Atmospheric Humidity

Humidity

 Amount of water vapor in atm. It is to blame for that

muggy, steam-room feeling you experience on certain
days

 Expression of humidity

─ absolute humidity

─ specific humidity

─ relative humidity

 RH is the most common way that we measure humidity

14-Nov-16 AD, ED70.07: Ag Environments-L9 1
Phase changes of water (latent heat transfer)

2
Absolute humidity

 Ratio of the mass of water vapor to the unit volume of air

in which it is contained at a given temp. The hotter the air
is, the more water it can contain. Expressed as g m–3

Specific humidity

 Mass of water vapor per mass of air (g kg–1)

 Higher temp., higher maximum specific humidity (warm

air can “hold more water” than cold air)

Relative humidity

 Ratio of the current absolute humidity to the highest

possible absolute humidity
3
Line is maximum (capacity) specific humidity

4
Relative humidity (RH)

 Most common measure of atmospheric humidity.

Indicates how moist the air is

 Actual amount of moisture in air RELATIVE to the

maximum capacity amount that the air can hold, usually
expressed in percent:

Actual amount moistute

RH (%) = × 100
Maximum capacity

(“saturated air” means that RH = 100%)

 In simpler terms, “RH is the amount of moisture in the air

compared with what the air can “hold” at that temp.

 When the air can’t “hold” all the moisture, then it

5
condenses as ‘dew’
 RH is the ratio of the amount of water vapor actually in
the air to the maximum amount of water vapor required
for saturation at that particular temp. and pressure

 RH is also approximately the ratio of the actual to the

saturation vapor pressure

Relative Humidity (RH) = (Actual Vapor Pressure) (g/m3)

------------------------------------- X 100%
(Saturation Vapor Pressure) (g/m3)

 It is the ratio of the air’s water vapor content to its

capacity:
Water vapor content
RH = × 100%
Water vapor capacity

6
 RH is given as a percent

─ 50% RH means that the air contains ½ the amount

required for saturation

 A change in RH can be brought about by two primary

ways:

1) by changing the air’s water vapor content

2) by changing the air temp.

 RH varies with temp.

─ warm air has a higher capacity than cold air to hold

moisture

─ during day, RH and temp. have inverse relationship

7
8
4 am :
 T = 5°C
 actual = 7 g/kg
 capacity = 7 g/kg
 RH = 7 / 7 × 100 = 100%

10 am :
 T = 16°C
 actual= 7 g/kg
 capacity = 14 g/kg
 7 / 14 × 100 = 50%

3 pm :
 T = 32°C
 actual = 7 g/kg
 capacity = 35 g/kg
9
 7 / 35 × 100 = 20%
10
Calculating RH from specific humidity

a) If temp. = 20°C and

actual specific humidity is

7.5 g/kg, what is RH?

Solution:
1. Use graph to find
capacity amount

2. RH = (7.5 / 15) × 100

= 50%

b) If temp. is 25°C and

actual specific humidity is
5 g/kg, what is RH?

RH = (5/20) × 100 = 25% 11

Vapor pressure

 The total pressure inside an air parcel is the sum of the

pressures of each individual gas…nitrogen, oxygen, and
water vapor

 At 1000 mb (sea level) nitrogen (78%) has a pressure of

780 mb, oxygen (21%) has a pressure of 210 mb. The
partial pressure of water vapor (1%) would be 10 mb

 The number of water vapor molecules is small compared

with total number of air molecules in the volume

 Actual vapor pressure is a good indicator of the amount

of water vapor in the air

 Actual vapor pressure  Measurement of the amount of

water vapor in a volume of air and increases as the
amount of water vapor increases 12
Saturation vapor pressure

 Describes the amount of water vapor needed to make the

air saturated at any given temp.

 A unique function of temp. as given in the Table. Each

temp. in the Table may be interpreted as a dew point
temp., because the ground cools, dew will begin to form at
the temp. corresponding to the vapor pressure in the table

Air that is saturated: number of

molecules escaping the water
surface = amount returning

At higher air temp., it takes more

water vapor to saturate the air
13
(C) Temp (F) | Sat | (C) Temp (F) | Sat
Vapor Vapor
Prs Prs
(mb) (mb)
-18 00 1.5 | 18 65 21.0
-15 05 1.9 | 21 70 25.0
-12 10 2.4 | 24 75 29.6
-09 15 3.0 | 27 80 35.0
-07 20 3.7 | 29 85 41.0
-04 25 4.6 | 32 90 48.1
-01 30 5.6 | 35 95 56.2
02 35 6.9 | 38 100 65.6
04 40 8.4 | 41 105 76.2
07 45 10.2 | 43 110 87.8
10 50 12.3 | 46 115 101.4
13 55 14.8 | 49 120 116.8
16 60 17.7 | 52 125 134.2

* The warmer the air is, the more vapor it can hold
14
 Air that attains its saturation vapor pressure has
established an equilibrium with a flat surface of water

 That means, an equal number of water molecules are

evaporating from the surface of the water into the air as
are condensing from the air back into the water

 If the air is at 100% RH, sweat will not evaporate into the
air. As a result, we feel much hotter than the actual temp.
when the RH is high

15
 The most common units for vapor density are g/m3. For
example, if the actual vapor density is 10 g/m3 at 20°C
compared with the saturation vapor density at that temp. of
17.3 g/m3, then the RH is
10 g/m3
RH = × 100% = 57.8%
17.3 g/m3
 RH is an important metric used in weather forecasts and
reports, as it is an indicator of the likelihood of precipitation,
dew, or fog. In hot summer weather, a rise in RH increases
the apparent temp. to humans (and other animals) by
hindering the evaporation of perspiration from the skin

Vapor pressure deficit

 Another measure of moisture in the atm. It is the difference

between the saturated vapor pressure and actual vapor
16
pressure
Dew point

 Temp. at which air becomes saturated during cooling

 If the air is gradually cooled while maintaining the

moisture content constant, the RH will rise until it reaches
100%. This temp., at which the moisture content in the air
will saturate the air, is called the dew point

─ further cooling below the dew point will induce

condensation of the excess water vapor

 The dew point is the temp. below which the water vapor in
a volume of humid air at a constant barometric pressure
will condense into liquid water

─ condensed water is called dew when it forms on a

solid surface 17
• Amount of moisture in air

18
 In simpler terms, “dew point is the temp. at which the air
can no longer hold all of its water vapor, and some water
vapor must condense into liquid water”

 At 100% RH, the dew point temp. and real temp. are the
same, and clouds or fog can begin to form

 The dew point is a water-to-air saturation temp. The dew

point is associated with RH. A high RH indicates that the
dew point is closer to the current air temp. RH of 100%
indicates the dew point is equal to the current temp. and
that the air is maximally saturated with water

 When air temp. equals dew point, air is saturated and

condensation (or deposition) will occur

─ examples: glass of ice water on a hot day; window

19
in shower room
Dew formation:
condensation in place

Frost formation:
deposition in place

[water vapor changes

directly into ice without
becoming liquid first–
called deposition] 20
Effects of humidity on crops

Humidity is an important factor in crop production and it is

not an independent factor, but closely related to rainfall and
temp. It plays significant role in weather and climate

 Humidity is the invisible vapor content of the air and is of

great importance in determining the vegetation of a
region

 Affects the internal water potential of plants. Humidity is a

major determinant of potential ET. So, it determines the
water requirement of crops

 Influences certain physiological phenomena including

transpiration. Very high or very low RH is not conducive
for high grain yield
21
 Change in RH can produce various morphological and
anatomical changes in the plants

─ for example, orchids grow abundantly in humid

forests as epiphytes depend for their moisture supply
on the atm. by developing certain morphological and
anatomical characteristics that are not found in other
plants (hydroscopic aerial roots)

 Xerophytes in desert region where RH is low show

certain adaptations to conserve water

 RH influences the outbreak of disease and pest

epidemics. High humidity promoters the growth of some
fungi and bacteria which cause various plant diseases

 High RH can prolong the survival of crops under moisture

22
stress
Evaporation and transpiration

Water is removed from the surface of the earth to the atm. by

two distinct mechanisms: evaporation and transpiration

Evaporation can be defined as the process where liquid

water is transformed into a gaseous state

 Evaporation can only occur when water is available

─ it also requires that the humidity of the atm. be < the

evaporating surface (at 100% RH there is no more
evaporation)

 The evaporation process requires large amounts of energy

─ for example, the evaporation of 1 g of water requires

600 calories of heat energy 23
Transpiration is the process of water loss from plants
through stomata

 In most plants, transpiration is a passive process largely

controlled by the humidity of the atm. and the moisture
content of the soil

 Of the transpired water passing through a plant only 1%

is used in the growth process

 Transpiration also transports nutrients from the soil into

the roots and carries them to the various cells of the plant
and is used to keep tissues from becoming overheated

─ some dry environment plants do have the ability to

open and close their stomata. This adaptation is
necessary to limit the loss of water from plant tissues
24
It is difficult to distinguish between E and T. So we use a
composite term ET. The rate of ET at any instant from the
earth’s surface is controlled by:

i. Energy availability: The more energy available the greater

the rate of ET. It takes about 600 calories of heat energy
to change 1 g of liquid water into a gas

ii. The humidity gradient away from the surface: The rate
and quantity of water vapor entering into the atm. both
become higher in drier air

iii. The wind speed immediately above the surface: Our

gardens need more watering on windy days compared
with calm days when temp. are similar. This fact occurs
because wind increases the potential for ET

iv. Water availability: ET cannot occur if water is unavailable25

Factors affecting the evaporation

(A) Environmental factors

1. Water temp.: With an increase of temp. the kinetic energy

of water molecules increases and surface tension
decreases. The rate of E increases with a rise in temp.

2. Wind: The velocity of wind is directly proportional to E

from a fully exposed surface and vice versa

─ the reason is that the dry wind replaces the moist air
near the water

─ the process of E takes place continuously when

there is a supply of energy to provide latent heat of E
(approx. 540 cal/g of water evaporated at 100°C)
26
3. RH: When the air above water is dry or has low RH, the E
will be greater than when air has high RH over the water

4. Pressure: The E is more at low pressure and vice versa

(B) Water factors

1. Composition of water: The dissolved salts and other

impurities decreases the rate of E. E is inversely
proportional to the salinity of water. The rate of E from the
surface of the sea is < that of fresh water in rivers. Under
equivalent conditions ocean water evaporates 5% less
than fresh water in rivers

2. Area of evaporation: If two volumes of water are equal in

two containers, E will be greater for the one having the
larger exposed surface
27
Factors affecting the transpiration

(A) Environmental factors

1. Light: Light plays predominant role in T both directly and

indirectly

 The direct effect of light is on the opening and closing of

stomata

 Bright light is the main stimulus which causes stomata to

open. It is because of this reason that all plants show a
daily periodicity of T rate

 The indirect effect of light is that the increasing light

intensity raises the temp. of leaf cells. This increases the
rate at which liquid water is transformed into vapor
28
2. Atmospheric humidity: The rate of T is almost inversely
proportional to atmospheric humidity. The rate of T is
reduced when the atm. is humid

3. Air temp.: Increase in the temp. results in opening of

stomata. Temp. has a significant effect on the
permeability of the wall of the guard cells and therefore
greatly effects the osmotic phenomenon

─ this phenomenon is responsible for the movement of

guard cells

4. Wind velocity: The velocity of wind affects the rate of T to

a greater extent

─ fast moving wind and air currents bring fresh and dry
masses of air in contact with leaf surfaces. So,
higher the wind speed higher the T 29
(B) Plant factors

Some plants adopt physiological modifications to check the

excess T. Some other plants modify their structure for this
purpose, thereby withstand drought. Such characters
greatly effect the T

1. Plant height

 The water need of a crop varies with its height

 The rate of T of a tall crop will be more (~ 50%) than

when the crop is cut or clipped to half

2. Leaf characteristics

 In cacti and other desert plants, leaves are altogether

absent and their function taken up by the stem itself 30
 In case of Pines, Firs etc., the leaf size is very much
reduced. In such cases reduction in leaf area brings
about reduction in T

 Some Poaceae family plants (maize), flower plants, etc.,

roll up or turn the edges of their leaves when exposed to
bright sun and fast breeze. This causes reduction in the T

3. Availability of water to the plant

 If there is little water in the soil, the tendency for

dehydration of leaf causes stomatal closure and a
consequent fall in T

 This situation occurs during (a) periods of drought, (b)

when the soil is frozen, and (c) at a temp. so low that
water is not absorbed by roots
31
Rainfall

The process of rainfall:

Air rises Air cools Air condenses
Clouds form and precipitation occurs
 As air rises it cools and it cannot hold as much moisture
as it could when it was warmer

 Eventually the rising air reaches a point where it is 100%

saturated, i.e., it cannot hold any more water. This is
called dew point, and further cooling below the dew point
will induce condensation of the excess water vapor

 Condensation is the process by which the water vapor (a

gas) held in the air is turned back into water droplets (a
liquid), which fall as rain
32
Types of rainfall

There are mainly 3 types of rainfall:

1. Convectional rainfall

 The air near the ground becomes hot and light due to
heating of the ground by the sun

─ then it starts upward movement (process is known

as convection)

 As the air moves upward it cools at about 10°C/km i.e., at

dry adiabatic lapse rate

 As it becomes saturated, RH reaches to 100% and dew

point is reached where the condensation begins. This
level (height) is known as condensation level 33
 Above this level, air cools at
about 4°C/km slightly less
than saturated adiabatic
lapse rate. First, cloud is
formed
 Then, the further
condensation results into
precipitation
 Convection tends to produce
towering cumulo-nimbus
clouds, which produce heavy
rain and possible thunder
and lightning
 These rains are known as convectional rains and mostly
occurs in the tropics. This is why those areas experience
34
heavy rainfalls most afternoons
2. Orographic or Relief rainfall

 When moist air coming from the

sea or ocean strikes mountain it
can not move horizontally. The
moist air is forced to rise over
mountains and hills

 When this air rises upward, cools

down, cloud is formed and
condensation starts giving precipitation
 These rains are known as orographic rains. These are
also known as “relief rains” as the rains also occurs when
the air from sea or ocean strike or pass over relief barriers

 Due to these processes rains with high intensity are

possible on the windward side of the mountain 35
3. Frontal rainfall

 Frontal rainfall occurs when

two air masses meet, one a
warm air mass and one a cold
air mass

 The lighter, less dense, warm

air is forced to rise over the
denser, cold air
 This causes the warm air to cool and begin to condense

 As the warm air is forced to rise further condensation

occurs and rain is formed

 Frontal rain produces a variety of clouds, which bring

moderate to heavy rainfall 36
Importance of rainfall (water) on crop plants

 Water is essential to plant life. To survive, plants need

water, as well as nutrients, which are absorbed by the
roots from the soil. Plants are almost 90% water

 Water is transported throughout the plant almost

continuously to keep its vital processes working

1. Root System

 Roots absorb water from the soil, which is then carried

through the plant. Much of the water is taken up through
the root hairs, which are tiny rootlets that penetrate the
soil around the roots and increase the root’s surface area

 Water is a solvent that moves minerals from the soil up

through the plant. Root growth slows when soil dries 37
2. Photosynthesis

 Water is used for the chemical and biochemical processes

supporting plant metabolism

 The plant uses sunlight to split water into hydrogen and

oxygen. The hydrogen then uses CO2 in the air to make
sugar

 Plants use oxygen to burn sugar and make energy for life
processes

 The sole purpose of leaves is to collect light and make

sugar. Leaves get water from the roots, and air enters the
leaves through small holes called stomates

─ if these holes close to conserve water, PS and sugar

production are halted 38
3. Growth

 Cell division and cell expansion are the two important

ways of plant growth. Cells grow by taking in water. Cell
division creates additional cells, while cell expansion is an
increase in the size of the cell

 If water is limited during growth, the final cell size is

diminished, which leads to fewer and smaller leaves,
smaller fruit, shorter, thicker stems, and a smaller root
system. The lack of water results in smaller, weaker plants

 Lack of water minimizes the growth of new shoots and

leaves (less sugar is available for fruit growth)

─ the growth of the root system slows down, so may be

necessary to use irrigation to keep the roots moist
39
4. Wilting

 Well-watered plants keep their shape because of the

internal pressure of water in the cells: turgor pressure

 When there is insufficient water, the pressure drops and

causes the plant to wilt. This pressure is also essential for
plant cell expansion, which leads to plant growth

5. Water stress

 Water regulates the opening and closing of stomata, which

in turn regulates transpiration and PS

 If too little water is available to the root system, the plant

will reduce the amount of water lost through transpiration.
This causes reduced PS. Decreases in PS result in
decreased crop yields 40
Monsoon

 Derived from an Arabic word “Mawsim” means “Season”

 Traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind

accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation

 The term technically describes seasonal reversals of wind

direction caused by temp. differences between the land
and sea breeze, creating zones of high and low pressure
over land in different seasons

 These winds blow from the northeast for one half of the
year and from the southwest for the other half

 Monsoons occur due to changes in atmospheric pressure

which are caused by different rates of heating and cooling
of continents and oceans 41
Cold season: Dry winds blow
from land to ocean
Warm season: Wet winds
blow from ocean to land
─ transport moisture
─ large rainfall
42
Monsoon process

 Monsoons are large-scale sea breezes which occur when

the temp. on land is significantly warmer or cooler than
the temp. of the ocean

 These temp. imbalances are caused because the oceans

and land absorb heat in different ways

 For oceans, the temp. remains relatively stable for two

reasons: water has a relatively high heat capacity, and
because both conduction and convection will equilibrate
a hot or cold surface with deeper water (up to 50 m)

 Dirt, sand, and rocks have a lower thermal conductivities,

and they can only transmit heat into the earth by
conduction and not by convection. Bodies of water stay at
a more mild temp., while land temp. are more variable 43
• During warmer months

─ Sunlight heats the surfaces of both the land and the

oceans, but the land temp. rises faster

─ Since the land’s surface is warm, the gases expand and

an area of low pressure develops

─ Since the ocean is at a more moderate temp., it retains a

higher pressure than on land. This pressure difference
causes sea breezes to blow from the ocean to land,
bringing moist air

─ To complete the cycle, air rises to a higher altitude over

land and then flows back toward the ocean. Upon rising
air cools, which decreases its ability to hold water,
causing precipitation over land. Therefore, summer
44
monsoons cause a large amount of rain over land
45
• In colder month

─ The cycle is reversed. Since the land cools more quickly

than the oceans then the air over land has higher
pressure, thereby causing sea breezes at the surface
which flow from land to the ocean

─ When humid air rises over the ocean (to complete the
cycle), it begins to cool, causing precipitation over the
oceans

Asian monsoons

 The Asian monsoons are classified into a few sub-

systems: the South Asian Monsoon (affects the Indian
subcontinent and surrounding regions), and the East
Asian Monsoon (affects southern China, Korea, and parts
46
of Japan)