MAGMA VISCOSITY

-BY

MOHD ATHAR (18612007)

OMKAR KUMAR GUPTA (18612008)

Contents
Abstract: .................................................................................................................................................. 3
Introduction: ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Viscosity ................................................................................................................................................. 3
Magma and properties ............................................................................................................................. 5
Definition: ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Composition: ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Volatiles in magma: ............................................................................................................................ 5
Eruption of volcanoes and the characteristics of magma and viscosity: .............................................
7

Controls On Explosivity: .................................................................................................................... 7

Types and properties of acidic and basic magmas according to viscosity: ..........................................
8
Viscosity of magma: ............................................................................................................................... 9
Factors affecting viscosity: ..................................................................................................................... 9
Temperature: ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Pressure: ............................................................................................................................................ 10
Suspended particles or crystal formation: ......................................................................................... 10
Composition and Polymerization: .....................................................................................................
10
Volatiles: types of volatiles, effect of volatiles ................................................................................. 11
Effect of viscosity on different magmatic processes: ........................................................................... 12
References ............................................................................................................................................. 12

List of Figures
Figure 1 Explanation for viscosity of a liquid ......................................................................................... 3
Figure 2 Physical characteristics of different type of liquid: A- Nwetonian liquid, B and C-
pseudoplastic liquid, D- highly polymerized liquid ................................................................................ 4
Figure 3 Figure explaining comparison of viscosities of different liquids ............................................. 5
Figure 4 triangular diagram for Tholeiite and Calc Alkaline magma ..................................................... 6
Figure 5 Variation in viscosities with differentiation of magma ............................................................ 7
Figure 6 Pahoehoe lava ........................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 7 Aa lava ...................................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 8 Variation in viscosity with H2O content ................................................................................. 11

Abstract:

The Viscosity of a substance is a measure of its consistency and defined as the ability of a
substance to resist flow. In other sense, Viscosity is the inverse of fluidity. There are highly
viscous magma flows as well as very less viscous magma flows. There are many
factors(temperature ,composition, and gas content) that affect and govern the flow of magma.
here, we will focus on the primary characteristic of magma, its viscosity and the factors
affecting the viscosity.

Introduction:

Viscosity is a physico-chemical property of magma that largely controlled by its temperature,

composition and more or less gas content. the effect of temperature on viscosity is intuitive. the
higher the temperature, the fluid has less viscosity. composition plays an important role in
magma’s viscosity. It is a function of its “internal friction” derived from the generation of
chemical bonds within the fluid. chemical bonds are created between negatively charge “anion”
and positively charged “cations”. Of the ten most abundant elements found in magmas, oxygen
is the only anion. on the other hand, silicon are the most abundant cation. Thus, the si-o bond
is the single most important factor in determining the degree of a magma’s viscosity. These
two element bond together to form “floating radicals” in the magma. These floating radicals
contain a small silicon atom surrounded by four larger oxygen atoms(sio 4) form tetrahedron.
The radicals are called silicon-oxygen tetrahedra.

Figure taken from google image.

these floating tetrahedra are electrically charged compounds. They are electrically attracted to
other si-o tetrahedra. The corner oxygen atoms in each tetrahedron is shared by other
tetrahedra. The sharing of electrons result to form covalent bonds between tetrahedra. In this
way, si-o tetrahedra can link together to form a variety shape(double tetrahedra). As the magma
cools, more and more bonds are created which eventually leads to the development of crystals
within the liquid medium. Thus, the si-o tetrahedra form the building blocks to the common
silicate minerals found in all igneous rocks. The bonding of tetrahedra results in the
polymerization of the liquid, which increases the “internal friction” of the magma, so that it
more resist flow. Therefore, magma that have a high silica content will exhibit greater degrees
of polymerization, and have higher viscosities , than those with low-silica contents.

Viscosity

The viscosity of a substance is a measure of its consistency. Viscosity is defined as the ability
of a substance to resist flow. In a sense, viscosity is the inverse of fluidity.

Figure 1 Explanation for viscosity of a liquid

Viscosity, η, is the measure of resistance to flow of any fluid substance. More strictly it is
defined as ratio of applied shear stress to the rate of deformation or shear strain and is expressed
by the general relationship,

σ = σ0 +η(du/dz)n

Where σ is the total stress, applied parallel to the direction of deformation, σ0 is the stress
required to initiate flow, and du/dz is the gradient of velocity, dx/dt, over a distance z normal
to the direction of shear, x. Viscosity is defined as “ratio of shear stress applied to a layer of
thickness z to the rate at which it is permanently deformed in a direction x parallel to the stress
(Mc Birney A. R., 2007).
Figure 2 Physical characteristics of different type of liquid: A- Newtonian liquid, B and C- pseudoplastic liquid, D-
highly polymerized liquid

Newtonian fluids has a linear relation with an origin at zero on both the axes. Some non
Newtonian liquids have non-linear relations, such as those with shear thinning (B), or shear
thickening(C), whereas others (D) have a finite yield strength (σ0) that must have exceeded
before they are permanently deformed by viscous flow (Mc Birney A. R., 2007). For so called
Newtonian fluids n has a value of 1, σ0 is zero for bingham fluids, but many “pseudoplastic”
fluids or liquids with suspended solid particles have a nonlinear relationship of shear stress to
shear strain, such as that depicted by curves B and C for which n is less or more than 1 (Mc
Birney A. R., 2007).

It is possible to estimate viscosities of superheated liquids from their chemical composition,

but the relationships in the range of temperatures of natural magmas are more complex. The
effect of proportion of Si atoms on the framework linkage of silicates is seen most clearly in
the viscosity of their liquids (Mc Birney A. R., 2007).

The unit of measurement of viscosity is a poise (P) in CGS unit. Water for example, has a
viscosity of 10-2 poise at room temperature, whereas glycerin has 10 poise and pitch has 10 8
poise (Camp, 2017).

Figure 3 Figure explaining comparison of viscosities of different liquids

Magma and properties
Definition:
Magma (thick unguent) is a mixture of molten or semi-molten rock, volatiles, dissolved gas
and sometimes as bubbles dissolved, suspended crystals or undissolved solids and that is found
beneath the surface of the Earth.

Composition:

As the ten major elements present on the earth’s crust and also in the earth’s interior, the magma
is generally composed of these same ten elements: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminium (Al),
iron (Fe), calcium(ca), sodium(na), potassium(k), magnesium (Mg), titanium (Ti), hydrogen(h)
and phosphorous (P). Because oxygen and silicon are the two most abundant elements in
magma, it is convenient to describe the different magma types in terms of their silica content
(SiO2) (Camp, 2017).

Basically ,there are 3 types magmas based on chemical composition.

1- Mafic or basaltic – sio2(45-55wt%) – high in Fe, Mg, Ca and low in K, Na

2- Intermediate or andesitic – sio2(55-65wt%)- intermediate in Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K
3- Felsic or rhyolitic- sio2(65-75wt%)- low in Fe, Mg, Ca and high K, Na

Volatiles in magma:
Volatiles are an important constituent of magmas. H2O andCO2 are the dominant volatiles
species but there may also be SO2, H2, HCl, Cl2, F.. As the magma rises, the pressure is reduced,
and the volatile constituents escape from solution in the magma and expand. Gas pressures can
become higher than the confining pressure of the surrounding rocks at shallow levels. This can
contribute to very explosive eruptions Volatile content may range from less than 0.5 wt. % in
some basaltic magmas to over 5 wt. % in some rhyolitic ones, and considerably more in
carbonatites and some other exotic melts.

Different types of classifications can be taken into consideration for categorizing

magmas.
1. According to silica content:

On the basis of the silica present in the system, or the SiO2 in the framework, magmas and
rocks are classified into acidic and basic types. On the weight percent of silica, ultrabasic
(<45% SiO2), basic (45- 52 % SiO2), intermediate (52-66 % SiO2) and acidic (>66 % SiO2) are
the four types of magma (Hefferan K., 2010).

2. According to Alkaline and calc alkaline:

The concept that many igneous rocks fall into distinct kind of series and that each series follows
some characteristic evolutionary path from a unique type of parent magma through a series of
more evolved silicic derivative types was first proposed by Iddings (Winter J. D., 2014).
According to the magma field characteristics, they are divided into two main series that is
alkaline and subalkaline series. Alkaline rocks are richer in alkalis and are commonly silica
undersaturated, whereas subalkaline rocks are silica saturated to oversaturated. The common
evolutionary sequence in the alkaline series begins with an alkali olivine basalt and proceeds
through trachybasalts and trachy-andesites, to trachytes or phonolites. The common sequence
for the subalkaline series is the more familiar basalt andesite dacite rhyolite family (Winter J.
D., 2014).
The subalkaline magma can be further subdivided into a high alumina, calc alkaline series
having a direct trend across the AFM diagram and a low K tholeiitic series with a strong trend
of iron enrichment in early stage of differentiation (Wilson M., 1989).
Figure 5 Variation in viscosities with differentiation of magma

Eruption of volcanoes and the characteristics of magma and

viscosity:
The style of volcanic eruption, and the resulting deposits, are determined by the physical
properties of the magma, particularly the viscosity and volatile (gas) content. Viscosity (i.e.,
the resistance to flow) is determined by the composition and temperature of the magma. The
strong Si-O and Al-O bonds in silicate melts can link together (i.e., polymerize) to form
extensive molecular networks.
There is a great range in the explosivity of volcanic eruptions. Many eruptions are relatively
quiescent and are characterized by the calm, nonviolent extrusion of lava flows on the earth's
surface. Other eruptions, however, are highly explosive and are characterized by the violent
ejection of fragmented volcanic debris, called tephra, which can extend tens of kilometers into
the atmosphere above the volcano (Winter J. D., 2014).

Whether or not an eruption falls into one of these end-member types depends on a variety of
factors, which are ultimately linked to the composition of the magma (molten rock) underlying
the volcano. Magma composition is discussed below, followed by a description of the
controlling factors on explosivity- viscosity, temperature, and the amount of dissolved gases in
the magma (Winter J. D., 2014).

Controls On Explosivity:
The amount of dissolved gas in the magma provides the driving force for explosive eruptions.
The viscosity of the magma, however, is also an important factor in determining whether an
eruption will be explosive or non-explosive. A low-viscosity magma, like basalt, will allow the
escaping gases to migrate rapidly through the magma and escape to the surface. However, if
the magma is viscous, like rhyolite, its high polymerization will impede the upward mobility
of the gas bubbles. As gas continues to exsolve from the viscous melt, the bubbles will be
prevented from rapid escape, thus increasing the overall pressure on the magma column until
the gas ejects explosively from the volcano. As a general rule, therefore, non-explosive
eruptions are typical of basaltic-to-andesitic magmas which have low viscosities and low gas
contents, whereas explosive eruptions are typical of andesitic-to-rhyolitic magmas which have
high viscosities and high gas contents (Camp, 2017).

The combination of viscosity and volatile content determines whether a volcanic eruption will
be violent or quiescent. Volatiles diffuse fairly easily through silicate magmas, especially if
polymerization is low. Because volatiles are also of low density, they concentrate at or near the
top of shallow magma chambers. As a result, the initial stages of most eruptions are more
violent than the later stages because the volatile-rich upper portions are the first to be expelled.
Pressure keeps the volatiles dissolved n the magma while at greater depths, but they are released
when the magma approaches the surface and pressure is relieved (Winter J. D., 2014).

Types and properties of acidic and basic magmas according to viscosity:

Pahoehoe and Aa magmas may be generated from the same type of volcanic source, but
pahoehoe can always evolve into the Aa lava by the cooling, losing of volatiles or change in
the topographic slope. Pahoehoe lavas are generally restricted to basaltic types whereas the Aa
type to acidic, andesitic types (Hefferan K., 2010).

In the early stages of a basaltic eruption, magma emerges as incandescent lava at about1200°C.
This lava has a very low viscosity and runs downslope in rivers with initial velocities as high
as 60 km/hr. Thisrunny lava cools and forms a billowing, smooth black surface, which may
develop a corrugated, or ropy, appearance. Such lavas are called pahoehoe. As the lava cools
further and the viscosity increases, the flows begin to move more slowly and develop a thicker,
scoriaceous crust. As the fluid interior continues to move, the crust breaks up into blocks of
clinkery scoria, which ride passively on the top (Winter J. D., 2014).
Pieces also tumble down the advancing front. The motion is like a conveyor belt, in which the
surface slides beneath the front of the advancing flow. Thus the blocks are spiny, rubbly or
clinker and are found both at the top and the base of the flow (Winter J. D., 2014). The rubble
like lava flows that result are called Aa. These more viscous Aa lavas tend to produce thicker
flows, typically 2-8 cm in thickness. The higher viscosity of the Aa flows is due to the higher
molecular linkage due to higher silica content, lower temperature and high shear stresses acting
on the flow and also a steeper topographic slope (Hefferan K., 2010).
Hence it can be said that different magmas can flow over longer distances whereas other types
accumulate and are localised near the eruption centres, these features are largely related to the
viscosity and hence the fluidity of the magma (Bose M. K., 2010).
Figure 6 Pahoehoe lava

Figure 7 Aa lava

Viscosity of magma:
Viscosity of magma is an important physical parameter which controls its mobility and hence
becomes a very important factor during the ascent of the magma, as well as its flow on the
earth. Viscosity also controls the shear stresses applied to the magma flow, that is, the flowage
of magma over the surface.

Factors affecting viscosity:

As one would expect, viscosities drop with increasing temperature and decreasing silica
content. The effect of pressure is to reduce viscosity because it causes ion complexes to take
on more compact structural configurations. Water and most other volatile components tend to
reduce viscosity because they break the continuity of framework structures in the melt. A small
increase in water results in large decrease of viscosity. The effect on more mafic magma is less
dramatic. Suspended crystals has the opposite effects: viscosity rises rapidly as crystals
nucleate and grow.A magma's viscosity is largely controlled by its temperature, composition,
and gas content effect of temperature on viscosity is intuitive (Bose M. K., 2010).

Temperature:
The viscosity of the magma can be also higher due to the inherent lower thermal energy of the
parent magma than the basic magma which erupts at a much higher temperature than the
granitic or acidic magma. With the lowering or loss of the thermal energy, there is a damping
of atoms and molecular movement, which in turn results in the increase in viscosity. At a
constant or changing pressure, the increase in the temperature will decrease the viscosity of the
melt, and hence at very great depth ultrabasic or basic magmas acts have very low viscosity
values (Bose M. K., 2010).

Pressure:
When the temperature is constant, the pressure varies with the viscosity in the same manner
like temperature. The pressure exerted on the magma results in decreasing the viscosity and
hence the magmas formed by partial melting formed at great depths are able to ascend easily
because of the less viscosity (Bose M. K., 2010).

Suspended particles or crystal formation:

Most magmas behave as ideal Newtonian liquids unless there is a large amount of suspended
particles present. As the crystals increase, or the polymerization increases, the viscosity
increases, and hence the solid/liquid ratio increases. And hence the crystals resist flow and
hence a critical yield strength is needed to be overcome, therefore it can be said that the magma
in the advanced stage of crystallization resists deformation by flow (Bose M. K., 2010).

Composition and Polymerization:

Composition

Composition plays an even greater role in determining a magma's viscosity. A magma's

resistance to flow is a function of its "internal friction" derived from the generation of chemical
bonds within the liquid. The basic magmas are mainly made up of ferromagnesium minerals
and acidic magma have a greater amount of siliceous minerals. Hence as the substance’s
intermolecular structure decides the rate of its flow, and eventually its viscosity; the tighter the
molecules in the structure are linked, the more the substance will resist deformation, i.e. the
less it will be willing to flow. And hence the basic, basaltic lavas will flow at a higher rate
compared to the granitic, acidic flows (Mezger T. G., 2011)

Si: O bonds and polymerization:

Oxygen is the only main anion present in the magma composition. Silicon, on the other hand,
is the most abundant cation. Thus, the Si-O bond is the single most important factor in
determining the degree of a magma's viscosity. The viscosity of magma is greater controlled
by the concentration of Si and O bonds, which also result in differing degrees of polymerization
in the magma (Bose M. K., 2010).
As the magma cools, more and more bonds are created, which eventually leads to the
development of crystals within the liquid medium. Thus, the Si-O tetrahedra form the building
blocks to the common silicate minerals found in all igneous rocks. However, while still in the
liquid state, the bonding of tetrahedra results in the polymerization of the liquid, which
increases the "internal friction" of the magma, so that it more readily resists flow. Magmas that
have a high silica content will therefore exhibit greater degrees of polymerization, and have
higher viscosities, than those with low-silica contents (Camp, 2017).

Each oxygen can be bonded to another Si (called “bridging” Oxygens, which create -Si-O-SiO
polymers) or, more weakly, to some other cation (“non-bridging” Oxygens). Because they yield
much more feldspar and quartz, rhyolitic melts tend to be dominated by three-dimensional -Si-
O-Al-O- networks. The more polymerized -Si-O-Al-O- networks create strong interconnected
bonds throughout the rhyolitic melt, and thus higher viscosity. Greater viscosity thus generally
correlates with higher silica content (Winter J. D., 2014).

Volatiles: types of volatiles, effect of volatiles

The amount of dissolved gases in the magma can also affect its viscosity, but in a more
ambiguous way than temperature and silica content. When gases begin to escape (exsolve) from
the magma, the effect of gas bubbles on the bulk viscosity is variable. Although the growing
gas bubbles will exhibit low viscosity, the viscosity of the residual liquid will increase as gas
escapes. The overall bulk viscosity of the bubble-liquid mixture depends on both the size and
distribution of the bubbles. Although gas bubbles do have an effect on the viscosity, the more
important role of these exsolving volatiles is that they provide the driving force for the eruption
(Mezger T. G., 2011).

Viscosities range from about 1 Pa s (Pascal second) for anhydrous olivine basalt at 1400°C to
about 104 Pa s for anhydrous rhyolite melt at the same temperature. Rhyolite viscosity increases
to about 107 Pa s at 1000°C (Winter J. D., 2014).

Figure 8 Variation in viscosity with H2O content

 Apart from the factors discussed above, the dissolved water content in the magma body can
successfully lower the viscosity of the magma. Even a very low weight percent of water may
break the polymerized bonds and it has a lower freezing point, it lowers down the crystallization
temperature of the system and hence in turn reduce the viscosity (Bose M. K., 2010).

Effect of viscosity on different magmatic processes:

Viscosity is an important factor in melt segregation, once a continuous network has been
formed. The critical fraction required for separation of natural melts thus varies with several
factors, also including temperature, viscosity, composition, and volatile content. High
temperature also needs high temperature for the maintain the magma in a liquid phase and in
turn it reduces the viscosity of the magma, and hence the magma generated at greater depths
has a greater possibility of ascending high up, the density, degree of melting and interconnected
melt accumulations aid the ascending magma, along with viscosity, which are in turn dependent
on viscosity itself.

References
Bose M. K. (2010). Igneous Petrology. Kolkata: The World Press.

Camp, D. V. (2017, September 27). how volcanoes work. Retrieved from

http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/Controls.html

Hefferan K., O. J. (2010). Earth Materials. Wiley- Blackwell.

Mc Birney A. R. (2007). Igneous Petrology 3rd Edi. Sudbury: Jones and Barlett Publishers.

Mezger T. G. (2011). The Rhealogy Handbook 3rd Edi. Hanover: Vincent Network.

Wilson M. (1989). Igneous Petrogenesis. Great Britain: Oxford University Press.

Winter J. D. (2014). Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology 2nd Edi. Harlow: Pearson
Education Limited.