6.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Nervous System

*6.1 Organization of nervous system

*6.2 Neuron – structure and function
*6.3 Transmitting information along the neuron
*6.4 Neural signaling across synapse
 *
Component Function
The cerebrum • Largest part
• Divided into 2 halves called hemisphere
• Has a thin outer layer called cerebral cortex – highly
folded to fit into skull
• Vision, learning, thinking & emotions
• Different parts have different functions, e.g. back of
cortex is involved in vision, the front is involved in
thinking
Hypothalamus • Located beneath the middle part of the brain
• Automatically maintains body temperature
(thermoregulation)
• Produces hormones that control the pituitary gland
(just below the hypothalamus)
Medulla • At the base of the brain, at the top of the spinal cord
oblongata • Automatically controls breathing rate & heart rate
Cerebellum • Underneath the cerebrum and has a folded cortex
• Coordinating movement & balance
 *
*Receptors detect stimuli
* They can be cells or proteins on cell surface membranes, different
types of receptors detect different stimuli

*Effectors produce response

* Cells bring response to stimulus to produce an effect
* Can be muscle cells and cells found in glands, e.g. the pancreas

*Receptors communicate with effectors via

* Nervous system (sends information as electrical impulse)
* Hormonal system (sends information as chemical signals)
* Sometimes both

Nervous tissue detects internal and external stimuli,

and coordinates responses to stimuli
 * The
nervous
system
* 6.1 ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEMS
*The simplest animals with nervous
systems, the cnidarians (Hydra)
* Have neurons arranged in nerve nets
*  No central control Nerve net
Controls the contraction & expansion of
the gastrovascular cavity
(a) Hydra (cnidarian)

In relatively simple cephalized animals, such as Eyespot

flatworms, show cephalization
Brain

A central nervous system (CNS) is evident

Clustering of sensory neurons at the anterior Nerve
cord
(front) end - produces a head region with Transverse
nerve
sensory organs
One or more nerve cords extending toward
the posterior end connect these structures
with nerves elsewhere in the body (c) Planarian (flatworm)
*Flatworms
*Have diffuse, ladder- Eyespot
like nervous systems
Brain
* A simple (primitive)
“brain” containing large
interneurons Nerve
cord

* Sensory cells found all Transverse

nerve
over the body surface, but
especially prevalent in the
head region

(c) Planarian (flatworm)

*Annelids and arthropods
*Have segmentally arranged clusters of neurons called
ganglia
*These ganglia connect to the CNS
*And make up a peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Brain Brain

Ventral
nerve cord
Ventral
nerve
cord

Segmental
ganglia
Segmental
ganglion

(d) Leech (annelid) (e) Insect (arthropod)

 brain

branching nerves

nerve cord

ganglion

CRAYFISH
*In vertebrates
* The central nervous system (CNS) consists of a brain and dorsal
spinal cord

 Brain
Brain
 Becomes much larger and more complex
 Composed of a series of swellings of the anterior
end of the spinal cord Sensory
Spinal ganglion
 The spinal cord cord
(dorsal
 Protected by the vertebrae nerve
cord)
 Serves as a two-way path of communication
 Fibres segregated into descending motor pathways
and ascending sensory pathways
Salamander (chordate)
 The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
connects to the CNS
 Nerves and ganglia comprise the PNS
 Madeup of complex network of cells called
neurones
 *Typical structure of a Neuron

 The structural and functional unit of nervous tissue is the neuron

 Neuron has two major components, the cell body and axon.
 The cell body has a nucleus, cytoplasm and is packed with organelles .
 The short projections arising from the cell body are called dendrites.
 The long projections of the cell body is the axon.
 The axon is covered by fatty sheath called myelin sheath.
 The regions of the axon not covered by myelin sheaths is called Nodes of Ranvier
 Axon ends in the bunch of branches called axon terminals.
 *
It consists of
Soma (cell body) Contains nucleus and support systems
Dendrites Tree-like branches that receive information from
other neurones
Myelin Fatty substance on some axons–speeds up neural
transmissions
Terminal Branches Form synapses/junctions with other cells and
of Axon contain synaptic vesicles
Axon Long fiber that passes info to other neurones
Synaptic vesicles Sac-like structures that contain neurotransmitters
Synapse The tiny gap between the sending and receiving
neurons – Transmits nerve impulses form one neuron
to another
Neural Networks Clusters of neurones that work together and become
strengthened with use.
Schwann cells One type of the glial cells - Produces the myelin
sheath and functions in repair and regeneration of
damaged nerves
Presynaptic cell Postsynaptic cell
*
 In the picture, the
dark circles are
Schwann cells
surrounding PNS axons
creating a protective
layer known as the
myelin sheath.

Schwann cell myelinating

axons. Schwann cells (light
purple) forming myelin
sheathes (green) around
axons (brown).
6.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF SENSORY,
RELAY AND MOTOR NEURONES

 All neurones have a cell

a body with nucleus
 Cell body has
extensions that connect
to other neurones
 Dendrites - carry
the nerve impulses
toward the cell
body
 Axons – carry nerve
impulses away from
the cell body
*3 main types of neuron
1. Sensory neurones (afferent) – transmit electrical impulses from
receptors to the CNS (brain & spinal cord)
2. Interneurone (Relay neurone)- transmit electrical impulses
between sensory neurones and motor neurones
3. Motor neurones (efferent) – transmit electrical impulses from
CNS to effectors (usually muscle or glands)
 *

 All neurons have a cell body with nucleus

 Cell body has projections/ extensions that connect to other neurones
 Dendrites
 Highly branched extensions that receive signals from axon terminal of other neurons at
synapses
 carry the nerve impulses toward the cell body

 Axons
 Typically a much longer extension

 Carry nerve impulses away from the cell body

 Transmits signals to other cells (effector cells/ dendrites of other neurons) at synapses
 Many short dendrites
carry nerve impulses
from the CNS to the cell
body
 One long axon carries
nerve impulses from the
cell body to effector cells
 Examples are spinal
motor neurones, Purkinje
cells
 Many short dendrites carry
nerve impulses from sensory
neurones to the cell body
 Many short axons carry nerve
impulses from the cell body to
motor neurones
 Examples are dorsal root
ganglia cells
 One long dendrite carry
nerve impulses from
receptor cells to the cell
body
 One short axon carries
nerve impulses from the
cell body to the CNS
 Examples are retinal cells,
olfactory epithelium cells
 A stimulus (external/internal) is
detected by receptor/ sensor
cells and electrical impulse is
sent along a sensory neuron
 When an electrical impulse
reaches the end of a neuron,
chemicals called
neurotransmitters take the
information across to the next
neuron, which sends an electrical
impulse

 Sensory impulse is sent to the CNS

where interneurons integrate
the information

 The CNS processes the

information and sends impulses
along motor neuron to an
effector
Stimulus Receptors CNS Effectors Response
• Dim light • Photo- • CNS • Radial • Radial
receptors processes muscles in muscles
in your the the iris are contract
eyes information stimulated to dilate
detect the by the your pupils
lack of motor (make
light neurones them
bigger)
*
 6.3 Transmitting information along the
neuron
The CNS and PNS

The central nervous system or the CNS contains the brain and the
spinal cord. All together, the brain and the spinal cord serve the nervous
system's command station. When the sensory input reaches the CNS, the
spinal cord and the brain figure outs what it exactly means. After, they
quickly orders out the body parts that needs to move faster.

Peripheral nervous system or PNS contains the nerves (sensory and

motor neurons), which leave the brain and the spinal cord and travel to
certain areas of the body. The peripheral nervous system's main job is to send
information gathered by the body's sensory receptors to the CNS as quickly as
possible. Once the CNS has understood the information, the PNS will relay the
specific orders back out the body. These nerves which carry information in a
way of nerve impulses to and from the brain are called cranial nerves. The
nerves that carry impulse to and are carrying information from the spine are
called spinal nerves.
* Somatic nervous system (motor system) is the part of the
nervous system that voluntarily responds to external stimuli

* Autonomic nervous system is the part of the nervous system that

involuntarily regulates internal body functions. Additionally, the
autonomic nervous system can be further subdivided into two
divisions: the sympathetic nervous system and
the parasympathetic nervous system.

* The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for intense

physical activity and is often referred to as the fight-or-flight
response.

* The parasympathetic nervous system has almost the exact

opposite effect and relaxes the body and inhibits or slows many
high energy functions. The effects of the parasympathetic nervous
system can be summarized by the phrase 'rest and digest'.
 *
*In a neurone’s resting state, the outside of the membrane is
positively charged compared to inside
*This is because there are more positive ions outside the cell
than inside
*So the membrane is polarised – there’s a difference in voltage
across it
*The difference in voltage across the membrane when it’s at
rest is called the resting potential – about -70mV
 Resting Potential is the
potential difference that exist
across the plasma membrane
at rest
*The resting potential is
created & maintained by
sodium-potassium pumps and
potassium ion channels in a
neurone’s membrane

Sodium-potassium pump Potassium ion channel

These pumps use active transport
to move 3 sodium ions (Na+) out
of the neurone for every
2 potassium ions (K+) moved in.
ATP is needed to do this
These channels allow facilitated
diffusion of potassium ions (K+)
out of the neurone, down their
concentration gradient
 *

1. Definition: Resting Potential is the potential difference that exist across the
plasma membrane at rest

2. The resting potential is created & maintained by sodium-potassium pumps

and potassium ion channels in the axon membrane

3. Na+-K+ pumps
* actively pump (using energy from ATP) Na+ out of the axon and pumps in K+ into the
axoplasm (cytoplasm of the axon)
* For every 3 Na+ that pumped out, 2 K+ are pumped into the axoplasm
* Thus, more positive ions are pumped out of the axon than pumped in
* The actions of the Na+-K+ pumps cause the axoplasm to have a higher conc. of K+
and a low conc. of Na+ compared to the outside of the axon.
4. At rest, some of the K+ channels on axon membrane are open while
most of the Na+ channels are close
* These cause the axon membrane to be more permeable to K+ than Na+
* Thus K+ diffuse out of the axoplasm
5. Both actions of Na+-K+ pumps and K+ channels lead to a net loss of
positive ions from the axoplasm
* As a results, the inside of the axon has negative potential compared to the
outside
* Thus creating the resting potential of the axon
* Negative potential in the axon is also contributed by the presence of
protein molecules with negative charges and organic phosphate anions
in the axoplasm that are too big to diffuse out of the axon
Sodium-potassium pump
These pumps use active transport to
move 3 sodium ions (Na+) out of the
neuron for every 2 potassium ions (K+)
moved in. ATP is needed to do this
Potassium ion channel
These channels allow facilitated
diffusion of potassium ions (K+) out of
the neuron, down their concentration
gradient
* Neurone Cell Membranes Become
Depolarized When They’re Stimulated
* A stimulus triggers other
ion channels, called
sodium ion channels, to
open. If the stimulus are
big enough, it’ll trigger a
rapid change in potential
difference. The sequence
of events that happen are
known as an

action potential
* The sodium & potassium
channels are voltage-
gated  open at certain
voltage
* In animal cells, there are two primary types of action potentials :
* generated by voltage-gated sodium channels
* generated by voltage-gated calcium channels

* Sodium-based action potentials usually last for less than one

millisecond, whereas calcium-based action potentials may last
for 100 milliseconds or longer

* In some types of neurons, slow calcium spikes provide the driving

force for a long burst of rapidly-emitted sodium spikes.

* In cardiac muscle cells, on the other hand, an initial fast sodium

spike provides a "primer" to provoke the rapid onset of a calcium
spike, which then produces muscle contraction.
 In neurons, they play a
central role in cell-to-cell
communication. In other
types of cells, their main
function is to activate
intracellular processes.

 In muscle cells, for

example, an action
potential is the first step in
the chain of events leading
to contraction

 In pancreas, they provoke

release of insulin
 *
* Called a spike
* Characteristics of AP
* follows an all-or-none law
* voltage gates either open or don’t
* nondecremental (do not get
weaker with distance)
* irreversible (once started goes to
completion and can not be
stopped)
Sequence Events
1. Stimulus at Resting • This excites the neurone cell membrane,
state causing sodium ion channels to open.
• The membrane becomes more permeable
to sodium, so sodium ions diffuse into
the neurone down the sodium ion
electrochemical gradient.
• This makes the inside of the neurone less
negative
2-3. Depolarization • If the potential difference reaches the
threshold (around -55mV), more sodium
ion channels open.
• More sodium ions diffuse into the
neurone
4. Repolarisation • At a potential difference of around +30mV the
sodium ion channels close and potassium ion
channels open
• The membrane is more permeable to
potassium so potassium ions diffuse out of the
neurone down the potassium ion concentration
gradient
• This starts to get the membrane back to its
resting potential
5. Hyper- • Potassium ion channels are slow to close so
polarization there’s a slight ‘overshoot’ where too many
potassium ions diffuse out of the neurone.
• The potential difference becomes more
negative than the resting potential (i.e. less
than -70mV)
6. Resting • The ions channels are reset.
potential • The sodium-potassium pump returns the
membrane to its resting potential and
maintains it until the membrane’s excited by
another stimulus
 *
1 Resting phase
• Both voltage-gated K+
channels and voltage-gated
Na+ channels are close
2 Depolarization phase
• Voltage-gated Na+ channels
are open, but the voltage-
gated K+ channels are close
• Depolarization is caused by
the Na+ entering the neuron
Repolarization phase
• Voltage-gated Na+ channels
3 are close, but the voltage-
gated K+ channels are open
• K+ diffuse out of neuron
through its channels and the
potential of the neuron
becomes increasingly
negative; repolarization is
occurring
Hyperpolarization phase
4 • Voltage-gated Na+ channels
are close, but the voltage-
gated K+ channels are still
open
• Thus, the permeability of
membrane to K+ is higher
than during resting potential
phase
• Neuron potential is more
negative that resting
potential
* After an action potential, the neurone cell membrane can’t be
excited again straight away.

* This is because the ion channels are recovering and they can’t be
made to open
* Sodium ion channels are closed during repolarization
* Potassium ion channels are closed during hyperpolarization

* This period of recovery is called the refractory period

 * Refractory Period
 For a brief period following the passage of the action potential, a region
of the neuron membrane cannot be stimulated by stimulus – Refractory
period

 During this period, the region of the neuron membrane is no longer

excitable to initiate a second action potential

 Roles of refractory period

 Limit the frequency of impulses
 Ensures that impulses are produced separately without overlapping
 Ensure impulses travel in one direction only
 Refractory period can be divided into:
 Absolute refractory period
 Neuron membrane cannot be stimulated at all, no matter how strong is the stimulus
 This is because of the presence of a large excess of Na+ in the neuron making the
membrane impermeable to further Na+
 Relative refractory period
 Neuron membrane can be stimulated if the stimulus is strong enough
 Is this period, the Na+ channels are close but could be opened by strong stimuli

 Definition: Refractory period is the time taken for a region of the neuron
membrane to recover after an action potential
 * The Action Potential Moves Along The
Neurone As A Wave Of Depolarization

1. When an action potential happens,

some of the sodium ions that enter
the neurone diffuse sideways
2. This causes sodium ion channels in
the next region of the neurone to
open and sodium ions diffuse into
that part
3. This causes a wave of
depolarization to travel along the
neurone
4. The wave moves away from the
parts of the membrane in the
refractory period because these
parts can’t fire an action potential
An action potential is generated
as Na+ flows inward across the
membrane at one location.

The depolarization of the action

potential spreads to the neighboring
region of the membrane, re-initiating
the action potential there. To the left
of this region, the membrane is
repolarizing as K+ flows outward.

The depolarization-repolarization process is

repeated in the next region of the membrane.
In this way, local currents of ions across the
plasma membrane cause the action potential
to be propagated along the length of the
axon.
*
* The speed of an action potential
* Increases with the diameter of an axon
* In vertebrates, axons are myelinated
* Also causing the speed of an action potential to increase

*
* Once the threshold is reached, an action potential will always fire
with the same change in voltage, no matter how big is the stimulus
* If threshold isn’t reached, an action potential won’t fire
* A bigger stimulus won’t cause a bigger action potential, but it will
cause them to fire more frequently
* Stronger stimulation produces higher frequencies of action potential
 *
* Definition: Action Potential is the temporary
local depolarization of the resting potential
when a neuron is stimulated

* Definition: Nerve Impulse is a wave of

depolarization (action potential) which moves
along the surface of a neuron
 *
1. The stimulated region of a neuron membrane is
depolarized

2. Thus, this stimulated region has opposite potential

compared to the adjacent regions of the neuron
membrane

3. Due to this, a small local current flows between the

leading end of the depolarized area and the adjacent
resting region ahead

4. The local current causes an increase in permeability of

the membrane in adjacent region ahead – voltage-
gated Na+ channels in the adjacent region ahead open;
Na+ ions enter and an action potential is generated

5. The earlier stimulated part of neuron membrane return

to resting potential

6. Flow of local current continues along neuron

membrane, so the action potential propagates itself
along the neuron membrane
 * Action Potentials Go Faster In
Myelinated Neurones

* Some neurones are myelinated – made of a type of cell called a Schwann

cell
* The myelin sheath is an electric insulator
* Between the Schwann cells are nodes of Ranvier – sodium ion channels are
concentrated at the nodes
* In a myelinated neurone, depolarization only happens at the nodes of
Ranvier (where sodium ions can get through the membrane)
*

*In myelinated axon, the myelin sheath acts as an effective

electrical insulator
*The flow of local current can only be set up between
adjacent nodes of Ranvier
* There is no myelin sheath at the nodes of Ranvier
* A large number voltage-gated Na+ channels are present at the nodes of
Ranvier
*Depolarization only happens at nodes of Ranvier. Thus the
nerve impulse ‘jumps’ from node to node.
* This type of impulse transmission is called saltatory conduction, it’s
very fast
 Transmission of Nerve Impulse

* The neurone’s cytoplasm

conducts enough electrical
charge to depolarize the next
node, so the impulse ‘jumps’
from node to node
* This is called saltatory
conduction and it’s very fast
* In a non-myelinated neurone,
the impulse travels as a wave
along the whole length of the
axon membrane
* This is slower than saltatory
conduction
* Action potentials in myelinated axons
* Jump between the nodes of Ranvier in a process called Saltatory
conduction

Schwann cell

Depolarized region
(node of Ranvier)
Myelin
sheath

––
–
– –
+ –
Cell body ++ +
+ +
++
Axon
– –– +
++
– –
–
 *

* Notice how the action potentials jump from node of

Ranvier to node of Ranvier.
* Saltatory conduction is the propagation of action potentials along
myelinated axons from one node of Ranvier to the next node
* increasing the conduction velocity of action potentials without
needing to increase the diameter of an axon.

* Apart from increasing the speed of the nerve impulse, the myelin
sheath helps in reducing energy expenditure as the area of
depolarization and hence the amount of sodium/potassium ions
that need to be pumped to bring the concentration back to normal,
is decreased.
*

* In a non-myelinated neuron, the impulse travels as a wave along the

whole length of the axon membrane
* This is slower than saltatory conduction
 *
* Nerve impulses move along the neuron membrane in one direction only
* Nerve impulse is electrical in nature – a flow of negative charges outside
the neuron membrane
* Nerve impulse moves along the neuron membrane without any changes in
its amplitude
* The speed of impulse transmission varies depending on:
* The size of neuron
* Axons with a large diameter transmit impulses faster because of less resistance to
impulse propagation
* The type of neuron
* Axons with myelin sheaths transmit impulse more rapidly than a non-myelinated one
* Refractory period
* Temperature
* The speed of impulse increases with the temperature until it reaches 40 °C. After this
temperature, the speed of the transmission drops
* Type of stimuli
* When an action potential reaches a terminal
* The final result is the release of neurotransmitters into the
synaptic cleft
Postsynaptic cell
Presynaptic
cell

5 Na+
Synaptic vesicles Neuro-
K+
containing transmitter
neurotransmitter Presynaptic
membrane
Postsynaptic
membrane

Ligand-
gated
Voltage-gated ion channel
Ca2+ channel

1 Ca2+
4 Postsynaptic
2 6
membrane

3
Synaptic cleft

Ligand-gated
ion channels
6.4 Neural signaling across synapses

This colored scanning electron

micrograph shows the synapses, or
connections, between two nerve fibers
(in purple) and a nerve cell (yellow)
 *

* Is the junction between

* a neurone and another neurone
* a neurone and an effector cells (e.g. muscle or gland cell)
* Synaptic cleft – the tiny gap between the cells at a synapse
* The presynaptic neurone (the one before the synapse) has a
swelling called a synaptic knob.
* This contains synaptic vesicles filled with chemicals called
neurotransmitters
* Synapses consist of:
* presynaptic ending (where neurotransmitters are made)
* post synaptic ending (has neuroreceptors in the membrane)
* synaptic cleft
* Action potentials (AP) cannot cross the synaptic cleft
* Nerve impulse is carried by neurotransmitters
*When neurotransmitters bind to receptors they might
trigger an action potential (in a neurone), cause muscle
contraction (in a muscle cell), or cause a hormone to be
secreted (from a gland cell)

*Because the receptors are only on the postsynaptic

membranes, synapses make sure impulses are
unidirectional

*Neurotransmitters are removed from the cleft so the

response doesn’t keep happening

*Examples :- acetylcholine, GABA, serotonin & dopamine

* In a chemical synapse, a presynaptic neuron
* Releases chemical neurotransmitters, which are stored in the
synaptic terminal

Postsynaptic
neuron

Synaptic
terminal
of presynaptic
neurons

5 µm
* How Neurotransmitters Transmit
Nerve Impulses Between Neurones

A. An action potential (AP) triggers calcium influx

1. An AP arrives at the synaptic knob of the presynaptic neurone
2. The AP stimulates voltage-gated calcium ion channels in the
presynaptic neurone to open
3. Calcium ions diffuse into the synaptic knob

B. Calcium influx causes neurotransmitter release

1. The influx of calcium ions into the synaptic knob causes the
synaptic vesicles to move to the presynaptic membrane.
They then fuse with the presynaptic membrane
2. The vesicles release the neurotransmitter into the synaptic
cleft – this is called exocytosis
C. The neurotransmitter triggers an action potential in the
postsynaptic neurons
1. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to
specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
2. This causes sodium ion channels in the postsynaptic neurone to open
3. The influx of sodium ions into the postsynaptic membrane causes
depolarization. An action potential on the postsynaptic membrane is
generated if the threshold is reached
4. The neurotransmitter is removed from the synaptic cleft so the
response doesn’t keep happening
*
1. Action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal
2. Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open
3. Influx of Ca2+
4. Synaptic vesicles fuse with membrane (exocytosis)
5. Neurotransmitters are released into synaptic cleft and
diffuse to postsynaptic terminal
6. Neurotransmitter binds to neuroreceptor on postsynaptic
membrane
7. Causes Na+ channels to open, and Na+ flows into
postsynaptic membrane
8. If threshold is reached then action potential is initiated
9. Neurotransmitter is broken down by specific enzymes in
the synaptic cleft.
* Roles Of Synapses In The Nervous System
1. Synapses allow information to be dispersed or amplified
* When 1 neurone connects to many neurones information can be
dispersed to different parts of the body – this is called synaptic
divergence
* When many neurones connect to 1 neurone information can be
amplified (made stronger) – this is called synaptic convergence
2. Summation at synapses finely tunes the nervous response
* If a stimulus is weak, only a small amount of
neurotransmitter will be released from a neurone into
the synaptic cleft. This might not be enough to excite
the postsynaptic membrane to the threshold level and
stimulate an AP
* Summation is where the effect of neurotransmitter
released from many neurones (or 1 neurone that’s
stimulated a lot in short period of time) is added
together
 *Direct Synaptic Transmission

The process of direct synaptic transmission

Involves the binding of neurotransmitters to ligand-gated ion
channels

Neurotransmitter binding causes the ion channels to open, generating a

postsynaptic potential

After its release, the neurotransmitter

Diffuses out of the synaptic cleft
May be taken up by surrounding cells and degraded by enzymes
* Postsynaptic potentials fall into two categories
* Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)
* Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSP)

- Depolarize the postsynaptic neuron
-The binding of neurotransmitter to postsynaptic receptors opens gated channels
that allow Na+ and K+ diffuse out of the cell
-The inside of the cell becomes more positive,hence causing a local depolarization
- If enough depolarization occurs an action potential is generated

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (IPSP)

-decrease the cell’s ability to develop action potentials
-channels are permeable to Cl- and K+ where Cl- moves into the cell and K+ moves
out of the cell
-The inside of the cell thus becomes more negative, hence causing a local
hyperpolarization  make it more difficult for the cell membrane potential to
reach threshold less likely that an action potential will be generated
 * Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials
*Unlike action potentials
* Postsynaptic potentials are graded and do not regenerate themselves

* Since most neurons have many synapses * If two EPSPs are

on their dendrites and cell body produced in rapid
* A single EPSP is usually too small succession
to trigger an action potential in a
postsynaptic neuron
* An effect called
temporal
Terminal branch of summation occurs
presynaptic neuron
Postsynaptic
neuron E1 E1

Axon
hillock
Threshold of axon of
Membrane potential (mV)

0 postsynaptic neuron
Resting Action
potential potential

–70
E1 E1 E1 E1

(b) Temporal summation

(a) Subthreshold, no summation
* In spatial summation * Through
summation
* EPSPs produced nearly * An IPSP can
simultaneously by counter the
different synapses on effect of an
the same postsynaptic EPSP
neuron add together

E1 E1
E2

Action
potential

E1 + E2
E1 I E1 + I
(c) Spatial summation
(d) Spatial summation
of EPSP and IPSP
 *Neurotransmitters
* The same neurotransmitter
* Can produce different effects in different types of cells
* Acetylcholine
* Is one of the most common neurotransmitters in both
vertebrates and invertebrates
* Can be inhibitory or excitatory
* Major neurotransmitters
 *
* Widely used at synapses in the peripheral nervous system
* Released at the terminals of:
* All motor neurones activating skeletal muscle
* Many neurones of the autonomic nervous system especially
those in the parasympathetic branch
* Some synapses in the central nervous system
* Acetylcholine is removed from the synapse by enzymatic
breakdown into inactive fragments. The enzyme used is
acetylcholinesterase.
 *
* Nerve gases used in warfare (e.g. sarin)
and the organophosphate insecticides
(e.g. parathion) achieve their effects
by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase thus
allowing ACh to remain active.
* In the presence of such inhibitors Ach
keeps stimulating the postsynaptic
membranes and the nervous system
soon goes wild, causing contraction of
the muscles in uncontrollable spasms
and eventually death.
* Atropine is used as an antidote because
it blocks ACh receptors.
The mentally ill, for example, were used as guinea pigs for the testing of
drugs. Drugs that would normally only be used on lab rats, were used on these
subjects. Poisons of war, tabun, sarin, and soman were also test on human subjects
before being used in battle. Subjects were also infected with various diseases,(ex.
malaria, tuberculosis) so the effects of the disease could be studied. To learn about
hypothermia and the human body, doctors would take the patient and submerge
them in extremely cold water for hours.