining state and to improve the machining efficiency.
2.4. Workpiece vibration
A new method for micro ultrasonic machining has been
developed by Egashira and Masuzawa [19]. The work piece
was vibrated during machining and they have succeeded in
machining microholes as small as 5 m in diameter in quartz
glass and silicon. In the machining range, high tool wear
posed a problem. To solve the problem, a sintered diamond
tool was tested and was proven to be effective. Gao and
Liu [20] found that the efficiency of the ultrasonic micro-
EDM is eight times greater than micro-EDM when work
piece material is stainless steel with 0.5 mm thickness and
the electrode is tungsten with 43 mm diameter. Prihandana
et al. [21] have studied the effect of vibrated work piece.
They have shown that when the vibration was introduced
on the work piece the flushing effect increased. They have
found that high amplitude combined with high frequency
increase the MRR.
2.5. Tool wear
Yu et al. [22] have studied the tool wear during the 3D
micro ultrasonic machining. They showed that the tool
shape remain unchanged and the tool wear has been
compensated by applying the uniform wear method
developed for micro EDM and its integration with CAD/
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1216 N. Mohd Abbas et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47 (2007) 1214–1228

CAM to micro ultrasonic vibration process for generating 30% and the roughness of the machined surface reduced
accurate three-dimensional (3D) micro cavities. from 1.95Ra to 1.7Ra.

2.6. Ultrasonic vibration in gas 2.8. Remarks

Zhang et al. [23] studied the ultrasonic EDM in gas. The
gas is applied through the internal hole of a thin-walled
pipe electrode. The result shows that the MRR increased
with respect to the increase of open voltage, pulse duration,
amplitude of ultrasonic actuation, discharge current and
the decrease of the wall thickness of electrode pipe while
the surface roughness is increased with respect to the
increase of open voltage, pulse duration and the discharge
current. Zhang et al. [24] developed a theoretical model to
estimate the roughness of finished surface. Before that,
Zhang et al. [25] found that heat generation by oxidation of
the molten and evaporated steel enhances the machining
efficiency and surface roughness is found to be affected by
gas medium. For air and oxygen gas the corresponding
values of Ra was measured to be 0.032 and 0.046,
respectively.
Ultrasonic vibration EDM is suitable to produce deep
and small holes products. Cu is most frequently selected as
the tool electrode either in gas machining or in dielectric
machining. This is maybe due to the characteristics of the
material which stable under sparking condition [27]. The
range of the ultrasonic frequency used during the experi-
ment is between 17 and 25 kHz. Most of the experiments
are evaluating on the performance of steel based work
piece materials since these materials are widely used in
industries. However the harder material such as alumina
ceramic is also evaluated.
Fig. 1 shows the progress of method in combining
ultrasonic vibration with EDM from year 1995 to 2006.
The method starts with vibrating the electrode followed by
vibrating the work piece in year 1999, which gains
popularity from year 2003 and continues until year 2006.

2.7. Wire EDM 3. Dry machining

Guo et al. [26] studied the machining mechanism of wire
EDM (WEDM) with ultrasonic vibration of the wire and
found that the combined technology of WEDM and
ultrasonic facilitates the form of multiple-channel dis-
charge and raise the utilization ratio of the energy that
leads to the improvement in cutting rate and surface
roughness. High frequency vibration of wire improves the
discharge concentration and reduces the probability of
rupture wire. Guo et al. [8] concluded that with ultrasonic
aid the cutting efficiency of WEDM can be increased by
In dry EDM, tool electrode is formed to be thin walled
pipe. High-pressure gas or air is supplied through the pipe.
The role of the gas is to remove the debris from the gap and
to cool the inter electrode gap. Fig. 2 shows the principle of
dry EDM. The technique was developed to decrease the
pollution caused by the use of liquid dielectric which leads
to production of vapour during machining and the cost to
manage the waste.
Yu et al. [28] investigated the capability of the technique
in machining cemented carbide material and compared the

Workpiece
vibrates
[14]
Tool: rotates
vibrates &
vibro-rotary
[17]
Tool rotates
Wire vibrates
vibrates up&down
[26] [13]
Wire W'piece Tool
vibrates vibrates vibrates
[8] [12] [18]
Tool Tool Tool Tool W'piece W'piece W'piece
vibrates vibrates vibrates vibrates vibrates vibrates vibrates
[10] [9] [19] [25] [20] [22] [21]

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Fig. 1. Progress of method in combining ultrasonic vibration with EDM from 1995 to 2006.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
N. Mohd Abbas et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47 (2007) 1214–1228
Fig. 2. The principle of dry EDM [25].
Fig. 3. Work removal rate [28].
Fig. 4. Electrode wear [28].
machining characteristics between oil EDM milling and oil
die sinking EDM. They found that for machining the same
shape oil die sinking EDM shows shorter machining time.
But because oil die sinking requires time for producing
electrodes, dry EDM should be more useful in actual
production. The information given in this paper is
interesting and they are reproduced here for better clarity.
Figs. 3 and 4 show the work removal rate and electrode
wear ratio in groove machining. According to the results,
work removal rate of dry EDM milling is about six times
larger than that of oil EDM milling, and electrode wear
ratio one-third lower. In Fig. 5, it is shown that the EDM
method with the shortest machining time was oil die
sinking EDM, dry EDM milling was second, and oil EDM
1217
Fig. 5. Machining time [28].
Fig. 6. Electrode wear ratio [28].
milling third. The lowest electrode wear ratio machining
was dry EDM milling (see Fig. 6).
The following sections present the progress in dry EDM
based on topics: MRR and tool wear, polarity and surface
roughness and improvement techniques.
3.1. MRR and tool wear
In 1991 Kunieda et al. [29] has revealed a new method to
improve EDM efficiency by supplying oxygen gas into gap.
They found that the stock removal rate is increased due to
the enlarged volume of discharged crater and more
frequent occurrence of discharge. Then in 1997 Kunieda
et al. [30] discovered a 3D shape can be machined very
precisely using a special NC tool path which can supply a
uniform high-velocity air flow over the working gap and
MRR is improved as the concentration of oxygen in air is
increased.
The mechanism for minute tool electrode wear in dry
EDM was studied by Yoshida and Kunieda [31]. The tool
electrode wear is almost negligible for any pulse duration
because the attached molten work piece material protects
the tool electrode surface against wear. From observation
of the cross-section of the tool electrode surface, it was
found that the tool electrode wore by the depth of only
2 mm during the early stage of successive pulse discharges
since the initial surface of the tool electrode was not
covered with the steel layer.
ZhanBo et al. [32] studied the feasibility of 3D surface
machining by dry EDM to investigate the influence of
depth of cut and gas pressure, pulse duration and pulse
interval and the rotational speed of the tool electrode. The
result shows that optimum combination between depth of
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1218 N. Mohd Abbas et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47 (2007) 1214–1228
cut and gas pressure and when pulse duration 25 mm it is
leads to maximum MRR and minimum tool wear.
As the rotational speed increases the tool wear increases
moderately.
3.2. Polarity and surface roughness
A paper entitled ‘Discussion of electrical discharge
machining in gas’ written by Li et al. [33] recommend
positive polarity to be employed in dry EDM because
electrodes play main roles in collision and ionization and in
order to ensure machining process stable at the spark
discharge state, a certain gas pressure is necessary to
strengthen deionization in dry EDM and to keep discharge
points dispersed in gap.
Zhang et al. [34] developed a theoretical model to
estimate the roughness of the finished surface. Experiments
which have been carried out using AISI 1045 steel as work
piece material and copper as the electrode show that the
roughness of finished surface increases with an increase in
the discharge voltage, discharge current and pulse dura-
tion. Curodeau et al. [35] proposed a new EDM process
involving the usage of a thermoplastic composite electrode
and air as dielectric in order to perform automated
polishing of tool steel cavity. The process can reduce
44 mm Ra surface finish to 36 mm Ra.
3.3. Improvement of the technique
3.3.1. Dry ultrasonic vibration electrical discharge (dry
UEDM)
Zhang et al. [25] initiated a new method which is
ultrasonic vibration electrical discharge (UEDM) machin-
ing in gas. The experimental result shows that the increase
in open voltage, pulse duration, amplitude of ultrasonic
vibration and decrease of wall thickness of the pipe can
give an increase of the MRR. He also found that oxygen
gas can produced greater MRR than air. Then theories of
ultrasonic vibration in increasing MRR were introduced
[36]. On further investigation, Zhang et al. [23] found that
MRR with the same surface roughness UEDM in gas is
nearly twice as much as EDM in gas but less than the
conventional EDM.
3.3.2. Dry EDM milling
The dry EDM technique is improved by Kunieda et al.
[37] when they introduced the high speed 3D milling by dry
EDM. The MRR increased when the discharge power
density on the working surface exceeds a certain threshold
due to thermally activated chemical reaction between the
gas and work piece material. The maximum removal rate
obtained was almost equal to that of high speed milling of
quenched steel by a milling machine. Most researchers deal
with steel as work piece when investigating the perfor-
mance of dry EDM [30,37,38].
3.3.3. Using piezoelectric actuator
Kunieda et al. [38] introduced an improvement of dry
EDM characteristics using piezoelectric actuator to help in
controlling the gap length. To elucidate the effects of the
piezoelectric actuator an EDM performance simulator was
developed to evaluate the machining stability and MRR of
dry EDM.
3.4. Wire EDM
Furudate and Kunieda [39] conducted studies in dry
WEDM. The process reaction force is negligibly small, the
vibration of the wire electrode is minute and the gap
distance in dry WEDM is narrower than in conventional
WEDM using dielectric liquid which enables the dry
WEDM to realize high accuracy in finish cutting. No
corrosion of the work piece gives an advantage to dry
WEDM in manufacturing high precision dies and molds.
Wang and Kunieda [40] agreed that WEDM is applicable
for finish cut especially for improving the straightness of
the machined surface. Traveling tool electrode can remove
debris from the working gap even in atmosphere and by
utilizing this process as finish-cut the straightness obtained
along the work’s thickness direction is better than that
machined in water [41].
Kunieda and Furudate [42] found some drawbacks of
dry WEDM which include lower MRR compared to
conventional WEDM and streaks generated over the
finished surface during the studies in high precision finish
cutting by dry EDM. The drawbacks can be resolved by
increasing the wire winding speed and decreasing the actual
depth of cut.
3.5. Remarks
To the best of our knowledge, the earliest paper
mentioning about the technique was published in 1991.
However, paper entitled ‘Electrical discharge machining in
gas’ which was published in CIRP Annals in 1997 was
referred for 18 times [43]. Researchers from Japan and
China give major contribution for the progressing research
in this area. The characteristics of dry EDM list by
Kunieda [44] are:
(1) Tool electrode wear is negligible for any pulse duration.
(2) The processing reaction force is much smaller that in
conventional EDM.
(3) It is possible to change supplying gas according to
different applications.
(4) The residual stress is small since the melting resolidi-
fication layer is thin.
(5) Working gap is narrower than in conventional EDM.
(6) The process is possible in vacuum condition as long as
there is a gas flow.
(7) The machine structure can be made compact since no
working basin, fluid tank and fluid circulation system
needed.
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N. Mohd Abbas et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47 (2007) 1214–1228
Fig. 7. Research studies conducted in dry EDM.
The development of the technique concerns more on to
increase the MRR since the MRR is lower compared to
conventional machining. Fig. 7 shows the proportion of
research studies conducted in this area. It can be seen that
dry EDM can be applied to EDM, UEDM, WEDM, EDM
milling and a few other techniques. 34% of the papers
referred deal with EDM technique. This technique should
be supported and more investigation should be made since
it helps to save the environment. The progress in dry EDM
research is shown in Fig. 8. It can be seen that dry EDM
has many advantages over oil EDM. The history of the
developments taking place in dry EDM can be observed.
4. Powder additives
Fine abrasive powder is mixed into the dielectric fluid.
The hybrid material removal process is called powder
mixed EDM (PMEDM) where it works steadily at low
pulse energy [45] and it significantly affects the perfor-
mance of EDM process. Electrically conductive powder
reduces the insulating strength of the dielectric fluid and
increase the spark gap between the tool and the work piece.
EDM process becomes more stable and improves machin-
ing efficiency, MRR and SQ. However, most studies were
conducted to evaluate the surface finish since the process
can provide mirror surface finish which is a challenging
issue in EDM. The characteristics of the powder such as
the size, type and concentration influence the dielectric
performance [46].
4.1. Surface quality (SQ)
Ming and He [47] indicated that some conductive
powder and lipophilic surface agents can lower the surface
roughness and the tendency of cracks in middle finish and
finish machining but the inorganic oxide additive does not
have such effect. Wong et al. [48] compares the near-
mirror-finish phenomenon using graphite, silicon (Si),
1219
aluminium (Al), crushed glass, silicon carbide (SiC) and
molybdenum sulphide with different grain size. Al powder
has been reported to give mirror finish for SKH-51 work
pieces, but not on SKH-54 work pieces. They suggested
that it is important to have the correct combination of
powder and work piece materials and an understanding of
the fundamental mechanisms affecting such combinations
will promote the applications of PMEDM to feasibly
produce superior surface finish and properties of compo-
nents using EDM.
When investigating the surface modification of SKD 61
with PMEDM, Yan et al. [49] revealed that the corrosion
resistance and surface hardness were improved by adding
the proper powder into dielectric. Silicon powder was used
by Pecas and Henriques [46] to assess improvement
through quality surface indicators and process time
management over a set of different processing area. The
result shows that 2 g/l of Si concentration, smooth and high
reflective craters were achieved with average surface
roughness (Ra) depends on the area and varies between
0.09 mm for 1 cm2 and 0.57 mm for 64 cm2 electrode. The
polishing time has a greater effect on decreasing the surface
roughness. Furutani et al. [50] studied a deposition method
of lubricant during finishing EDM to produce parts for
ultrahigh vacuum such as space environment using
PMEDM. Smoother surface can be obtained by adding
aluminum powder to the mixture of molybdenum disulfide
(MoS2) powder and working oil and it has smaller friction
coefficient than that with normal working oil. Yih-fong
and Fu-chen [51] investigates the effect of powder proper-
ties on SQ of SKD-11 work piece using Al, chromium (Cr),
copper (Cu), and SiC powders. The smallest particle
(70–80 nm) generates best surface finish and Al powder
produces the best surface finish.
4.2. Material removal rate
Jeswani [52] revealed that the addition of about 4 g/l of
fine graphite powder in kerosene increases MRR by 60%
and tool wear by 15%. Yan and Chen [53] describes the
effect of dielectric mixed with electrically conductive
powder such as Al powder on the gap distance, surface
roughness, material removal rate, relative electrode wear
ratio, and voltage waveform. It is shown that the dielectric
with suspended electrically conductive powder can enlarge
the gap distance and can improve the energy dispersion,
surface roughness, and material removal rate.
Machining efficiency and surface roughness of rough
PMEDM in rough machining was studied by Zhao et al.
[54] using Al with 40 g/l and 10 mm granularity and they
discovered that machining efficiency was improved from
2.06 to 3.4 mm3/min with an increasing rate of 70%. The
machining efficiency can be highly increased by selecting
proper discharge parameter (increasing peak current and
reducing pulse width) with better surface finish in
comparison with conventional EDM machining. Tzeng
and Lee [55] indicated that the greatest MRR is produced
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1220 N. Mohd Abbas et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47 (2007) 1214–1228

1991
Kunieda
et al [29]:
oxygen gas
introduced in
discharge gap
in water
based dielectric
increased removal rate.

1997 Kunieda et al [30]:

EDM can be achieved in gas.
1999 Yoshida et al [31]: tool
electrode is almost negligible for
any pulse duration in dry EDM.

2001 Kunieda et al [42]: narrower gap,

no corrosion of work piece and high
finish cutting in dry EDM.

2002 Zhang et al [25]:EDM with ultrasonic aid

(UEDM) can be achieved in gas medium.

2003 Wang et al [41]: dry EDM removes environmental

pollution due to liquid dielectric. Better straightness with dry
EDM.
Kunieda et al [37]:oxidation of work pieces due to the usage of
oxygen electrode wear is almost negligible increase MRR.
Curodeau et al [35]: a thermoplastic composite electrode used in
dry EDM using air as dielectric medium.
Z. B. Yu et al [28]: dry EDM is suitable for 3D milling of difficult
to cut materials such as cemented carbide.

2004 Kunieda et al [38] improvement of dry EDM by controlling the

discharge gap using a piezoelectric actuator.
Wang T. et al [40]: the explosive force and electrostatic force acting on
wire electrode decrease in dry WEDM.
Zhang et al [36]: ultrasonic vibration improves MRR in gas by increasing the
effective discharge.
Li L.Q [33]: discharge passage extends rapidly in the gas medium of dry EDM.

2005 Zhang et al [34]: a theoretical model of surface roughness in ultrasonic vibration

assisted EDM (UEDM) in gas.
Zhang et al [23]: in UEDM, MRR increased with the increase of open voltage, pulse duration,
amplitude of ultrasonic actuation, discharge current and with the decrease of the wall thickness
of electrode pipe.

Fig. 8. Progress in dry EDM research.

by chromium and 70–80 nm of grain size. Kansal et al. [56]
established optimum process conditions for PMEDM in
the rough machining phase using the Taguchi method with
graphite powder and found out that addition of an
appropriate amount of the graphite powder into the
dielectric fluid caused discernible improvement in MRR
and reduction in tool wear as well as in surface roughness.
thinnest rimzone and highest MRR. Wu et al. [58] added
surfactant with Al powder and found that it has more
apparent effect to distribute electrical discharging energy to
achieve thinner recast layer around 1–2 mm in thickness
compared to 5–8 mm under pure dielectric.
4.4. Modeling

4.3. Recast layer Sharif et al. [59] established empirical relation of

Influence of powder particle in micro EDM especially in
the gap, thermal spread in dielectric and influenced zone
were investigated on 718 inconel alloy by Klocke et al. [57].
Al and Si powder were added with 2 and 10 g/l concentra-
tion, respectively. The result shows that Al powder leads to
machining responses using response surface methodology
technique while machining Ti-6246 work piece by adding
SiC powder in the dielectric. The result shows that MRR,
tool wear and SQ are greatly influenced by the current,
voltage and pulse on time and the surface roughness was
highly influenced by the presence of SiC additives. Kansal
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N. Mohd Abbas et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47 (2007) 1214–1228
et al. [60] used the same method as [59] to optimize the
process parameter of PMEDM. Pulse on time, duty cycle,
peak current and concentration of SiC powder were chosen
as variables. Combination of high peak current and high
concentration yields more MRR and smaller surface
roughness. The error between experimental and predicted
values of MRR and surface roughness are within 78%
and 7.85% to 3.15%, respectively.
4.5. Other methods
An effective method for promoting the MRR of SKD11
was found by Yan and Chen [61] when rotating the
electrode and machining in the dielectric suspended with
alumina powder under optimum conditions. Results
indicated that the best performance from the viewpoint
of surface finish is achieved using the powder particles of
1 mm diameter, concentration of 4 g/l, and the electrode
rotation speed of 60 rpm. A surface modification method
by EDM with a green compact electrode has been studied
to make thick TiC layer using titanium alloy powder in
kerosene-like dielectric was proposed by Furutani et al.
[62].
TiC layer grows with thickness of 150 mm with hardness
of 1600 Hv on carbon steel with an electrode of 1 mm in
diameter. Chow et al. [63] studied the added powder in
kerosene for the micro-slit machining of titanium alloy
using electro-discharge machining and discovered that SiC
powder in kerosene can produce better material removal
depth than Al. Kozak et al. [64] have published a paper
entitled ‘Study of electrical discharge machining using
powder suspended working media’ which compared the
characteristics obtained using kerosene and a mixture of
deionized water with abrasive powder.
The effect of finishing in abrasive fluid machining on
microholes by EDM [65] shows that using SiC abrasive, the
optimal combination for the finishing of titanium
alloy is 8 mm grain size and 0.5 g/ml concentration while
for stainless steel it is 20 mm grain size and 0.5 g/ml
concentration
Others
Cr
Graphite
Si
SiC
Al
0 2
Fig. 9. Distribution of type of powder used based on the collected papers.
1221
4.6. Remarks
The earliest paper mentioning about PMEDM was
published in 1981. A number of researchers worked in this
area and investigated on various types of powders with
different concentration and grain sizes on various types of
work pieces. The effect of adding powder in dielectric was
studied and many researchers have shown that it improves
surface finish to a great extent. From the reported papers,
it is observed that the additions of Cu powder make almost
no difference to the pure kerosene dielectric.
From the collected literature a bar chart is made in Fig. 9
to show the type of powder used and to compare the
number of works dealing with each type of powders. It is
seen that aluminium powder suspension attracts many
researchers since it contributes well for improving MRR as
well as the surface finish.
5. EDM in water
Water as dielectric is an alternative to hydrocarbon oil.
The approach is taken to promote a better health and safe
environment while working with EDM. This is because
hydrocarbon oil such as kerosene will decompose and
release harmful vapour (CO and CH4) [23]. Research over
the last 25 years has involved the use of pure water and
water with additives.
5.1. Pure water
The first paper about the usage of water as dielectric was
published by Jeswani [66] in 1981. He compared the
performances of kerosene and distilled water over the pulse
energy range 72–288 mJ. Machining in distilled water
resulted in a higher MRR and a lower wear ratio than in
kerosene when a high pulse energy range was used. With
distilled water, the machining accuracy was poor but the
surface finish was better. Tariq Jilani and Pandey [67]
investigated the performance of water as dielectric in EDM
using distilled water, tap water and a mixture of 25% tap
and 75% distilled water. The best machining rates have
4 6 8 10
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
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been achieved with the tap water and machining in water
has the possibility of achieving zero electrode wear when
using copper tools with negative polarities.
Konig and Siebers [68] explained the influence of the
working medium on the removal process. They indicated
that working medium has a sustained influence on the
removal process. The erosion process in water-based media
consequently possesses higher thermal stability and much
higher power input can be achieved especially under critical
conditions, allowing much greater increases in the removal
rate. A considerable difference between conventional oil-
based dielectrics and aqueous media is specific boiling
energy of aqueous media is some eight times higher and
boiling phenomena occur at a lower temperature level.
During investigating on white surface layer, Kruth et al.
[69] found that the use of an oil dielectric increases the
carbon content in the white layer and appears as iron
carbides (Fe3C) in columnar, dendritic structures while
machining in water causes a decarbonization. While
investigating the influence of kerosene and distilled water
as dielectric on Ti–6A1–4 V work pieces Chen et al. [70]
found that carbide is formed on the work piece surface
while using kerosene while oxide is formed on the work
piece surface while using distilled water. The debris size of
Ti–6Al–4 V alloy in distilled water is greater than that in
kerosene and compared with kerosene, the impulsive force
of discharge in distilled water is smaller but more stable.
Ekmekci et al. [71] presented an experimental work to
measure residual stresses and hardness depth in EDM
surfaces. Stresses are found to be increasing rapidly with
respect to depth, attaining to its maximum value around
the yield strength and then fall rapidly to compressive
residual stresses in the core of the material since the stresses
within plastically deformed layers are equilibrated with
elastic stresses. In 2005, Sharma et al. [72] investigated the
potential of electrically conductive chemical vapor depos-
ited diamond as an electrode for micro-electrical discharge
machining in oil and water. While doing a comparative
study on the surface integrity of plastic mold steel,
Ekmekci et al. [73] found that the amount of retained
austenite phase and the intensity of microcracks have
found to be much less in the white layer of the samples
machined in de-ionized water.
A new application in EDM power supply was designed
to develop small size EDM systems by Casanueva et al.
[74]. The proposed control achieves an optimum and stable
operation using tap water as dielectric fluid to prevent the
generation of undesired impulses and keep the distance
between the electrode and the work piece within the
optimum stable range. Studies conducted by Kang and
Kim [75] in order to investigate the effects of EDM process
conditions on the crack susceptibility of a nickel-based
super alloy revealed that depending on the dielectric fluid
and the post-EDM process such as solution heat treatment,
cracks exist in recast layer could propagate into substrate
when a 20% strain tensile force was applied at room
temperature. When kerosene as dielectric, it was observed
that carburization and sharp crack propagation along the
grain boundary occurred after the heat treatment. How-
ever, using deionized water as dielectric the specimen after
heat treatment underwent oxidation and showed no crack
propagation behavior.
5.2. Water with additives
Koenig and Joerres [76] reported that a highly concen-
trated aqueous glycerine solution has an advantage as
compared to hydrocarbon dielectrics when working with
long pulse durations and high pulse duty factors and
discharge currents, i.e. in the roughing range with high
open-circuit voltages and positive polarity tool electrode.
Leao and Pashby [77] found that some researchers have
studied the feasibility of adding organic compound such as
ethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol 200, polyethylene
glycol 400, polyethylene glycol 600, dextrose and sucrose
to improve the performance of demonized water.
The surface of titanium has been modified after EDM
using dielectric of urea solution in water [78]. The nitrogen
element decomposed from the dielectric that contained
urea, migrated to the work piece forming a TiN hard layer
which resulting in good wear resistance of the machined
surface after EDM.
5.3. Wire EDM
Levy [79] experimented an environmentally friendly and
high-capacity dielectric regeneration for wire EDM. He
used a filtration unit based on membrane technology to get
an efficient and long-term autonomy regeneration system.
Diane [80] emphasize on proper mix and type of resin used
in deionization of water for wire EDM. An article
published in 1993 [81] mentioned that Mitsubishi Electric
has developed an anti-electrolysis power supply that can
improved the surface finish with water-immersion di-
electric. Takeshi and Yutaka [82] claimed that Mitsubishi
has developed DWC90PA, a wire EDM machine to meet
the high-end die-machining requirements of the semicon-
ductor and precision electronic component industries
which uses water as the machining medium. Minami et
al. [83] proposed a coloring method of titanium alloy using
WEDM during the finishing without any other post
treatment. When machining in water, a molten and
resolidified surface created by electrical discharge process
was colored directly by the interference phenomenon of
light in the anodic oxide film formed with electrolysis
reaction. The thickness of the oxide film controlled by the
average working voltage determined the color tone.
5.4. Remarks
Water-based dielectric can replace hydrocarbon oils
since it is environmentally safe. When comparing the
performance of water-based dielectric with hydrocarbon oil
it shows that surface finished in distilled water is better
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
N. Mohd Abbas et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47 (2007) 1214–1228
1981 Jeswani M.L [66]: Machining in distilled water resulted in higher MRR and
lower wear ratio.
1984 S. Tariq Jilani et al [67]: The best machining rates have been achieved with
tap water as the dielectric medium; zero electrode wear possible.
1987 Koenig W. et al [76]: Use aqueous solution of organic compounds as medium
for EDM sinking almost completely excludes any fire hazard, permitting safe
operation of plant.
1993 Koenig W. et al [68]: EDM sinking process can be made more cost effective
through the use of water based media, significantly improving
competitiveness with other process.
Yoshiro et al [81]: A machine tool maker has established technologies for
water-immersion machining, greatly improved the surface finish so that post-
process manual polishing is not required.
1995 Kruth J.P et al [69]: Water dielectric cause decarbonisation in the white layer
at the surface of a work piece caused by EDM.
1999 Chen S.L. et al [70]: The MRR is greater and the relative wear ratio is lower
when machining in distilled water rather than in kerosene.
2004 Leao & Pashby [77]: Water based dielectrics may replace oil-based fluids in
die sinking applications.
2005 Yan B.H. et al [78]: TiN was synthesized on the machined surface by
chemical reaction that involved elements obtained from the work piece and
the urea solution in water as dielectric during EDM: the surface modification
of pure titanium metals exhibited improved friction and wear characteristics.
Ekmekci. B. et al [73]: The amount of retained austenite phase and the
intensity of microcracks has been found to be much less in the white layer of
the samples machined in deionized water dielectric liquid.
Kang & Kim [75]: In the case of the kerosene electrical discharge (ED)
machined specimens, it was observed that carburization and sharp crack
propagation along the grain boundary occurred after the heat treatment.
However, the deionized ED machined specimen after the heat treatment
underwent oxidation and showed no crack propogation behaviour.
Fig. 10. Advantages of using water-based dielectric in EDM.
compared to kerosene. Investigation should be made to
evaluate the performance of water-based dielectric in
machining advanced materials such as carbide and
composite materials. There are many advantages when
we use water-based dielectric in EDM reported by
researchers from different parts of the world during the
last 25 years. Fig. 10 presents a few important advantages.
6. Modeling
EDM process is influenced by many input factors.
Various techniques viz. dimensional analysis, artificial
neural network and thermal modeling are employed to
predict the output of the process mainly the surface finish,
tool wear and MRR.
6.1. Dimensional analysis
In 1979 Jeswani [84] used the dimensional analysis to
predict the tool wear in EDM. The equation relates the
volume of material eroded from the tool electrode to the
energy of the pulse and density, thermal conductivity,
1223
specific heat and latent heat of vaporization of electrode
material. Yahya and Manning [85] applied the method in
analyzing MRR. The electrical and physical parameters
related to the process are discharge pulse on time, gap
voltage, sparking frequency, gap current and material
properties. Results from the model show good agreement
when compared to experimental finding.
A semi empirical model of surface finish [86], MRR and
tool wear [87] for various materials have been established
by employing dimensional analysis. Using design of
experiment method, the process parameter viz. peak
current, pulse duration, electric polarity and material
properties are identified. The final results show that the
average error between the experiment and prediction was
less than 10% for surface finish model and less than 20%
for MRR. However, the relations between tool wear and
discharge time under different electric polarity are seen to
have inverse effect.
6.2. Mathematical models
Dibitonto et al. [88] presented a simple cathode erosion
model for EDM. The compton original energy balance for
gas discharges is amended and the model uses the photo-
electric effect as the dominant source of energy supplied to
the cathode surface. Then, Patel et al. [89] developed the
anode erosion model which accepts power as boundary
condition at anode interface and assumed to produce a
Gaussian-distributed heat flux on the surface of anode
material. The area upon which the flux is incident is
assumed to grow with time. A model on variable mass and
cylindrical plasma was introduced by Eubank et al. [90]. It
consists of three differential equation-one each from fluid
dynamics, an energy balance and the radiation equation-
combined with plasma equation of state. Problems with the
zero-time boundary conditions are overcome by an
electron balance procedure.
McGeough and Rasmussen [91] proposed a model for
electro discharge texturing based on the effect of dielectric
fluid and in particular the influence of change in the
resistance in the dielectric during each voltage pulse. The
theoretical predictions confirm the practical findings that
the surface roughness in texturing is determined primarily
by the peak current used and the length of the voltage ‘on-
time’. Cogun et al. [92] investigated on surface profile of
2080 tool steel machined under varying machining para-
meters. It is found that surface roughness increases with
increasing discharge current, pulse duration and dielectric
flushing pressure. Surface profile information obtained is
transferred to computer, digitized and then modeled in the
form of Fourier series.
Perez et al. [93] presented a model for relative power
dissipation by taking into account the different current
emission mechanism and cathode space-charge character-
istics valid for refractory and non-refractory materials.
Tantra et al. [94] tested the validity of model proposed by
Heuvelman for erosion strength of material to predict tool
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1224 N. Mohd Abbas et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47 (2007) 1214–1228
wear and their applicability to EDM process such as
drilling of deep holes in turbine blades. The experimental
results show the Heuvelman model does not show a direct
correlation with the observation.
6.3. Artificial neural network (ANN)
An attempt of modeling EDM process through ANN
was carried out by Gopal and Rajurkar [95]. With
machining depth, tool radius, orbital radius, radial step,
offset depth, pulse on-time, pulse off-time and discharge
current as the input parameters 9-9-2 size back propagation
neural network was developed, experiments have been
performed to check the validity of the ANN model and it
can be concluded that the ANN model provides faster and
more accurate results. Tsai and Wang [96] have compared
the ANN model on MRR. Six neural network models and
neuro-fuzzy model for MRR have been established and
analyzed. Results show that adaptive-network fuzzy
interference system (ANFIS) is more accurate with an
error 16.33%.
In their further investigations, Tsai and Wang [97] have
applied the same method to predict the surface finish.
Results show that tangent sigmoid multi-layered percep-
tron (TANMLP), radial basis function network (RBFN),
Adaptive RBFN and ANFIS models have shown consis-
tent results. Wang et al. [98] combine the ANN and genetic
algorithm to find an integrated solution to the problem of
modeling and optimization of manufacturing processes.
The error of the model is 5.6% for MRR and 4.98% for
surface roughness. The modeling system established better
knowledge about interaction between tool (graphite) and
work piece (nickel alloy). An artificial feed forward neural
network based on the Levenberg–Marquardt back propa-
gation technique has been developed by Panda and Bhoi
[99] to predict MRR. The model provides faster, more
accurate results and performs well under the stochastic
environment of actual machining conditions without
understanding the complex physical phenomena exhibited
in electro-discharge machining.
6.4. Other methods
Tariq and Pandey [100] employed heat transfer model to
study the effects of EDM input parameters: pulse duration,
pulse energy and material properties on MRR and crater
shape. Pandit and Rajurkar [101] illustrates thermal
modeling using data dependent system (DDS) which is a
stochastic approach during the time. Altpeter et al. [102]
proposed a model for die-sinking controller synthesis for
large range operating conditions is illustrated with experi-
mental data taken from commercial die-sinker, designed
and manufactured by Charmilles Technologies. In a paper
entitled ‘Modeling of surface finish in electro-discharge
machining based upon statistical multi-parameter analysis’,
Petropoulos et al. [103] emphasized the interrelationship
between surface texture parameters and process para-
meters. A close correlation was revealed between certain
texture parameters and the EDM input variables and single
and multiple statistical regression models are developed.
6.5. Wire EDM
Rajurkar and Wang [104] reported on sparking fre-
quency monitor which is developed to detect thermal load
for on-line monitoring control to prevent wire rupture. The
wire rupture phenomenon is analyzed with thermal model
and the relationship between the machining rate and
surface finish under optimal machine setting was deter-
mined by means of a multi-objective model. Puri and
Bhattacharya [105] reports an account of the vibrational
behavior of the wire and presents an analytical approach
for solution of wire-tool vibration equation considering
multiple discharges. The higher the thickness of the work
piece, the larger the maximum amplitude of the vibration
for a given span of the wire between the guides.
Furthermore Puri and Bhattacharya [106] modeled the
white layer depth through response surface methodology.
The input variables are pulse on time during rough cutting,
pulse on time, wire tool offset and constant cutting speed
during trim cutting. The optimum speed of cutting is 3 mm/
min.
6.6. Micro EDM
Katz and Tibbles [107] proposed a micro EDM model
with numerical simulation and experimental validation.
The model has predicted reasonable values for current
density, crater area, power dissipation and the rate of
channel growth. Dhanik and Joshi [108] predicted MRR in
a single discharge and the plasma temperature and radius
of crater at the cathode predicted using the model were
found to agree well with the experimental data in the
literature. Dhanik et al. [109] provide a review of modeling
efforts in the field of EDM processes and propose the
future direction for the modeling of micro-EDM process.
6.7. Remarks
Modeling in EDM helps us to get a better understanding
of the complex process. The knowledge, the modeling was
first introduced by Jeswani in 1979 using dimensional
analysis to predict the tool wear. After that, various
methods were introduced to predict the output of EDM
process. A simple presentation is made in Fig. 11 to show
the theoretical models available in literature for simulating
the input and output parameters.
7. Summary
EDM has brought many improvements in machining
process in recent years. The capability of machining
intricate parts and hard material has made EDM as one
of the most popular machining processes. The contribution
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
N. Mohd Abbas et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47 (2007) 1214–1228 1225

Dimensional
Analysis
[84], [88],
Response [86], [87], Multiple
Surface [85] & [107] Statistical
Methodology Regression
Model Model
[106] [103]

Artificial
Modeling
Neural Partial
Network EDM input and Differential
Model output Equation
[95], [96] [97] parameters Model
& [99] [105]

Variable Mass
Fourier Series
Cylindrical
Model
Plasma Model
[92]
(VMCPM)
[90] Thermal
Model
[100], [101]
& [104]

Fig. 11. Theoretical models available in literature for simulating the input and output parameters.

of EDM to industries such as cutting new hard materials References

make EDM technology remains indispensable.
The review of the research trends in EDM on ultrasonic
vibration, dry EDM machining, EDM with powder
additives, EDM in water and modeling technique in
predicting EDM performances is presented. In each topic,
the development of the methods for the last 25 years is
discussed. The progress of development in each area is
presented using charts. The ultrasonic vibration method is
suitable for micro machining, dry machining is cost
effective, EDM in water is introduced for safe and
conducive working environment, EDM with powder
additives is concerning more on increasing SQ, MRR and
tool wear using dielectric oil and EDM modeling is
introduced to predict the output parameters which leads
towards the development of precise and accurate EDM
performance.
For each and every method introduced and employed in
EDM process, the objectives are the same: to enhance the
capability of machining performance, to get better output
product, to develop technique to machine new materials
and to have better working conditions.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia for
funding the current research grant for performing this
work. All those who contributed directly or indirectly are
thanked.
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