CHAPTER 4

AQUIFER CHARACTERISTICS

4.1 General

Groundwater is one of the earth’s widely distributed and most important

resources. The term ‘groundwater’ is used for denoting water which has saturated the

pores or interstices of the sub-soil. Groundwater is derived from precipitation on the

earth’s surface which gradually percolates into the sub-soil through the porous strata or

openings of rock formations and reaches the zone of saturation. Any addition to

groundwater that replenishes any drawals or causes rise in water table is known as

‘recharge’. The ‘water table’ is defined as the locus of levels to which water rises in

observation wells in free communication with the soil void. Groundwater becomes a

usable resource when the rocks in the zone of saturation are permeable enough to yield

useful supplies of water to wells, springs, or streams; when the zone of saturation is

perennial, or at least persists long enough each season to allow practical exploitation; and

when the mineral substances dissolved by the water as it percolates through the soil and

rocks do not reach such concentrations as to make the water unfit for the desired use.

Rainfall is the chief source of groundwater recharge. Southern Karnataka has

sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks. The rocks have a thick porous soil

formation and most of the groundwater is stored in the soil. The coastal belt receives the

maximum rainfall. The area has a top cover of porous laterites, lateritic soils and sand. A

large quantity of water is stored in the laterites. They form shallow aquifers.

Groundwater is also stored in the joints, cracks, fissures, sheared zones and weathered

mantle of metamorphic rocks. They form deeper aquifers.

 36

Groundwater is generally a renewable resource and is replenished periodically

from precipitation through recharge sources. The amount of water that can be withdrawn

from an aquifer without producing adverse effect is known as ‘safe yield’. Water

withdrawn in excess of safe yield is termed ‘overdraft’. Withdrawals exceeding the

replenishment come from storage within the aquifer. Thus to minimize the over-

exploitation of groundwater, it is imperative to know the characteristics of an aquifer.

Knowing the potential of groundwater one can plan the judicial exploitation of water for

varied needs.

4.2 Types of Aquifers

The zone of saturation consists of rocks with different water- bearing and water

yielding properties. A rock formation, sequence of formations, or part of a formation

which yields appreciable quantities of groundwater is called an aquifer. An aquifer has

the property of yielding or transmitting stored water readily to wells. It transports water

from recharge areas to surface bodies of water and other collecting devices. A

semipermeable rock layer that yields water slowly in comparison with the adjoining

aquifer is called an aquitard. An impermeable rock layer, the yield of which is

insignificant in comparison to the adjoining aquifer is termed an aquiclude. A rock that

does not hold any water is called an aquifuge.

Based on hydraulic characteristics, aquifers are classified into four types

(Fig. 4.1) as described below.

4.2.1 Confined aquifer

If the water within an aquifer is confined i.e., held under pressure by an

 SEMI - UNCONFINED UNCONFINED

IMPERVIOUS SEMI-PERVIOUS

FINE GRAINED AQUIFIER

— PIEZOMETRIC SURFACE

----- PHREATIC SURFACE

Fig. 4-1. Types of Aquifers

 37

overlying impervious stratum, the aquifer is known as ‘confined’ or a pressure aquifer. If

the aquifer is fed from some sources laterally at higher elevation than the aquifer, it will

be subjected to hydrostatic pressure. A well in such an aquifer will flow without

pumping. Hie term ‘artesian’ is used to denote such an artesian condition. The imaginary

surface to which water rises in wells which tap the artesian aquifer is known as

piezometric surface.

4.2.2 Semi-confined aquifer

In nature truly confined aquifers are rare because the confining layers are not

quite impervious. In semi-confined or leaky confined aquifers, the aquifer is overlain or

underlain by an aquifer or semi- pervious layer through which vertical leakage takes

place due to head difference. The permeability of the semi-confining layer is small as

compared to the permeability of the main aquifer so that any horizontal component of

flow in it can be neglected.

4.2.3 Unconfined aquifer

If the aquifer is exposed to atmosphere or if it possesses free surface, it is taken to

be ‘unconfined’. An unconfined aquifer is not overlain by any confining layer but it has a

confining layer at its bottom. It is normally partly saturated with water and the upper

surface of saturation is termed ’water table’ which is under atmospheric pressure. Water

in an unconfined aquifer is also called phreatic water.

In unconfined aquifer, gravity drainage is often not instantaneous and therefore

there is some time lag in the lowering of the water table and the drainage of the aquifer.

The delay effect is more in fine grained aquifer as compared to coarse grained aquifers.
 38

4.2.4 Semi-unconfined aquifer

These aquifers exhibit characters in between semi-confined and unconfined

aquifers as the permeability of the fine grained overlying layers is more than in a semi-

confined aquifer and the horizontal flow component is not negligible.

The distinction between different types of aquifers is, at times, difficult. The sub­

surface lithology, water levels and other hydrological parameters of both the aquifers and

the confining layers should be studied carefully in order to ascertain the nature of the

aquifers.

43 Hydraulic Properties

The important hydraulic properties of aquifers and confining layers are hydraulic

conductivity, transmissivity, coefficient of storage, specific yield and specific capacity.

However, there are some other hydraulic properties which are less significant.

43.1 Hydraulic conductivity (K)

The hydraulic conductivity, also known as permeability, is a measure of the ease

with which a fluid moves through a formation and is defined as the amount of flow per

unit cross sectional area under the influence of a unit gradient. It has the dimensions of

velocity and is usually expressed in m/day.

The hydraulic conductivity depends both upon the properties of the fluid as well

as the aquifer.
 39

43.2 Transmissivity (T)

Transmissivity or coefficient of transmissivity is a hydraulic characteristic of the

aquifer which is defined as the rate of flow of water at the prevailing field temperature

under a unit hydraulic gradient through a vertical strip of aquifer of unit width and

extending through the entire saturated thickness of the aquifer. It is therefore a product of

the average hydraulic conductivity and the thickness of the aquifer. Transmissivity is
usually expressed in m^/day.

The concept of transmissivity holds good in confined aquifer but in unconfined

aquifer, as the saturated thickness of the aquifer changes with time, the T will also

change accordingly.

4.3.3 Coefficient of storage (S) and specific yield (Sy)

Each aquifer, whether under the water table or in a confined condition, has the

capacity to store water which is expressed as a coefficient. The storage coefficient of an

aquifer is defined as the volume of water it releases from or it takes into storage per unit

surface area of the aquifer per unit change in head. In the case of an unconfined aquifer,

the concept of storage is analogous to that of specific yield. In confined aquifer the

storage coefficient depends on the compressibility of the aquifer and the expansion of

water. Since the unconfined aquifer is not bounded by confining layers, the specific yield

or storage coefficient does not depend upon compressibility of either the aquifer or the

fluid. The specific yield for all practical purposes is the same as effective porosity or

drainable porosity because in unconfined aquifer the effects of elasticity of the aquifer

material or fluid are generally negligible.

 40

43.4 Specific capacity

It is a measure of both effectiveness of a well and of the aquifer characteristics (T

and S). It is defined as the ratio of the pumping rate and the drawdown and is usually

expressed in liters per minute per meter of drawdown for a specific period of pumping.

4.4 Pumping Test

4.4.1 General

The basic objectives of groundwater studies are to evaluate the occurrence,

availability and quality of groundwater. Although many groundwater investigations of a

qualitative nature are carried out, these investigations cannot be taken as complete for

lack of information on occurrence and potential. The value of an aquifer as a fully

developed source of water depends largely on two important characteristics - its ability to

store i.e., coefficient of storage (S) and its ability to transmit water i.e., coefficient of

transmissivity (T). These characteristics generally form the basis for undertaking

quantitative studies (CGWB, 1982).

Hydraulic properties of aquifers and associated layers can be determined by a

‘pumping test’ which is also termed as ‘aquifer test’. It involves abstraction of water

from a well at a controlled rate and observation, with respect to time, of the water level

changes in the pumped well. Pumping tests also provide information on the yield and

drawdown of wells (Karanth, 1987). These data can be used for determining the specific

capacity or the discharge-drawdown ratio of the well, for selecting the type of pump, and

for estimating the cost of pumping. The specific capacity gives a measure of the

effectiveness or productive capacity of the well.

 41

The question as to how many hours the well should be pumped continuously is

difficult to answer because the period of pumping depends on the type of aquifer to be

tested and the degree of accuracy desired in establishing the hydraulic properties.

Economising the period of pumping is not recommended because the cost of running the

pump a few extra hours is low as compared to the total costs of the test, particularly

when the wells have been specially constructed for test purposes. Moreover, better and

more reliable results are obtained if pumping continues till the cone of depression has

reached a stabilised position and does not seem to expand further as pumping continues.

In fact, the cone of depression will continue to expand until the recharge of the aquifer

equals the pumping rate (Rajagopalan, 1983).

Most of the pumping test formulae are based on the assumption that the tested

aquifer is of infinite lateral extent. Although such aquifers do not exist, most aquifers are

of such wide extent that they can be assumed to be of infinite extent for all practical

purposes. Initial knowledge of the lithological profile would be of great help in planning

the tests and interpreting the data. It is therefore necessary to carry out adequate

subsurface investigations prior to undertaking aquifer tests to determine the lithological

character, thickness of the aquifer, location of the aquifer boundaries, character of the

beds overlying and underlying the aquifer and nature of the barrier or the recharge

boundaries, if any.

4.4.2 Methodology

The observations to be made during a pumping test mainly include measurement

of water levels and discharge rate. All water level measurements must be taken many

times during the course of the test, and as accurately as possible. Since water level
 42

drops faster during the first one or two hours of the test, readings should be taken at

shorter intervals and the time between readings being gradually increased as pumping

continues (Rajagopalan et al, 1983).

To carry out a pumping test an energised well of uniform dimension is selected

and the following schedule of water level measurements is usually followed during

pumping:

For the first 10 minutes .... every minute

For 10 to 30 minutes every 10 minutes

For 30 to 120 minutes every 20 minutes

Beyond 120 minutes every 30 minutes

After the pump is shut down, the water levels in the pumped well start rising. In

the first hour it rises rapidly, but as time goes on the rate of rise decreases. These rises

can be measured according to the above schedule and this part of the pumping test is

called recovery test.

During pumping, discharge measurements are made by the trajectory method to

ascertain the rate of pumping. While pumping, the jet of water traces a trajectory. The

drop of trajectory by 9 or 12 cm is noted for which the horizontal distance ’x’ from the

pipe end is measured. The inside diameter of the pipe is also measured accurately. The

discharge is then quantified using the chart (Fig. 4.2).

 RATE OF FLOW IN GALLONS PER MINUTE

NOTE TO DETERMINE RATE OF FLOW FOR FULL PIPES BY THE

TRAJECTORY METHOD START AT VALUE OF X ON THE LEFT,
MOVE HORIZONTALLY TO INTERSECT WITH DIAGONAL LINE
FOR SIZE OF PIPE, THEN VERTICALLY DOWN TO FIND
RATE OF FLOW IN GALLONS PER MINUTE

SOURCE: CIRCULAR NO. 473 OIV. OF AGRI. SCI. UNI. OF CALIFORNIA (JAN. 1959}

Fig. 42. Trajectory Method

 43

4.43 Synthesis of pumping test data

i. Specific capacity (C)

In the case of a tube well, the discharge of the well at near equilibrium condition

divided by drawdown at the time gives the specific capacity of the well. This definition

holds good for an open well also.

However, in hard rock areas, there are many cases where near equilibrium

conditions are never attained in an open well, since these are often developed by high

capacity pumps. In such cases the specific capacity is determined by the Slichter’s

formula (Narasimhan, 1965; Papadopulos and Cooper, 1967; Sammel, 1974).

C = (A/t) x 2.303 x log(s j/s2)

where, C = specific capacity of the well in LPM per meter of drawdown

A = areal cross-section of the well in square meter

t = time in minutes since pumping stopped

s i = drawdown in meters just before pumping stopped

s2 = residual drawdown in meters after a lapse of V minutes

A conventional procedure for making use of this formula is to plot the ratio of

Sj/S2 on a logarithmic scale of the semi-log paper for various values of time *t* in

minutes on the natural scale. Depending upon the plotted data, the best fit straight line is

then drawn, from which the corresponding value of *t* is extrapolated for a convenient

value of Sj/S2- These values are substituted in the formula to arrive at specific capacity.
 44

ii. Transmissivity (T)

Jacob’s modified formula is used for this. The formula is

s * 264Q/T

where, s = drawdown in meter

Q = pumping rate in m^/min

T = transmissivity in m^/day

If the value of drawdown/recoveiy and of time are plotted on a semi-log graph

paper, the plot for a normal aquifer approximates to that of a straight line. Taking into

consideration the slope over one log-cycle, the equation becomes :

As = 264 Q/T

or T = 264 Q/As

where As is the slope of the line of the time-drawdown/recovery plot

expressed as change in drawdown/recovery between the values of time on the

logarithmic scale whose ratio is 10.

A convenient procedure for utilising Jacob’s formula is to plot the value of

time *t* in minutes after starting or stopping the pump against drawdown/recovery on a

semi-log paper, with time ‘t’ in minutes on the logarithmic scale and drawdown/recovery

on the arithmetic scale. For the plot, the best fit straight line is drawn. As, the

difference in drawdown/recovery over one logarithmic cycle is extrapolated and

substituted in the equation to compute the value of T.

 45

iii. Permeability (K)

This can be determined by dividing transmissivity by the total thickness of

the aquifer or the total saturated thickness of the aquifer pierced by the well

(Sharma and Seetharam, 1981).

K = T/b

where, K = permeability in m/day

T = transmissivity in m2/day

b = total thickness of the aquifer tapped in meter

iv. Specific yield (Sy)

Specific yield (Sy) of a rock is the ratio of the volume of water which the

rock will yield by gravity after being saturated to the volume of the rock. The ratio

is expressed in percentage.

In reality, the specific yield varies due to the heterogeneity of the

hydrological formations. The field determination requires a pumping test with an

observation well in the vicinity. This set-up is seldom observable under field

conditions. The following formula of Ramsohoye and Lang (1961) as modified by

Adyalkar and Mani (1974) can be used for determining the specific yield with the

pumping test data of a single pumping well.

Sy = 4Tt/R2
 46

where, Sys specific yield in percentage

T = Transmissivity in m^/day

t = time in days since pumping began

R = radius of the area of influence in meters

The radius of influence where drawdown should be zero is assumed in the

above formula based on experience. Reasonable value of ‘R’ for the study area

would be 40 meters.

4.4.4 Results of the present work

In the present study, 14 pumping tests are conducted, 7 in each river basin

(Figs. 4.3 and 4.4). The wells are generally fitted with 3 HP pumpsets. A conventional

Sliehter’s method is adopted throughout the study for pumping test data analysis. A

sample set of pumping test data is presented in Table 4.1. Typical plots of time versus

drawdown/recovery, recovery versus time and time versus Sj/S2 are shown in Figs. 4.5 to

4.16.

The pumping test data are synthesised and the results so obtained are presented

in Tables 4.2 and 4.3. The study indicates the presence of unconfined aquifer with rich

groundwater potential. The available water can be harnessed for the development of the

region.
 47

Table 4.1 runping Teat Data laalysis

Basin : Pavanje River Diameter of the well 4.75 m

Well No.: 1 (Fig. 4.4) Total depth of well <BGL) 9.35 m
village Bellairu Water level before test (BGL) 4.75 m
Owner : Keshava S. Kunder Water level after test (BGL) 5.95 m
Date of Water column (b) 4.60 m
pumping : 25-3-1989 Maximum drawdowr (s^) 1.20 m

Drawdown Recovery Residual

-------------- -------------------- Drawdown sj/s2

(m)
Time Water Drawdown Time Water Recovery
in Level (m) in Level Depth 82
Min. (BGL) Min. (BGL) (BGL)
(m) (m) (m)

0 4.75 0.0n 0 5.95 0.00 1.20 1.00

5 4.93 0.18 5 5.81 0.14 1.06 1.13
10 5.04 0.29 10 5.75 0.20 1.00 1.20

15 5.14 0.39 15 5.72 0.23 0.97 1.24

20 5.24 0.49 20 5.71 0.24 0.96 1.25
25 5.30 0.55 25 5.70 0.25 0.95 1.26
30 5.41 0.66 30 5.69 0.26 0.94 1.28
40 5.59 0.84 40 5.61 0.34 0.86 1.39
45 5.76 1.01 45 5.60 0.35 0.85 1.41
50 5.87 1.12 50 5.59 0.36 0.84 1.43
55 5.95 1.20 60 5.57 0.38 0.82 1.46
70 5.55 0.40 0.80 1.50
80 5.54 0.41 0.79 1.52
90 5.52 0.43 0.77 1.56
100 5.52 0.43 0.77 1.56
110 5.51 0.44 0.76 1.58
120 5.55 0.45 0.75 1.60
130 5.49 0.46 0.74 1.62
140 5.47 0.48 0.72 1.67
160 5.45 0.50 0.70 1.71
180 5.43 0.52 0.68 1.76

/
 48

200 5.42 0.53 0.67 1.79

220 5.39 0.56 0.64 1.87
240 5.34 0.61 0.59 2.03
280 5.32 0.63 0.57 2.11
320 5.30 0.65 0.55 2.18
360 5.25 0.70 . 0.50 2.40
380 5.23 0.72 0.48 2.50

Calculations:

Specific capacity (A/t) x 2.303 x log{Sj/s2)

(17.71/100) x 2.303 x log 1.56

0.08 m2/min

Discharge Q 0.66 m^/min

Transmissivity T 264 Q/ As

(264 x 0.66)/0.215

810.4 m2/day

Permeability K T/b

810.4/4.6

176.2 m/day

Specific yield Sy 4Tt/R2

14 x 810.4 x 55/1440J / (40 x 40)

0.077 %
 49

Table 4.2 Aquifer Characteristics of Gurpur River Basin

well Discharge Specific Transmissivity Permeability Specific

(m2/min) 2
No. Capacity (m/day) (m/day) Yield
2
(m /min) <%>

1 0.27 0.01 734.53 383.57 3.83

2 0.59 2.02 247.48 103.55 1.29
3 0.50 0.05 386.14 231.50 1.68
4 0.39 0.48 1544.57 571.00 8.04
5 0.23 0.06 746.61 820.45 11.05
6 0.20 0.04 231.11 99.19 1.73
7 0.38 0.02 448.56 455.40 3.50

Table 4.3 Aquifer Characteristics of Pavanje River Basin

well Discharge Specific Transmissivity Permeability Specific

3 (m2/day)
No. (m /min) Capacity (m/day) Yield
2
(m /min) (%)

0.66 0.08 810.40 176.20 0.08

0.66 1.23 229.26 194.29 1.22
0.02 0.04 66.63 130.65 0.23
0.04 0.02 10.09 4.45 0.26
0.01 0.05 63.53 14.91 1.32
0.66 0.58 200.54 78.34 4.94
7 0.03 0.08 86.19 126.75 0.75
 3. 20

3-28

3-36
O
CD

E 3 44

tu
> 3. $2
UJ

3-60

B 3 1VM
3-66

3. 76

3-84

TIME SINCE PUMPING BEGAN (m in )

Fig. 4 5. Time Vs. D raw dow n - R ecovery Curve

 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 3 20 360 400 440 480
TIME SINCE PUM PING BEGAN (m in )

Fig. 4 6. Tim e Vs. Draw dow n - Recovery Curve

 2
<

UJ
oz
z

a
2
oW
i

Ui
z

CL

</>
13
m
c

•<r

lZ
Time Vs D raw dow n - R ecovery C urve
 4 -7

4-9
o
oo

5-1

-J 5-3
Ui
>
UJ
—I
5 .5
a
Ui

% 5 .7

5-9

61
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
TIME SINCE PUMPING BEGAN (m in)

Fig. 4 8. Time Vs. Drawdown - Recovery Curve

 BASIN : GURPUR RIVER WELL NO. GPP 1
DATE OF PUMPING : 19. 1. 1990

• u

5
■ 0

5
•0

. 5
•0
( m in )
5
0
PUMPING STOPPED

• 5
0
5
0
5
0
SINCE

5
0
5
TIME

0
5
0
5

01
100
TIME (min)

I. Recovery Vs. Fig. 410. Time Vs S1/S2

Time
Fig. 4*11. Recovery Vs. Time Fig. 412.Time Vs. S1/S2
 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

ao

••

Recovery Vs. Time Fig. 414.Time Vs. Sj/S2

 BASIN : PAVANJE RIVER WELL NO. : PJP 2
DATE OF PUMPING : 18-3- 1989

0
5 n
• i
10 1* i

15
I >
I
20 I
I \•
25 A S = 60 cm
30 ______ I____
i
35 i
1
i
40
i
45 i l

50
i
i
i
\
55 i

60 ± 10
.
100 01 1.0 5
TIME ( min } ® 1 / s2

415. Recovery Vs. Time Fig.416. Time Vs.

si /S2