Rolling Bearings in Industrial Gearboxes

Rolling bearings in
industrial gearboxes
© Copyright SKF 1997
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Rolling bearings in industrial gearboxes
1 Industrial gearboxes – overview 1
2 Bearing types for industrial gearboxes 2
3 Design of bearing arrangements 3
4 Dimensioning the bearing arrangement 4
5 Lubrication and maintenance 5
6 Recommended fits 6
7 Mounting and dismounting bearings 7
8 Application examples 8
Rolling bearings in
Handbook for the gearbox designer
Foreword
This Handbook is intended to provide the gearbox designer

with the knowledge required to select bearings for gearboxes
and to correctly design gearbox bearing arrangements. Recom-
mendations are given based on experience gained by SKF
during decades of cooperation with gearbox manufacturers the
world over.
General information regarding the selection, calculation,
mounting and maintenance of ball and roller bearings is given
in the SKF General Catalogue. The questions arising from the
use of rolling bearings in industrial gearboxes are dealt with
here. Data from the General Catalogue are only repeated here
when it has been thought necessary for the sake of clarity.
The application examples described comprise proven
gearbox designs from major manufacturers which are worthy
of note.
Grateful thanks are extended to the companies concerned
for the provision of the detailed information about their prod-
ucts and the permission to publish.
3
Contents
Made by SKF ® stands for excellence. It symbolises 1 Industrial gearboxes – overview ............................... 9
our consistent endeavour to achieve total quality in Types of gearbox ............................................................ 9
everything we do. For those who use our products,
“Made by SKF” implies three main benefits. Geared transmissions.................................................... 10
Reliability – thanks to modern, efficient products, based Demands made on gearboxes ...................................... 14
on our worldwide application know-how, optimised
materials, forward-looking designs and the most Selecting the gears ........................................................ 14
advanced production techniques.
Designing the casing ..................................................... 15
Cost effectiveness – resulting from the favourable ratio
between our product quality plus service facilities, and
the purchase price of the product. 2 Bearing types for industrial gearboxes .................. 17
Deep groove ball bearings ............................................ 18
Market lead – which you can achieve by taking
advantage of our products and services. Increased Angular contact ball bearings ....................................... 20
operating time and reduced down-time, as well as
improved output and product quality are the key to Cylindrical roller bearings ............................................. 22
a successful partnership.
CARB™ roller bearings ................................................. 24
Spherical roller bearings ............................................... 26
Taper roller bearings ...................................................... 28
Spherical roller thrust bearings .................................... 30
3 Design of bearing arrangements............................. 33

Shafts and gear wheels in spur gearboxes ................. 33
Shafts in bevel gearboxes ............................................. 44
Shafts in worm gearboxes............................................. 50
Shafts and gear wheels for planetary gearboxes........ 56
4
4 Calculation of bearing arrangement ....................... 65

Bearing loads ................................................................. 65
Determination of external forces .................................. 66
Calculation of bearing loads ......................................... 74
Dimensioning the bearing arrangement ...................... 76
5 Lubrication and maintenance.................................. 91

Grease lubrication.......................................................... 92
Oil lubrication ................................................................. 95
Maintenance ................................................................... 98
6 Recommended fits..................................................103
7 Mounting and dismounting bearings .................... 109

Adjustment of angular contact bearings.................... 109
8 Application examples ............................................. 115
5
The SKF Group
– a worldwide corporation
SKF is an international industrial Group highest quality of its products and
operating in some 130 countries and is services. Continuous investment in
world leader in bearings. research and development has also
The company was founded in 1907 played a vital role, resulting in many
following the invention of the self-align- examples of epoch-making innovations.
ing ball bearing by Sven Wingquist and, The business of the Group consists
after only a few years, SKF began to of bearings, seals, special steel and a
expand all over the world. comprehensive range of other high-
Today, SKF has some 43 000 em- tech industrial components. The ex-
ployees and more than 80 manufactur- perience gained in these various fields
ing facilities spread throughout the provides SKF with the essential know-
world. An international sales network ledge and expertise required in order
includes a large number of sales com- to provide the customers with the most
panies and some 20 000 distributors advanced engineering products and
and retailers. Worldwide availability of efficient service.
SKF products is supported by a com-
prehensive technical advisory service.
The key to success has been a con-
sistent emphasis on maintaining the
SKF manufactures
ball bearings, roller
bearings and plain
bearings. The smal-
lest are just a few
millimetres (a frac-
tion of an inch) in
diameter, the largest
several metres. In
order to protect the
bearings effectively
against the ingress
of contamination
and the escape of
lubricant, SKF also
manufactures oil
and bearing seals.
SKF's subsidiaries
CR and RFT S.p.A.
are among the
world's largest pro-
ducers of seals.
6
The SKF house colours are blue and red,
but the thinking is green. The latest example
is the new factory in Malaysia, where the
bearing component cleaning process con-
forms to the strictest ecological standards.
Instead of trichloroethylene, a water-based
cleaning fluid is used in a closed system.
The cleaning fluid is recycled in the factory's
own treatment plant.
SKF has developed the Channel concept in

factories all over the world. This drastically
reduces the lead time from raw material to
end product as well as work in progress
and finished goods in stock. The concept
enables faster and smoother information
flow, eliminates bottlenecks and bypasses
unnecessary steps in production. The
Channel team members have the know-
ledge and commitment needed to share the
responsibility for fulfilling objectives in areas
such as quality, delivery time, production
flow etc.
The SKF Engineering & Research Centre

is situated just outside Utrecht in The
Netherlands. In an area of 17 000 square
metres (185 000 sq.ft) some 150 scientists,
engineers and support staff are engaged in
the further improvement of bearing perform-
ance. They are developing technologies
aimed at achieving better materials, better
designs, better lubricants and better seals
– together leading to an even better unders-
tanding of the operation of a bearing in its
application. This is also where the SKF
New Life Theory was evolved, enabling the
design of bearings which are even more
compact and offer even longer operational
life.
7
1 Industrial gearboxes
– overview
Types of gearbox . . . . . . . . . . 9
Geared transmission . . . . . . 10
Demands on gearboxes . . . 14
Selecting the gears . . . . . . . 14
Designing the casing . . . . . . 15

1 Industrial gearboxes – overview
Types of gearbox
Industrial gearboxes –
overview
Gearboxes are devices for the transmission or
1
translation of movement. In industry gearboxes
are used to transform the speeds and torques
produced by the prime mover in order that
they are appropriate to the machine which is to
be driven. The speeds and torques required by
the machine are dictated by its use. Prime
movers can generally only meet these require-
ments when combined with gears.
Types of gearbox take-off. The coupling housing has no

part in the flow of force.
Gearboxes are characterised by having The symbols used for power
at least three members: the power in- transmission by gearboxes and coup-
put, power take-off and the casing. The lings are shown in figs 1 and 2 .
casing transmits the support moment
to the base.
In contrast, a coupling has only two
members: the power input and power
Gear Fig 1 Fig 2 Coupling
Torque Torque
< M2
M1 > M1 = M2
PV
Rotational speed Rotational speed
≤ n2
n1 > M1 n1 n1 ≥ n 2
Pv (with slip)
P1
Power Power
P1 = P2 + Pv M1 n1 n2 P1 = P2 + Pv
M2 P1 P2
P2 M2
n2
9
Geared transmissions
The main types of
power transmis-
sion equipment
are shown in the
following.
In addition, there Types of gearbox
are many com-
binations, for ex-
ample bevel/spur Fixed ratio transmissions, Infinitely variable
gears, spur gears shift transmission transmissions
with belt drive input,
or variable traction
drives combined
with a planetary Geared transmissions Mechanical transmissions
gear.
• Spur gears • Belt drives
• Planetary gears • Roller drives
• Bevel gears • Ratchet gears
• Worm gears
• Hypoid gears
• Helical gears
Hydraulic transmissions
• Hydrostatic transmissions
Eccentric drives • Hydrodyanmic transmissions
• Cyclo drives
• Harmonic drives
Traction drives
• Belt drives
• Chain drives
Geared transmissions ● Gear wheels with straight cut teeth

(➔ fig 3 a) are simple in design
Geared transmissions are the most and can be accurately produced.
commonly used. They transmit power The axial forces generated by in-
without slip, have high operational re- accuracies and deformations
liability and long life, require little main- (twisting) are negligible.
tenance and are characterised by the
ability to accept overloading, small size ● Gear wheels with helical teeth
and high efficiency. (➔ fig 3 b) run more smoothly and
can carry heavier loads than those
Spur gears with straight cut teeth. A more elab-
The spur gear is the most well-known orate bearing arrangement is re-
and commonly used design of geared quired because of the axial forces.
transmission. The dimensioning and
manufacture of the gear wheels are ● The double helix or herringbone
the easiest to control. Their kinematic (➔ fig 3 c) allows for large tooth
behaviour also forms the basis of plan- widths and can carry particularly
etary gears. Spur gears are in rolling heavy loads. The axial forces cancel
contact and, irrespective of tooth type, each other out. Deviations in the
have parallel axes. helix angle cause axial vibrations.
10
Fig 3
1
a b c d
Spur gear unit

● Internal gearing (➔ fig 3 d) has ● Bevel gears having spirally cut teeth a) straight cut teeth
greater load carrying capacity than (➔ fig 4 c) with curved flanks have b) helical teeth
external because of the favourable clear advantages in respect of load c) double helix
osculation, but is more difficult to carrying capacity. Particularly those d) internal gearing
produce. The bearing arrangement with ground teeth are quieter than
is more complicated. The most fre- the types described above. For
quent use is in planetary gears. bevel gears which have to transmit
high power, the spiral bevel gears
Bevel gears are the most frequently used.
The common characteristic of this
type of rolling contact gearing is that
the axes of the wheels intersect each
other. There are three basic designs
categorised by the form of the flank.
● With straight cut teeth (➔ fig 4 a),

the mesh begins and ends across
the total tooth width. The noise pro-
duced considerably limits the use-
fulness of straight cut bevel gears.
● Bevel gears with helical teeth

(➔ fig 4 b) have straight flanks.
The teeth are usually ground and
the mesh is gradual. The total over-
lap is bigger and the noise behav-
Bevel gear unit
iour better than with straight cut a) straight cut teeth
teeth. b) helical teeth
c) spirally cut teeth
Fig 4
a b c
11
Hypoid gear unit Fig 5 Worm gears
The worm and wheel axes cross each
other at a considerable distance and
usually at an angle < 90° (➔ fig 6 ).
Worm gears are suitable for large
single stage speed reduction. Their
operation is quiet and vibration damp-
ing. The efficiency is lower than that of
competing bevel/spur and planetary
gears, because of the higher propor-
tion of sliding motion. To reduce the
friction, the use of synthetic lubricants
is favoured.
The most commonly used design is
the cylindrical worm paired with a glob-
Hypoid gears oid wheel (➔ fig 6 a). The cylindrical
The pinion axis is displaced so that the worm can be hardened and ground
axes of this type of bevel gear do not which improves load carrying capacity;
intersect but are crossed (➔ fig 5 ). it is also freely adjustable in the axial
The wheels of hypoid gears are usu- direction so that bearing arrangement
ally spirally cut. The advantages of this and mounting can be simplified. Two
type of gear derive from the larger pin- other designs – globoid worm with spur
ion and thus the smaller circumferential wheel (➔ fig 6 b) and globoid worm
force for the same torque, as well as with globoid wheel (➔ fig 6 c) – are
from the axis displacement which often also used.
allows the pinion to be supported at Depending on the flank form, the
both sides so that the bearing arrange- worm types are classified as follows:
ment is stiffer. The noise behaviour is
also improved by the sliding motion in ● ZA worm: trapezoidal worm thread
the longitudinal direction of the teeth. in the axial cross section;
However, the additional sliding motion ● ZN worm: trapezoidal worm thread
increases the friction, wear and risk in the normal cross section;
of smearing and requires the use of ● ZK worm; trapezoidal tool (in normal
hypoid oils with high additive content. cross section);
● ZI worm; evolvent thread in end face
cross section;
● ZC worm: concave worm flanks
Worm gear unit
a) cylindrical worm
with globoid
wheel
b) globoid worm
with spur wheel
c) globoid worm
with globoid
wheel
Fig 6
a b c
12
Fig 7 Simple planetary

The ZI and ZC designs are the most gear unit (prin-
popular. The ZI worm can be very ac- ciple)
H
curately ground whilst the favourable Z sun wheel
osculation conditions of the ZC worm P planetary wheel
H hollow wheel
(concave worm, convex wheel) bring
S planetary carrier
load carrying advantages.
S
Planetary gears P
From the point of view of the tooth
flanks, planetary gears are mostly spur Z
gears. In contrast to the spur gear units
so far described, the shafts of which 1
are supported in stationary casings,
the planetary gear unit has gear wheels
which circulate. They are also referred
to as epicyclic gears.
In the simplest design (➔ fig 7 ),
which is that most commonly used in
industry, the sun wheel drives the plan-
etary wheels (when acting as a speed
reducer). These are supported in the
hollow wheel and drive the planetary
carrier from which the power is taken
off.
Planetary gears have the following
important advantages compared with
conventional spur gear units:
● the volume, weight and centrifugal

mass are smaller;
● the rolling and sliding velocities in
the mesh are lower, so that noise is
reduced;
● some of the power is transmitted as
coupling power, so that efficiency is
higher.
These advantages have led to a

continuous increase in the economic
importance of planetary gear units in
spite of their disadvantages which
include more difficult inspection, main-
tenance and repairs.
13
Demands made on gearboxes/Selecting the gears
Demands made on Selecting the gears

gearboxes To avoid either under or over-dimen-
The most important demands which sioning a gear unit the load and the
must be fulfilled are: load carrying capacity of the gear must
be able to be determined as accurately
● there must be a sufficient safety and reliably as possible. The size is
margin in respect of fatigue and/or correctly chosen when a comparison
requisite life for all components so of the load spectrum and the load
that the torques and speeds can be carrying capacity gives the desired
reliably transmitted; service life. The determination of the
● there must be sufficient cooling even load spectrum is a time-consuming
under maximum power transmission and costly exercise calling for con-
conditions; siderable measurements. Therefore,
● noise emission should not exceed dimensioning is usually based on the
the permitted limits. rated torque of the driven machine,
i.e. the operating torque for the most
In addition to these demands, special arduous work conditions. For a rolling
requirements in respect of operation mill, for example, this is the maximum
and design are dictated by the various continuous rolling torque (not the initial
applications. Some examples: entry). The actual loads are higher
because of additional external forces,
● radial and/or axial forces on the in- produced by accelerations and vibra-
put and output shafts, e.g. for ex- tions, for example. When calculating
truders; the load carrying capacity of the gear
● external forces on the casing, e.g. in wheels, these additional loads are
mining; considered by an application factor
● heavy impacts, torque peaks, e.g. KA according to DIN 3990.
when driven by single cylinder com- One standard work on the subject
bustion engines or when driving lists the following criteria for evaluating
bucket excavators; the load carrying capacity of gear whe-
● vibrations, e.g. in wire drawing; els:
● extreme environmental influences
in respect of temperature, dirt, dust, ● resistance to pitting (tooth flank
water, e.g. in arctic or tropical open fatigue),
cast mining and in continuous cast- ● root strength (tooth fracture from
ing plant; fatigue),
● seals subjected to pressure, e.g. in ● resistance to scuffing (hot tooth
submerged gearboxes of dredgers flank welding),
or in mixing equipment in the chemi- ● wear strength (slow wear of tooth
cal industry; flanks),
● reversing operation, e.g. for rolling ● “grey spot” resistance (fatigue from
mills; micro pores on the tooth flanks, and
● return stop, e.g. for conveyors; ● lubricant film formation.
● operation with little or no clearance
and torsional stiffness, e.g. for posi- The load carrying capacity which is
tioning antennae and for robots; used as the basis for dimensioning
● precision, e.g. for printing presses; gear wheels is determined in rig tests
● lubrication with non-flammable lub- under standard conditions (partly stand-
ricants, e.g. in mining; ardised: FZG test to DIN 51 354).
● minimum maintenance, e.g. in wind
power plant;
● arrangement, e.g. slip-on gears for
converters;
● accessibility of measuring points to
monitor lubrication, temperature,
vibrations or torque, e.g. for large
plastic extruders.
14
Designing tha casing
Designing the casing

The following functions have a de-
cisive influence on the design of the
casing:
● forces and supporting moments

must be taken up and transmiitted at
the same time as the position of the
gear wheels and the form of the
bearing seatings must be accurately
maintained; 1
● there must be adequate heat
removal;
● noise radiation must be at a min-
imum;
● gear wheels and bearings must be
protected against contamination by
foreign matter;
● lubricant loss must be prevented.
The increase in load carrying capacity

of gear wheels and rolling bearings
resulting from design improvements,
improved materials and enhanced
quality has enabled gearboxes to be
downsized or uprated. The higher
specific loads, frictional losses and in-
creased noise resulting from this trend
mean that the casings must be more
stable so as to keep deformations to a
minimum, but also that they should
have a sufficiently large surface to pre-
vent inadmissible heating and prema-
ture lubricant ageing, and should be
properly designed with respect to mini-
mising noise so as not to exceed the
noise emission limits.
15
2 Bearing types for industrial
gearboxes
Deep groove ball bearings . 18
Angular contact ball

bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Cylindrical roller bearings . . 22
CARB™ roller bearings . . . . 24
Spherical roller bearings . . . 26
Taper roller bearings . . . . . . 28
Spherical roller thrust

bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2 Bearing types for industrial gearboxes
Bearing types for

For the support of the shafts and gear wheels of
industrial gearboxes, rolling bearings are used
almost exclusively. The exceptions are in some
specialised areas, such as turbo drives, where 2
hydrodynamic plain bearings are used.
There are many good reasons for this Almost all bearing types are used in
dominance of rolling bearings: industrial gearboxes and almost all the
available sizes. In the majority of appli-
● good location with minimum radial cations, standard “catalogue” bearings
and axial play enables optimum can be used; any variants with respect
meshing to be achieved; to clearance or cage design are also
● high specific load carrying capacity generally common, so that the com-
with low friction; prehensive range of SKF “catalogue”
● wide range of internationally stand- bearings for general engineering appli-
ardised products produced in high cations covers the needs of gearboxes
volumes at reasonable prices and very well and enables the designer to
having good availability; make an optimum selection. The most
● can be calculated using reliable load important bearing types for gearboxes
carrying capacity values; are described in more detail in the
● little design work for the user; following.
● simple arrangement;
● axially compact so that short and
stiff shafts can be used;
● normal tolerances and surface fin-
ishes for shaft and housing seatings;
● less sensitive to misalignment than
plain bearings;
● ability of radial bearings to accept
axial loads;
● not influenced by direction of load or
rotation;
● low starting torque;
● no starting problems in intermittent
operation;
● relatively easy to lubricate;
● favourable behaviour under emer-
gency conditions;
● economic maintenance.
17
Deep groove ball bearings
18
Deep groove ball bearings
Deep groove ball These improvements also bring ad-

vantages when the bearings are used
bearings in gearboxes. In particular the reduced
Deep groove ball bearings are the sensitivity to misalignment means that
most popular of all bearing types and there is no reduction in bearing life
this also applies for gearboxes. The under the slight misalignments of up to
most important characteristics which approximately 3 minutes of arc which
make them so popular are are normally encountered. The im-
proved surfaces reduce friction lead-
● they are able to carry radial loads ing to lower running temperatures so
as well as axial loads acting in both that lubrication conditions are im-
directions; proved and bearing life extended.
● they are suitable for high and very
high speed operation as their friction
is low;
● they have practically no tendency to
smear, i.e. cold welding when the 2
balls are accelerated;
● they run quietly, particularly if they
are lightly preloaded by axial force;
● they are robust in operation and
require little maintenance;
● they are favourably priced.
The dominant role for deep groove ball

bearings is where shafts have to be
located axially and loads are relatively
light. This is the case in
● spur gear units (drive shaft and hol-

low take-off shaft),
● multi-ratio gear units (switching spur
gear wheels),
● geared motors
● worm gear units (worm wheels),
● planetary gears (drive shaft, planet-
ary carrier) and
● coupling shafts.
Benefits offered
by SKF In recent years SKF has made a
number of improvements to deep
groove ball bearings which have
resulted in further performance
enhancements. The more import-
ant include
● optimised raceway geometry

and finish, reducing friction, run-
ning noise and sensitivity to
misalignment;
● improved cages which are more
stable, thus increasing reliability
at high speeds;
● improved seals, thus enhancing
the sealing efficiency of sealed
bearings.
19
Angular contact ball bearings
20
Angular contact ball bearings
Angular contact ball The improvements made by SKF

Benefits offered
by SKF
bearings to single and double row angular
contact ball bearings, e.g. reinfor-
The raceways of these bearings are cement of the ball set (single row –
arranged at an angle to the bearing BE design, double row – A and E
axis (contact angle), so that they are designs) to give higher load carry-
able to carry heavier axial loads than ing capacity means that worm gear
deep groove ball bearings. Sliding units can transmit more power
movements of the balls are superim- and, at the same time, the reduc-
posed on their rolling motion, so that tion in friction means that bearing
the single row bearings require ac- temperature can be lowered. The
curate adjustment or a minimum reduced tolerances for axial clear-
axial load to function properly. ance and for dimensional and run-
Angular contact ball bearings are ning accuracy which are standard
available in the following designs: for SKF single row angular contact
ball bearings for paired mounting
● single row, single direction angular of the CB design, because of the 2
contact ball bearings, improved location and reduced
● double row, double direction and running noise, are advantageous
paired single row angular contact in low-noise worm gear units such
ball bearings and as those required for lifts and
● four-point contact ball bearings, i.e. escalators.
single row, double direction ball
bearings.
Single direction implies that axial

loads acting in one direction only can
be accommodated, whereas double
direction bearings (and paired single
direction bearings, depending on the
arrangement) can take axial loads
acting in both directions.
The single and double row angular
contact ball bearings are preferred
as locating bearings for worm shafts.
Four-point contact ball bearings are
used primarily as thrust bearings in
high speed spur gear units, where the
outer ring is radially free.
21
Cylindrical roller bearings
22
Cylindrical roller bearings
Cylindrical roller Practically all improvements made

Benefits offered
by SKF
bearings to cylindrical roller bearings by SKF
could be considered as tailored to
The special properties of cylindrical gearbox needs, so that they make
roller bearings make them a popular an appreciable contribution to in-
choice for gearboxes and include: creased performance. The main
characteristics are
● high radial load carrying capacity;
● low friction – the lowest of any roller ● the reinforced roller complements
bearing under purely radial load; and “opened” flanges of the EC
● suitable for a wide range of operating design give increased radial and
speeds, including very high speeds, axial load carrying capacity;
as the cage has the correct combina- ● the logarithmic roller profile en-
tion of roller guidance, strength and sures an optimum stress distribu-
sliding friction properties; tion over the whole roller length
● ability to accommodate moderate so that edge stresses are avoid-
axial loads, when they are simulta- ed even under heavy loads and 2
neously under radial load, via the the permissible misalignments;
slid-ing surfaces of the roller ● the refined raceway micro-geo-
end/flange contact, although the inc- metry reduces friction and im-
reased proves lubricant film formation;
friction means that lubrication and ● newly developed cages ensure
cooling must be adapted to the proper bearing function over the
conditions; increased performance range;
● the ease with which lateral displace- the standard polyamide cages
ment can take place within the bear- (designation suffix P) of small
ing makes them ideal as non-locat- bearings have low friction, are
ing bearings; elastic and have good sliding
● proven good performance under properties;
external radial accelerations; the steel window-type cages
● most designs are separable so that (designation suffix J) which are
mounting and dismounting are standard for medium-sized bear-
simple. ings and can also be fitted to the
smaller sizes (to special order)
These characteristics make cylindrical withstand high temperatures
roller bearings ideal for the following and also medium to strong vib-
applications: rations;
the machined brass cages (for
● as the non-locating bearings of all gearbox bearings preferably out-
high-performance units; the NU er ring centred and in two parts,
design with its flangeless inner ring designation suffix MA, or in one
is perhaps the most used, but also piece, suffix MP or ML) are stan-
the NJ, NJG and NCF find applica- dard for large bearings and can
tion; the rings of these bearings be fitted to other sizes to special
need only be axially located at one order; they can tolerate high
side, and by mounting the rings with speeds and are resistant to vib-
relative axial displacement the bear- rations and accelerations.
ings can accommodate lateral
displacement in both directions.
● in spur gear units, even where com-
bined radial and axial loads are pro-
duced by the helical teeth; the most The range of cylindrical roller bearings
popular positions are those on the is large compared with other bearing
intermediate shaft, as the axial forces types. The various flange configurations
from the driven and driving wheels (NU, NJ, NUP, N and NCF designs)
generally act in opposite directions make the bearings suitable for a multi-
so that the resultant axial load is tude of applications and the different
light. cage designs extend the usefulness of
these bearings.
23
CARB™ roller bearings
24
CARB™ roller bearings
Benefits offered
SKF has introduced a completely by SKF
CARB™ roller bearings new roller bearing, the CARB. It is
the only bearing available which
CARB is a completely new type of combines the advantages of three
bearing: a Compact Aligning Roller different bearing types without, at
Bearing. This single row roller bearing, the same time, incorporating their
developed by SKF, is characterised by disadvantages. For gearbox ap-
a combination of properties which plications, these advantages trans-
make it interesting for a multitude of late into the following opportunit-
applications: ies for enhanced performance.
● the ability to compensate for angular ● Up to 30 % higher load carrying
misalignments or initial errors of capacity at the bearing position
alignment typical of spherical roller combined with small radial
bearings; space requirements
● the ability to take up axial displace- ● The low cross section allows
ments in the bearing itself typical of downsizing or increased per- 2
cylindrical roller bearings; formance
● the low cross section typical of ● Compensation for errors of po-
needle roller bearings; sition and also form of bearing
● the high radial load carrying capacity seatings in housings thus allow-
imparted by long sphered rollers; ing machining costs to be
● the low friction obtained from optim- reduced
ally matched raceway profiles; ● Both bearing rings can be
● the quietness of operation. mounted with an interference fit
so that there will be no wear in
Because of its many advantages, the the bore and no additional axial
CARB makes an ideal non-locating loads under conditions of axial
bearing. The points in favour of its use displacement
in industrial gearboxes include, in addi- ● Quiet running and little vibration
tion its compact design and high radial
load carrying capacity even when
misaligned, the potential for downsiz-
ing or increasing operational reliability
or the power rating. The CARB is par-
ticularly suitable for the bearing
arrange-ments of
● heavily loaded shafts in spur

gearboxes,
● pinion shafts in bevel gearboxes,
and
● planetary gears.
Two versions of CARB are available:

a bearing with cage and a full comple-
ment bearing.
25
Spherical roller bearings
26
Spherical roller bearings
Benefits offered
The design and functional charac- by SKF
Spherical roller bearings teristics substantiate the leading
position of SKF spherical roller
The self-aligning capability (also in bearings:
operation) of spherical roller bearings
makes their use advantageous where ● long, symmetrical rollers give
shaft bending occurs or where there very high load carrying capacity;
are errors of alignment between shaft ● the “floating” guide ring between
and housing (casing). They are there- the rows of rollers ensures that
fore used in all cases where misalign- the rollers are properly guided
ment of the bearing rings would pro- (without “wobble”) into the load-
duce inadmissible edge stresses if rigid ed zone and, in cases where
bearings were used. Additional import- axial loads predominate, that the
ant characteristics make the spherical load is correctly carried by the
roller bearing a reliable “all-rounder” for rollers and symmetrically distrib-
gearbox applications. These include uted over the roller length;
● the special form and optimum 2
● the high radial load carrying capacity surface finish of the raceways
and the ability to accommodate axial minimise friction and operating
loads acting in both directions; temperature enabling high
● the wide range of dimension series speed operation;
and very wide range of sizes ● the latest development – the E
● even very large sizes. design – has even higher load
carrying capacity as the bearing
The many successful development section is more efficiently ex-
refinements and the improved charac- ploited;
teristics resulting from them explain ● the position of the guide ring
the popularity of spherical roller bear- above the pitch diameter in the
ings for gearboxes (particularly in spur, E design favours lubricant film
bevel and planetary gear units). formation between the rollers
and guide ring;
● all SKF spherical roller bearings
are fitted with robust metallic
cages which perform well even
under arduous conditions.
27
Taper roller bearings
28
Benefits offered
Taper roller bearings SKF taper roller bearings have a by SKF
number of advantages which make
The tapered form of the raceways them suitable for industrial gear-
makes these bearings eminently suit- boxes. These include
able for combined radial and axial
loads. There is a choice of contact ● the ideal form and optimum
angles so that the appropriate bearing finish of the roller end/guide
for the particular combination of radial flange contact enable hydrody-
and axial loads can be found. The namic lubrication to be achieved
necessity for functional reasons to use and mixed lubrication conditions
two bearings adjusted against each avoided, so that the critical run-
other enables the force distribution on ning-in process normally re-
the rollers to be controlled so that maxi- quired when commissioning a
mum life can be obtained at the same gearbox is not needed;
time as the stiffness and guidance of ● the logarithmic raceway profiles
gear shafts can be optimised. The guarantee optimum stress dis-
main gearbox applications are tribution over the whole roller 2
length and prevent edge
● spur gear units with helical teeth, stresses;
● bevel and bevel/spur units and ● the improved surface topography
● worm gear units. of the raceways enhances lubric-
ant film formation and reduces
As taper roller bearings can support bearing noise.
very heavy loads, they are always
used when the load carrying capacity
of other bearings for combined load
conditions (deep groove and angular
contact ball bearings) is inadequate.
Because the raceways are at an
angle to the bearing axis, an internal
axial force is produced when the bear-
ing is radially loaded, which acts on
the housing via the outer ring and
can deform it. With larger units (from
approximately 90 mm shaft diameter)
and specifically high performance
requirements, the casing walls are
often not sufficiently stiff, so that the
use of double row or paired single row
taper roller bearings (or spherical roller
bearings) is recommended, because
the internal axial forces cancel out
each other and the casing walls will
not be deformed.
Paired single row taper roller bear-
ings in a face-to-face arrangement
(designation suffix DF) are always used
when the preset axial play can be ex-
ploited and when adjustment during
mounting is to be avoided.
29
Spherical roller thrust bearings
Benefits offered
Spherical roller thrust SKF spherical roller thrust bearings by SKF
have particularly low friction thanks
bearings to the special roller end/flange
The special feature of these bearings contact geometry.
is their self-aligning capability. This
means that their full load carrying
capacity can be utilised, in contrast to machine, e.g. in extruder gearing and
the very stiff cylindrical roller thrust water turbine gearboxes. The bearings
bearings, even when the bearing are used successfully as thrust bear-
washers are slightly out of alignment ings for the pinion and worm shafts of
with each other. The even distribution large and very heavily loaded bevel
of load is still maintained when there and worm gear units.
Marine gearbox
are small angular misalignments of the with spherical
seating surfaces. Such misalignments roller bearings,
would considerably shorten the life of cylindrical roller
cylindrical roller thrust bearings. bearings, four-
point contact ball
Spherical roller thrust bearings are bearings and
used in gearboxes, particularly where spherical roller
axial forces are produced by the driven thrust bearings
30
31
3 Design of bearing
arrangements
Shafts and gear wheels

in spur gearboxes . . . . . . . . 33
Shafts in bevel gearboxes . . 44
Shafts in worm gearboxes . 50
Shafts and gear wheels for

planetary gearboxes . . . . . . 56
3 Design of bearing arrangements
Shafts and gear wheels in spur gearboxes
Design of bearing
arrangements
It is quite possible that several different bearing

types are used in one gearbox, and where com-
bined gear units are concerned, there are sev-
eral types of gearing. A stepwise approach is 3
therefore appropriate when selecting bearings,

taking each shaft in turn so that the different
conditions for the individual shafts and gear
wheels can be fully considered. The bearing
arrangements described in the following are
well proven and the conditions specific to a
certain shaft are covered. A presentation of the
most commonly used bearing series facilitates
the initial selection.
Shafts and gear wheels The drive from the prime mover is
via a coupling or a belt. The drive is
in spur gearboxes transmitted to the driven machine via a
Spur gearboxes are generally used to coupling, a quill shaft connection or via
reduce speed. There are three main a pinion.
types which differ in the way they are
mounted: stationary units (mounted on Input shafts
the machine base), cartridge units The input (drive) shafts have the high-
(mounted on the drive shaft of the est speeds and lightest loads provided
driven machine) and flanged units no additional external loads have to be
(flanged to the casing of the prime considered, e.g. belt tension forces.
mover and/or driven machine). Vibrations and imbalance forces may
be produced by the prime mover. It is
also necessary to consider the prob-
33
bending and bearing misalignment must

be taken into account, particularly if a
belt drive is used.
Two deep groove ball bearings
arranged for cross location (➔ fig 1 )
provide a cost-favourable bearing ar-
rangement for moderate power require-
ments. Deep groove ball bearings are
suitable for high-speed operation. Be-
cause of the low friction, small quanti-
ties of oil are adequate for lubrication
and cooling so that the collected oil
splashed by the gear wheels dipping
into the oil bath is generally sufficient.
In order to prevent axial clamping of
the bearings being caused by thermal
expansion of the shaft there should be
sufficient axial clearance between the
outer ring and the cover.
For shaft diameters of up to approx-
Bearing arrange-
ment for an input lems of high angular accelerations imately 90 mm, two taper roller bear-
shaft with two when starting without load as well as ings arranged face-to-face (➔ fig 2 )
cross-located operation without load at maximum are advantageous both from technical
deep groove ball speed in order to prevent bearing dam- and cost considerations. The taper
bearings
age caused by the rolling elements roller bearings are adjusted against
sliding on the raceways. There is a each other via the cover so that they
danger of this occurring when loads will have zero clearance when at the
are suddenly applied. The temperature operating temperature or, for reasons
differences and the associated thermal of stiffness, they may have a slight pre-
expansions in the radial and axial load. When determining the initial axial
directions are high for input shafts, as clearance it is necessary not only to
the speed related large power loss and consider the temperature differential
relatively small masses as well as the between shaft and casing but also the
relatively small surface of the pinion deformation of the shaft and, above all,
Bearing arrange- shaft mean that there is insufficient the casing. The casings of larger units
ment for an input heat removal. The distance between are often not stiff enough with respect Bearing arrange-
shaft with two ment for an input
taper roller bear- bearings is dictated by the casing and to the axial forces (tooth force + in- shaft with two
ings arranged the low torque often means that slim ternal axial forces in the bearings). In cylindrical roller
face-to-face shafts are used. This means that shaft such cases bearing adjustment is dif- bearings
34
ficult and shaft guidance is not suffici- high-speed operation the bearings
ent-ly accurate. The taper roller bear- must have
ing arrangement shown is, therefore,
not always suitable. ● machined brass cages, centred in
Cylindrical roller bearings (➔ fig 3 ) the outer ring,
have a high radial stiffness and guide ● increased internal clearance: C3 for
the shaft very accurately without having the cylindrical roller bearings and
to be adjusted as taper roller bearings. C4 for the four-point contact ball
Axial forces are transmitted via the bearing, and
flanges and roller ends. Because this ● seatings having increased accuracy
causes more frictional heat, lubrication of form and position (IT4/2).
and cooling must be particularly good.
In order to prevent axial clamping of At high circumferential speeds the
the bearings when thermal expansion bearings will reject normal oil supplies.
of the shaft takes place, there should Therefore, it is necessary to inject oil
be adequate axial play between the at high speed (v ≈ 15 m/s) into the
flanges. gap between cage and inner ring. Oil
The classical locating/non-locating drainage facilities should be provided
arrangement (➔ fig 4 ) is more com- at the injection side of the bearings.
plicated from a design point of view
than the cross-located arrangements
described above, as the inner and 3
outer rings must be axially located at
both sides. However, it has advant-
ages with regard to dimensioning as
the axial force is always taken up by a
given bearing – in this case the spher-
ical roller bearing – irrespective of the
direction of the load. Additionally,
displacement of the non-locating bear-
ing is always assured so that there is
no risk of axial clamping occurring Bearing arrange-
ment for an input
Classic when the shaft expands. shaft with two
locating/non- Two NU-design cylindrical roller bear- cylindrical roller
locating bearing ings as radial bearings together with a bearings as the
arrangement with four-point contact ball bearing as the radial bearings
a spherical roller and a four-point
bearing and a thrust bearing (➔ fig 5 ) have proved contact ball bear-
cylindrical roller suitable for very high-speed operation ing as the thrust
bearing (up to n × dm ≈ 1 000 000). For such bearing
35
Intermediate shafts other bearing types or arrangements

Intermediate shafts are the most heav- which are less unfavourable in respect
ily loaded as they are subjected to the of casing deformation.
forces from two gear meshes. The In comparison with input shafts,
speeds are moderate. The axial forces the axial loading of cylindrical roller
on pinion and wheel oppose each bearings used to support intermediate
other when the direction of the teeth is shafts (➔ fig 7 ) is less critical. The
the same so that they partially balance axial forces at the gears act in oppos-
each other. There are no additional ite directions and cancel each other
external forces but vibrations may be out, at least partially, so that the axial
transmitted from the input or output load on the bearings is light. Also the
shafts. As there is no torque acting at speeds are lower so that frictional
the shaft ends, reasonably small dia- losses deriving from the axial load
meters can be used enabling a rela- remain small.
tively large bearing section to be util- The high radial load carrying capa-
ised for the accommodation of the city of the cylindrical roller bearings is
high radial forces. Design limits for the an advantage as the intermediate shaft
bearing outside diameter are set by bearings are heavily loaded. The choice
the distance between input and output between caged or full complement
shafts. cylindrical roller bearings is determined
When using taper roller bearings primarily by the factors load, speed,
(➔ fig 6 ) it should be remembered lubrication conditions, friction and
that axial forces are produced even cost.
though the load is purely radial. This Compared with the input shaft, there
may lead to axial deformation of the is only a small temperature gradient
casing. These deformations occur between the intermediate shaft and the
in the central, less stiff region of the casing. This makes it possible to use
casing because of the position of the spherical roller bearings in a cross-
intermediate shaft, and are larger located arrangement as shown in
than for the input shaft. They lead to a fig 8 which is simple in design and
change in position of the shaft and can therefore cost-favourable.
therefore cause inadmissibly high mis- There is a wide range of spherical
alignment of the bearings and the roller bearings available, particularly
mesh. for medium and large shaft diameters,
Bearing arrange- Experience shows that the casing and there is also a choice of several
ment for an inter- deformations occurring in smaller units cross sections for each diameter. It is Bearing arrange-
mediate shaft with ment for an inter-
two taper roller with shaft diameters up to 90 mm are thus possible to easily find bearings mediate shaft with
bearings arranged generally within acceptable limits. For which can support the heavy loads two cylindrical
face-to-face larger units it is necessary to resort to acting on the intermediate shaft but roller bearings
36
which have outside diameters within

the limits set by the distance between
the shafts.
A locating/non-locating bearing
arrangement as per fig 9 with a
spherical roller bearing at the locating
side and a CARB as the non-locating
bearing offers the possibility of reduc-
ing the cross section of the non-locat-
ing bearing arrangement, because of
the high load carrying capacity of the
CARB, so that the available space can
be better exploited. In many applica-
tions there is a risk that the bearing
seating in the housing will be ”ham-
mered out” so that an intermediate
sleeve must be incorporated. By using
a CARB bearing this is no longer a
problem as the outer ring is mounted
with an interference fit in the housing,
so that a sleeve is not needed.
3
Bearing arrange-
ment for an inter-
mediate shaft
Bearing arrange- with one spherical
ment for an inter- roller bearing
mediate shaft with (locating) and
two spherical one CARB (non-
roller bearings locating bearing)
Fig 9
37
The locating/non-locating arrange- (EHD) lubrication, i.e. the formation

ment shown in fig 10 can carry very of a separating lubricant film between
heavy radial as well as axial loads. rolling elements and raceways, cannot
Two matched single row taper roller be achieved. Operating bearings
bearings (DF execution) are used for under conditions of mixed friction or
the locating arrangement. In contrast boundary lubrication will result in wear
to the cross-located bearing arrange- and shorter bearing life. Besides rota-
ments shown in figs 2 and 6, the inter- tional speed, operating temperature
nal axial forces of the taper roller bear- and lubricant viscosity are the most
ings compensate each other within the important factors determining EHD
bearing pair and do not deform the lubrication.
casing. The intermediate ring supplied There is a limit to how high the
with the bearing pair ensures that there viscosity of the oil can be because
is a minimum axial clearance within the consideration must be paid to the
bearings. This is adequate for temper- high-speed gears and bearings in the
ature differentials between shaft and unit. Therefore, a cooling of the gear-
casing of up to 20 °C. To avoid deform- box in the region where the low-speed
ation of the thin-walled inner ring as bearings of the drive shaft are situated
the cover screws are tightened, the is often the most effective means of
length of the centring surface (spigot) increasing bearing life. Suitable ad-
of the cover should be chosen to give ditives in the oil can also contribute
a preload of approximately 0,01 mm. to a reduction in wear.
Other factors influencing drive shaft
Drive (output) shafts bearings depend on the gearbox design:
The conditions for the drive shafts
are characterised by high torques ● In stationary, base-mounted gear-
Locating/non-
and low speeds. The torque calls for boxes, depending on the type of
locating bearing
arrangement for a large shaft diameter so that the power take-off, it is necessary to
an intermediate requisite load carrying capacity can be consider the forces of the coupling,
shaft with two obtained even when using bearings the propeller shaft, a pinion or of the
matched single with low cross sections. There are directly coupled driven machine Bearing arrange-
row taper roller ment for an output
bearings and one potential problems with lubrication of (e.g. extruders). shaft with two
cylindrical roller the rolling contacts if, because of the spherical roller
bearing low speeds, elastohydrodynamic bearings
38
● The bearings in cartridge-type gear- cylindrical roller bearings of series

boxes are subjected to the reac- NCF 29 V. For lighter loads but with
tionary forces of the torque support. similar diameters, deep groove ball
Additional forces may also be pro- bearings of series 619 can be used
duced as a result of casing deforma- in the same arrangement. For heavier
tion. loads as well as larger deformations,
● The casings of flanged gearboxes but still with the same diameters and
are bolted to the driven machine. arrangement, spherical roller bearings
The shafts are generally rigidly of series 239 are appropriate. Deep
coupled so that the double support groove ball and spherical roller bear-
of the output shaft becomes a mul- ings have cages and are thus less
tiple support in practice. Centring susceptible to wear when inade-
errors of the coupled components quately lubricated than full comple-
produce additional forces in the ment bearings.
bearings so that narrower tolerances
for the centring should ensure the Intermediate gear wheels
accuracy of alignment of the bearing An internal bearing arrangement is
arrangement. most suitable for intermediate gears
as it takes up the least space. Internal
The arrangement with spherical roller bearing arrangements are character-
bearings (➔ fig 11 ) is especially suit- ised by rotating outer rings. Therefore,
able for applications where rough there is rotating outer ring load and 3
operation, external additional forces, stationary inner ring load. This means
misalignments and shock loads place that the outer rings should have inter-
heightened demands on the bearings. ference fits and the seatings should be
Axial shock loads are taken up by the very accurately machined in order to
less sensitive raceways in the absence keep the rotating inaccuracies – which
Bearing arrange- of flanges on the rings. cause increased friction and additional
ment for an output For cartidge-type gearboxes, the forces on the bearing cage – to a mini- Bearing arrange-
shaft of a cart- relatively large diameters of the hollow mum. ment for an inter-
ridge-type unit shaft mean that bearings having low With opposing meshes the circum- mediate gear
with full comple- wheel with two
ment cylindrical cross section are suitable. Fig 12 ferential forces are added, so that high cylindrical roller
roller bearings of shows a well-proven bearing arrange- radial load carrying capacity is re- bearings of the
series NCF 29 V ment incorporating full complement quired. The axial forces from the NJ design
39
helical teeth oppose each other and the inner ring) oil should be supplied at
partially cancel each other producing a the side. To prevent the supplied oil
tilting moment on the bearing which from being rejected by the bearing, the
can cause misalignment. seal gap at the supply side should not
Two cylindrical roller bearings of the exceed 1 mm.
NJ design provide the requisite high
radial load carrying capacity in a re- Shifting gear wheels
stricted space as shown in fig 13 . The For reasons of space these gear whe-
design of the associated components of els are supported internally in a similar
the arrangement is simple. The bearing manner to the intermediate gears. The
arrangement of helical intermediate torque is transmitted in the engaged
gear wheels must be checked for angu- condition so that the bearings are sub-
lar misalignment. An unfavourable com- jected to the tooth forces. The inner
bination of wheel diameter, pitch and and outer rings rotate but the relative
distance between bearings can produce speed is zero. Both rings have rotating
inadmissible values of misalignment. load but the rolling elements do not
An extended support width (distance roll. The continuous changes in load
between bearing pressure centres) under these stationary conditions
can be achieved using, for example, cause micro-sliding to take place at the
angular contact ball bearings. rolling element/raceway contacts. As
Taper roller bearings in a back-to- there is no relative rotation of the rings,
back arrangement (➔ fig 14 ) also inc- a ”washboarding” type of wear will be
rease the support width as well as produced in the raceways. This wear
reducing the influence of the tilitng can be reduced by using highly viscous
moment on the misalignment if they lubricating oil containing anti-wear
are adjusted to zero clearance, or a additives.
light preload. Where the wheels have helical
Straight cut gear wheels may be teeth, the axial force produces a tilting
Bearing arrange- supported by a single spherical roller moment and consequently a rotating
ment for an inter- bearing (➔ fig 15 ). The intermediate tilting motion which leads to axial move- Bearing arrange-
mediate gear gear wheels are thus free to align so ment in the rolling element/raceway ment for an inter-
wheel with two mediate gear
taper roller bear- that a good mesh is achieved. contacts. This increases wear. Ball wheel with a
ings arranged In order to be able to use standard bearings, adjusted to zero clearance, single spherical
back-to-back bearings (without lubrication holes in behave favourably as the balls can roller bearing
40
also roll in the axial direction and be-

cause the movement is reduced by the
clearance-free adjustment. Wear is
always load-dependent so that bear-
ings under low specific loads wear
less. The washboarding effect is also
less prominent as engagement always
takes place at new positions so that
the wear is evenly spread over the
raceway.
For the support of shifting wheels,
deep groove ball bearings have proved
to give good performance (➔ fig 16 ).
Bearings with increased radial internal
clearance (C3) are used. The clear-
ance-free adjustment via the inner rings
produces a contact angle in the bear-
ings of approximately 15°, so that the
support width of the bearings is ex-
tended. This reduces movement in the
relatively stationary bearings under
rotating load and thus reduces wear. In 3
addition, the clearance-free back-to-
back arrangement improves guidance
of the wheel.
Bearing arrange-
Lubrication of the bearings from the ment for shifting
outside is difficult as all components of gear wheel with
the arrangement – shaft, bearings and two deep groove
wheel – rotate and because the bear- ball bearings
ings are partly covered e.g. by the
coupling. The most reliable method is
to supply oil internally through the
shaft.
41
Demands on the bearings each particular bearing position must

Modern spur gears generally have be considered. To make the situation
hardened gear wheels with ground clearer in Tables 2 to 4 , the text has
teeth. It is then possible to obtain high been kept as short as possible.
performance with relatively little friction
and low noise. A prerequisite for this is
the use of high-performance bearings,
which should have the properties listed
in Table 1 .
In addition to these general require-
ments with respect to ball and roller
bearings for high-performance gear-
boxes, other demands deriving from
the specific operating conditions at
Demands on Table 1
rolling bearings
for spur gears Demand Required bearing design feature
High load carrying capacity Optimised rolling element size and number.
Logarithmic roller/raceway contact.
Good lubricant film formation through low friction and
low raceway surface roughness.
High stiffness Optimised rolling element size and number.

High dimensional and running accuracy Particularly the inner ring running accuracy should
preferably be to tolerance class P6 or better.
Low friction Low friction in roller end/flange contact for taper and
cylindrical roller bearings.
Low friction in roller/raceway contact.
Lightweight precision cage.
Low raceway surface roughness.
Low running noise High precision of all bearing components.
Demands on input Table 2

shaft bearings
Specific operating conditions Requirements of bearings/steps to
guarantee performance
High speed and thus high friction Use low-friction bearings.

and high operating temperature Avoid over-dimensioning.
Ensure lubricant supply when
starting up cold.
Provide good cooling.
Large temperature differential when Check required bearing internal clearance; if necessary
starting up (slim input shaft heats up select bearings with C3 clearance.
more quickly than the better cooled Ensure axial displacement at non-locating bearing position.
solid casing)
Vibration from drive; imbalance Use bearings with stable cages, e.g. cylindrical roller bearings
forces with steel window-type cages or outer ring centred machined
cages, or spherical roller bearings with steel window-type cages.
Idling under light load Check minimum load. Avoid over-dimensioning.

Use bearings with small roller masses where possible.
Do not use full complement cylindrical roller bearings.
Choose bearing types less susceptible to smearing,
e.g. spherical and taper roller bearings.
42
Bearing selection ● Sufficient play to prevent inadmiss-

The following check list will be found ible clamping when temperature
useful when selecting bearings in order differentials are large
not to forget any important factors. ● Minimum load
● Static safety under peak loads
● Adjusted basic rating life
● Axial load carrying capacity when A preliminary choice can be made from
the flanges of cylindrical roller bear- the bearing series shown in Table 5 .
ings are under load
● Friction
● Stiffness
● Misalignment
Table 3 Demands on inter-

mediate shaft
Specific Requirements of bearings/steps bearings
operating conditions to guarantee performance
Heavy radial loads Use bearings with high load carrying capacity.
Low to Check lubricant film formation. If necessary increase viscosity or

moderate speeds improve cooling. Use lubricants with wear-reducing additives. 3
Table 4 Demands on
output shaft
Specific Requirements of bearings/steps bearings
operating conditions to guarantee performance
Very low speeds When lubricant film formation inadequate, i.e. a viscosity ratio (actual to
required viscosity) κ < 1, use lubricants with suitable EP additives.
When κ < 0,5 bearings with cages (not full complement bearings) must be used.
When κ < 0,1 reduce the specific bearing load;
aim for s0 > 10.
Shock loads from power Use robust, self-aligning, spherical roller bearings.
take-off;deformations
Table 5 Bearing selection
Operating conditions Bearing series normally used

Input shaft Intermediate Output Intermediate Shifting
shaft shaft gears gears
Light loads 62 63 619 60 618/C3

63 NJ 2 EC 160 62 619/C3
60
Moderate loads NJ 2 EC NJ 22 EC NCF 29 V NJ 2 EC 160/C3

320 X 322 239 CC 320 X 60/C3
222 E(CC) 222 E(CC)
Heavy loads 322 NJ 23 EC 230 CC NJ 3 EC 62/C3

232 CC NJG 23 VH 303
223 E(CC) 223 E(CC) 232 CC
322/DF 223 E(CC)
High speeds NU 2 ECMA/C3

QJ 2 N2MA/C4
In addition to the bearing series listed above, a CARB can be used as the non-locating bearing for
locating/non-locating bearing arrangements
43
Shafts in bevel gearboxes
Shafts in bevel Oil should be supplied between the

two bearings. A baffle plate ensures
gearboxes that both bearings are reliably supplied
Bevel gears are generally speed with lubricant. The oil drain at the cover
reduction gears. The high-speed drive side reduces the amount of lubricant
shaft is termed the pinion shaft and the reaching the seal.
slow-speed driven shaft carries the
larger bevel gear wheel.
The pinion shaft is driven by the
motor via a coupling, a spur gear or a
belt drive. The power take-off is either
via a coupling or with bevel/spur gears
via a pinion.
Pinion shafts
The pinion is generally supported in an
overhung arrangement. In a few cases
the pinion is supported between the
bearings but it is difficult to design in a
bearing with sufficiently high load car-
rying capacity at the head. The over-
hung arrangement offers more space.
Two taper roller bearings in a back-
to-back arrangement as shown in
fig 17 offer a cost-favourable and axi-
ally as well as radially stiff arrangement
for small to medium diameter shafts
(d < 90 mm). The bearings are adjusted
using a shim between the shaft shoul-
der and the inner ring of the bearing at
the input side. The adjustment is deter-
mined to give zero clearance when the
bearings are in operation and warm
or, if required for stiffness reasons, a
slight axial prelod. When determining
the initial axial clearance the tempera-
ture differential between shaft and
casing must be considered as well as
the deformations of shaft and casing.
Bearing arrange-
ment for a bevel
pinion shaft with
two taper roller
bearings arranged
back-to-back
44
For larger shafts, the requisite load For one-piece casings, spherical rol-
carrying capacity can be achieved using ler bearings offer mounting advantages
a locating/non-locating bearing arrange- and they are also relatively insensitive
ment as shown in fig 18 . The locating to smearing when loads vary consider-
arrangement is at the drive side and ably and there are long periods of
consists of two matched single row idling. If cylindrical roller bearings are
taper roller bearings (DF execution). used, the requisite axial displacement
The intermediate ring which is supplied can always take place in the bearing
with the bearing pair ensures that a itself so that the outer ring can have
minimum axial clearance remains when an interference fit in the housing, and
the bearings are mounted which can radial guidance is enhanced. The same
cope with temperature differentials be- is true of CARB (➔ fig 19 ). At this
tween shaft and casing of up to 20 °C. position the bearing will not only enable
For greater temperature differentials the axial displacements to be easily
such as may occur, for example, in accommodated, it will also accept the
operation when ambient temperatures angular misalignments caused by the
are very low, paired bearings with off-centre point of action of the tooth
larger axial clearance are required forces with no reduction in life.
(special execution). In order not to Oil should be supplied to the two
deform the thin-walled intermediate taper roller bearings between the outer
ring when tightening the cover screws, rings. Experience shows that for small
the length of the centring flange (spigot) and medium-sized gears (up to approx- 3
on the cover should be such that a pre- imately d = 150 mm) the non-locating
load corresponding to approximately bearing can be adequately lubricated
0,01 mm is obtained. by the oil returning from the locating
The matched taper roller bearings bearings. For larger gears, however, it
operate as a double row bearing. As is necessary to arrange for a separate
the axial load from the pinion domin- oil supply to the non-locating bearing.
Bearing arrange- ates, one of the two bearings – de- For spherical roller bearings, the oil
ment for a bevel pending on the direction of the load – should be supplied via the lubrication
pinion shaft with is completely unloaded. Experience groove and holes in the outer ring for
two matched shows that this is not a disadvantage the best results. Bearing arrange-
single row taper ment for a bevel
roller bearings when there is little vibration. pinion shaft with
arranged face-to- The non-locating bearing adjacent to two single row
face (locating the bevel pinion may be either a spher- taper roller bear-
position) and ical roller bearing, a cylindrical roller ings arranged
one spherical back-to-back
roller bearing
bearing or a CARB. (locating) and
(non-locating one CARB (non-
position) locating bearing)
Fig 19
45
Although the bearing arrangement Output shafts

shown in fig 20 is similar to that in fig The gear wheels are generally ar-
18 , there are considerable functional ranged between the bearings for
differences. All roller rows are always design reasons. This is also true for
under load irrespective of the direction the bevel/spur gearboxes.
of the axial load. If the direction of axial For shaft diameters up to approx-
load is from the pinion tip to the drive imately 90 mm, two taper roller bear-
input, the taper roller bearing at the ings mounted back-to-back (➔ fig 21 )
cover side with its radially free outer provide a technically advantageous
ring will be axially loaded, and the op- and cost-favourable arrangement. With
posing bearing will be radially loaded. larger dimensions, the casings are
If the load direction is reversed then often inadequately stiff with regard to
the smaller axial load will act on the the axial forces (tooth force + internal
inboard bearing which is also under axial force of the bearings). This makes
radial load. The taper roller bearing at adjustment of the bearings difficult and
the cover side will then only be sub- shaft guidance is generally not suffi-
jected to a minimum axial load by the ciently accurate. The bearing arrange-
springs. Because all roller rows are ment with cross location is then not
always under load, this arrangement is altogether suitable.
less sensitive to vibrations than that The axial force from the gear wheel
shown in fig 18 . always acts in one direction. As the
Mounting is more complex because axial force from the pinion dominates,
there is no intermediate ring between it is possible that the direction of the
the taper roller bearings which have to resultant axial force will change. This
be adjusted on mounting. The radially must be taken into consideration when
free outer ring of the taper roller bear- adjusting the mesh.
ing at the cover side is prevented from When adjusting the taper roller bear-
turning by an O-ring. ings, the shim at the gear wheel side
Bearing arrange- A variant of this bearing arrange- determines the position of the wheel in
ment for a bevel ment incorporates a spherical roller the gearbox. The shim at the pinion
pinion shaft with thrust bearing which has a higher load side is used to set the axial clearance
one taper roller
carrying capacity. It replaces the taper of the taper roller bearings.
bearing as a thrust
bearing and one roller bearing which only carries axial Oil from the collecting pockets above
taper roller bear- loads. the bearings runs down at the cover
ing as a radial With respect to lubrication, the same side of each bearing. From there the Bearing arrange-
bearing (locating recommendations apply as for the oil must pass through the bearing and ment for a bevel
position) and one wheel shaft with
cylindrical roller arrangement shown in fig 18 . thus lubricate it. Oil retaining plates en- two taper roller
bearing (non- sure that there is an adequate supply bearings arranged
locating position) of oil available even when starting up. face-to-face
46
The locating/non-locating bearing Adjustment of the bevel gear wheel

arrangement shown in fig 22 has the is simplified using a special (hook-
advantage, compared with that shown shaped) sleeve. In order to prevent the
in fig 21 , that no bearing adjustment thin-walled intermediate ring of the
is required. The bearings are also in- paired taper roller bearings from being
sensitive to axial deformation of the deformed as the cover screws are
casing. This will only be subjected to tightened, the length of the spigot in
the tooth forces and not to the internal the cover should be chosen to give a
bearing forces, so that there will be preload corresponding to approxim-
less deformation. ately 0,01 mm.
A double row angular contact ball Oil should be supplied to the taper
bearing is used as the locating bearing. roller bearings via the lubrication
Alternatively, single row angular con- groove and holes in the intermediate
tact ball bearings in matched sets ring. To allow an even distribution over
having the same diameters as the the two bearings, an oil drain should
double row bearing and being margin- be provided at the cover side.
ally wider can be used for higher load
carrying capacity.
To determine the position of the
gear wheel in the gearbox and to adjust
the mesh, a split washer is inserted
between the bearing outer ring and 3
the retaining ring. When doing this the
bearing can remain on the shaft. A
cylindrical roller bearing of the NU
design is used as the non-locating
bearing at the other side where the
radial load is heavier.
The locating/non-locating bearing
arrangement shown in fig 23 is similar
Bearing arrange- in design and function to that shown in Bearing arrange-
ment for a bevel ment for a bevel
fig 22 . At the locating side, two single
wheel shaft with wheel shaft with
a double row row taper roller bearings are arranged two matched
angular contact face-to-face. Compared with the double single row taper
ball bearing row angular contact ball bearing, the roller bearings
(locating position) taper roller bearings provide higher (locating position)
and a cylindrical and one cylindrical
roller bearing
load carrying capacity and greater roller bearing
(non-locating stiffness. (non-locating
position) position)
47
Demands on the bearings Bearings for the pinion shaft

Modern bevel gearboxes usually have High radial and axial forces act simul-
hardened gear wheels with ground taneously on the pinion shaft. There-
helical teeth. This enables high power fore high radial load carrying capacity
transmission to be achieved with little is required of the non-locating bearing
friction and little noise generation. A and high axial load carrying capacity
prerequisite for this good performance of the locating bearing. Because of the
is the use of high-performance ball and high speed, bearings having low friction
roller bearings which should have the should be used. These two require-
properties listed in Table 6 . ments are in part contradictory.
In addition to these general require- Experience shows that pinion bear-
ments for bearings for high-perform- ings do not fail from fatigue but are en-
ance gearboxes, there are additional dangered by other influences. From
requirements which are specific to this it is possible to derive the require-
the actual bearing position. ments and actions listed in Table 7 .
Demands on Table 6
rolling bearings
for bevel gears Demand Required bearing design feature
High load carrying capacity Optimised rolling element size and number.
Good lubricant film formation through low friction and
low raceway surface roughness.
High stiffness Optimised rolling element size and number.

High dimensional and running accuracy Particularly the inner ring running accuracy should
preferably be to tolerance class P6 or better.
Low friction Low friction in roller end/flange contact for taper roller bearings.
Low friction in roller/raceway contact.
Low raceway surface roughness.
Low running noise High precision of all bearing components.
Demands on bevel Table 7

pinion shaft
bearings Most frequent reason for How to alleviate problem/demands
pinion bearing damage on bearings
Lubrication breakdown Guarantee lubrication when starting up

in the cold state.
Overloading because of too When selecting bearing size, check the temperature differential
heavy a preload between shaft and casing. C3 internal clearance often required.
Inadequate lubricant film generation be- Use low friction bearings.

cause of too high operating temperatures Avoid over-dimensioning.
Improve cooling.
Smearing on rollers and Avoid over-dimensioning.

raceways caused by roller Spherical roller bearings are more favourable than cylindrical
slip or sliding roller bearings in larger size range (d > 150 mm).
When using cylindrical roller bearings aim for small roller
diameters; use a full complement bearing.
Wear caused by contaminants Avoid contaminating the gearbox during production,

assembly and in operation.
48
To obtain good meshing it is neces- Bearing selection

sary among other things to have a When selecting the bearings it is use-
bearing arrangement with high radial ful to refer to the cheklist given below.
and axial stiffness. The locating bear-
ing should therefore have a large ● Adjusted basic rating life
contact angle and as small an axial ● Permissible speed
clearance as possible. ● Axial and radial stiffness
● Sufficient bearing clearance in the
Bearings for the output shaft mounted but cold state to avoid inad-
These bearings are predominantly missible preload under conditions of
radially loaded so that high radial load maximum temperature differentials
carrying capacity is also required of ● Minimum load
the locating bearing. Because of the
slow speeds the risks in respect of A preliminary selection can be made
thermal behaviour and over-dimension- using the overview of the bearing
ing compared with the pinion shaft are series commonly used; see Table 8 .
negligible. The requirements for axial
and radial stiffness, for minimum axial
clearance and for bearing accuracy
correspond to those for the pinion
shaft bearings.
3
Bearing Bearing series normally used

arrangement
Bevel pinion shaft Bevel gear wheel/Bevel/spur gear wheel
Input side Pinion side Gear wheel side Opposite side or
spur pinion side
Cross location 72 BE 72 BE 72 BE 72 BE
73 BE 73 BE 73 BE 73 BE
313 323 B 322 322
323 B 323 B 332 332
303 303
323 323
Locating bearing(s) (2×) 72 BECB 33

(2×) 73 BECB (2×) 72 BECB
313/DF (2×) 73 BECB
322 + 293 E 320 X/DF
322/DF
303 + 294
Non-locating NU 22 EC(/C3) NU 2 EC
bearing NU 23 EC(/C3) NU 22 EC
232 CC(/C3) NU 3 EC
223 CC(/C3) NU 23 EC
223 EC
locating/non-locating bearing arrangements
49
Shafts in worm gearboxes
Shafts in worm ment (➔ fig 24 ) offer a cost-favour-

able, low friction bearing arrangement
gearboxes with low noise for moderate perform-
Generally worm gearboxes are used ance and where diameters are small
to reduce speed. There are two main (bearing bore diameter d ≈ 50 mm).
types: one for mounting on the machine The angular contact ball bearings are
base and a cartridge type for mount- suitable for high speeds and because
ing on the input (drive) shaft of the of the large contact angle they are also
machine. appropriate for predominantly axial
The drive from the prime mover is loads. The two bearings are adjusted
either via a coupling or a belt drive. against each other via the cover so that
The power take-off is via a coupling or they will have a slight preload when
a quill (hollow) shaft connection. running at the operating temperature.
Bearing arrange- When determining the degree of adjust-
ment for a worm Worm shafts ment it is necessary to consider the Bearing arrange-
shaft with two The heaviest axial loads act on the temperature differential between shaft ment for a worm
angular contact shaft with two
ball bearings in worm shaft at the same time as speeds and casing, but also casing deforma- taper roller bear-
a cross-located are high. Where there is a belt drive, tion. ings arranged
arrangement the radial loads will also be heavy. face-to-face
The temperature differences and the The same type of arrangement but
associated thermal expansion in the using two steep-angled taper roller
radial and axial directions are also large bearings (➔ fig 25 ) can carry heavier
in worm gearboxes. Only small masses loads than that with the angular con-
and surfaces of the worm shafts are tact ball bearings for the same shaft
available to remove heat. Therefore, diameter. Therefore, taper roller bear-
there are large temperature gradients ings are preferred for higher perform-
from the shaft to the casing and these ance gearboxes and for medium to
must be considered when adjusting large diameters. When determining
the bearings. the degree of adjustment, it must be
The distance between bearings is remembered that taper roller bearings
dictated by the casing and together are axially stiffer than angular contact
with the small torques this often leads ball bearings and are therefore more
to the use of slim shafts. If there is a sensitive to excessive preload. It is
belt drive, then shaft bending should thus advisable to aim at zero clear-
be calculated so that inadmissible ance when the bearings are running at
bearing misalignment can be avoided. the operating temperature. When start-
Two single row angular contact ball ing up (worm already warm, casing
bearings in a cross-located arrange- still cold) a slight preload will be pre-
50
Bearing arrange-
ment for a worm
shaft with two
matched angular
contact ball bear-
ings (locating
position) and one
cylindrical roller
bearing (non-
locating position)
sent which experience shows can be ed single row taper roller bearings
tolerated when lubrication is good. (DF execution) as shown in fig 27 . 3
The locating/non-locating bearing The intermediate ring which is sup-
arrangement (➔ fig 26 ) is more costly plied with the bearing pair ensures that
from a design point of view and be- there is a minimum axial clearance in
cause a third bearing is involved but it the mounted condition, which is suffi-
has the following advantages: cient for temperature differentials be-
tween shaft and casing of up to 20 °C.
● higher load carrying capacity (e.g. In order not to deform the thin-walled
for belt tension forces); intermediate ring when the cover scre-
● if paired angular contact ball bear- ws are tightened, the spigot (centring
ings are used, no individual adjust- shoulder) in the cover should have a
ment is required; length such that a preload correspon-
● axial displacement at the non-locat- ding to approximately 0,01 mm can be
ing bearing position is guaranteed. obtained.
A further performance increase can be

obtained by replacing the pair of angu-
lar contact ball bearings by two match-
Bearing arrange-
ment for a worm
shaft with two
matched taper
roller bearings
(locating position)
and one cylindrical
roller bearing
(non-locating
position)
51
Bearing arrange-
ment for a worm
shaft with a taper
roller bearing as
the radial bearing
and a spherical
roller thrust bear-
ing as the thrust
bearing (locating
position) and a
cylindrical roller
bearing (non-
locating position)
The bearing arrangement shown in The advantages of this bearing

fig 28 is particularly suitable when the arrangement are the very high load
axial load in one direction predomin- carrying capacity in the one direction
ates, as for example in lifting gear. The and also that all three bearings are
spherical roller thrust bearing takes the always under load. Bearing noise is
dominant axial load as well as the axial then particularly low and the bearings
force produced in the taper roller bear- are less sensitive to vibration.
ing, which in this case is only subjected Fig 29 shows a bearing arrange-
to radial load. If the axial load changes ment for maximum loads and shock-
direction, then the taper roller bearing type operation as encountered, for
takes the radial as well as the axial example, in rolling mills when the rolls
load, while the spherical roller bearing are set. The radial forces are taken up
is spring loaded to give the minimum by two radial spherical roller bearings
axial load required for the correct mo- mounted as non-locating bearings,
tion of the rollers. Both bearings are whilst the axial forces act on the spher-
adjusted via the cover. When determin- ical roller thrust bearings which have
ing the axial clearance it is necessary radial freedom in the casing. The axial
to consider the temperature differential clearance of the spherical roller thrust
between shaft and casing. bearings is obtained by adjusting the
Bearing arrange-
ment for a worm
shaft for maximum
loads with two
radial spherical
roller bearings
and two spherical
roller thrust
bearings
52
width of the spacer sleeve. The springs vide adequate lubrication for the bear-
ensure that the requisite minimum load ings they are greased and a gap-type
is applied to the bearing which is re- seal is provided on the inboard side.
lieved of axial load. The arrangement shown in fig 31
with two taper roller bearings is in-
Worm wheel shafts tended for heavier loads than that
The high torques on the worm wheel shown in fig 30 but is otherwise
shafts require large shaft diameters. similar. It should be remembered when
As speeds are slow, the load carrying using taper roller bearings that – in
capacity of low cross section bearings contrast to deep groove ball bearings
(light series) is adequate. – the axial adjustment of the bearings
Because of the low speeds, lubrica- will influence the radial guidance of
Fig 30: Bearing tion of the worm wheel bearings by oil the worm wheel. Therefore, the casing
arrangement for a spray is usually not sufficient and spe- must be sufficiently stiff so that it will
worm wheel shaft cial arrangements must be made for not be deformed (beaten out) under Fig 32: Bearing
with two deep lubricant supply. An oil wiper on the load. This would otherwise lead to arrangement for
groove ball bear- a worm wheel
ings in a cross-
worm wheel or separate grease lubri- too large a bearing clearance and shaft with two
located arrange- cation of the bearings have been found inadmissible alterations to the cylindrical roller
ment to give good results. mesh. bearings
Fig 31: Bearing

arrangement for a In most cases the worm wheel has a When two cylindrical roller bearings
worm wheel shaft globoid form and requires accurate (➔ fig 32 ) of the NJ or NCF (full com-
with two taper axial guidance, but it must also be pos- plement) design are used, the radial
roller bearings sible for the axial position of the mesh guidance of the worm wheel is not
arranged face-
to be changed. influenced by any axial adjustment, so
to-face
Two deep groove ball bearings in that setting the mesh is simplified.
the cross-located arrangement shown However, axially loaded cylindrical rol-
in fig 30 generally have adequate ler bearings are particularly susceptible
load carrying capacity and are very to wear, so that it is important that they
cost-favourable. The adjustment of the are adequately supplied with lubricant
mesh and the bearings is made via of sufficient viscosity (κ > 0,5) and that
the covers. The mesh should prefer- the specific bearing load is not too
ably be adjusted via the one cover first high (s0 > 10).
and then the bearing clearance via
the other cover. The temperature of
the slowly rotating worm wheel shaft
is usually low, so the bearings can be
adjusted to almost zero clearance. To
keep the oil level down and still pro-
53
Bearing arrange-
ment for a worm
wheel shaft with
a double row
angular contact
ball bearing (locat-
ing position) and
a cylindrical roller
bearing (non-
locating position)
The design of the locating/non-locat- Bearing selection

ing bearing arrangement shown in fig The following checklist may be helpful
33 is more complex since all bearings when selecting the bearings.
rings have to be axially located at both
sides. The double row angular contact ● Adjusted basic rating life
ball bearing (alternatively two matched ● Permissible speed
single row angular contact ball bearings) ● Maximum preload when starting
guides the worm wheel axially with prac- up for the maximum temperature
tically no clearance, so that adjustment differential
is not required. The inner ring without ● Zero clearance or slight preload at
flanges of the cylindrical roller bearing the operating temperature
(NU design) allows free axial displace- ● Misalignment
ment at the non-locating side. ● Static safety under shock loads
Demands on the rolling The commonly used bearing series are

bearings listed in Table 11 to facilitate a prelim-
The demands on the rolling bearings inary choice.
are derived from the specific operating
conditions at each bearing position.
They are briefly summarised in
Tables 9 and 10 .
54
Table 9 Demands on worm

shaft bearings
Specific operating conditions Requirements of bearings/steps
to guarantee performance
Specifically heavy axial loads Use bearings with large contact angle to take up
the axial load.
Need for clearance-free operation and Aim for slight preload when running at the operating
quiet running temperature. When adjusting or selecting initial bearing
clearance remember the expected temperature differential.
Large temperature differentials during When adjusting remember the expected temperature
start-up (slim worm shaft heats differential to avoid inadmissible preloads.
up faster than cooled casing)
High operating temperatures; the use For gearboxes which operate constantly, or mainly
of lubricants with large proportion (high frequency of use) at high operating temperatures
of additives which are chemically (> 80 °C) and which must also have a long service life
aggressive to plasticwhen aged (> 20 000 hours) bearings fitted with metal cages should
be used.
Table 10 Demands on
worm wheel shaft
Specific operating conditions Requirements of bearings/steps to bearings 3
Accurate axial guidance of Adjust bearings to zero axial clearance.

worm wheel
Very slow speeds With inadequate lubricant film formation corresponding to a

viscosity ratio (actual to required viscosity) of κ < 1 use
lubricants with suitable EP additives.
When κ < 0,5 only use bearings with cages (not full
complement bearings).
When κ < 0,1 reduce the specific bearing load; aim
for s0 > 10.
Operating conditions Bearing series normally used

Worm shaft Worm wheel shaft
Light loads 72 BEP 618

73 BEP 619
160
Moderate loads 313 60

(2×) 73 BECBM + NJ 2 ECJ 62
313/DF + NJ 3 ECJ 32 + NU 10
(2×) 72 BECBM + NU 2 ECJ
Heavy loads 293 E + 303 + NU 3 ECJ 320 X

294 E + 313 + NU 3 ECJ NCF 29 V
(2×) 293 E + (2×) 230 CC NJ 2 ECJ
locating/non-locating bearings arrangements
55
Shafts and gear wheels for planetary gearboxes
Shafts and gear wheels speeds, it is even sensible to subject

deep groove ball bearings to a mini-
for planetary gearboxes mum axial load by springs, in order to
Planetary gearboxes usually come as prevent them from rotating without
cartridge-type or flanged units and load, and to achieve smooth running.
more seldom for mounting on the base. Fig 34 shows the bearing arrange-
Power input and also output from the ment of the input shaft which incorpor-
sun wheel is almost exclusively via ates two deep groove ball bearings in
couplings so that the sun wheel can a cross-located bearing arrangement.
centre itself in the planetary wheels. Transmission of the torque from the
Power take-off via the planetary car- input shaft to the sun wheel is via a
riers is either via a coupling or, for the toothed coupling. This allows the sun
cartridge-type units via a hollow shaft wheel to adjust easily and the load dis-
connection. tribution will be good as a result.
The sun wheel shaft shown in
Sun wheels fig 35 is also supported by two deep
The sun wheel meshes with several groove ball bearings, but these are in a
planetary wheels, so splitting the power. locating/non-locating bearing arrange-
The arrangement is always symmetri- ment. The springs acting on the outer
cal so that with straight-cut teeth, the ring of the non-locating bearing subject
reaction forces on the sun wheel bear- both bearings to axial load. This in-
ings should cancel each other out the- creases the smooth running of the
oretically. In practice, however, this is bearings, particularly at high speeds
not the case. The even distribution of and under vibrating conditions.
load over all the planetary wheels is
influenced by many factors. The most
important are the design (radial align-
ment of the sun wheel), the accuracy
of manufacture, and the specific load.
When the load is heavy the relative
deviation in the load distribution will be
smaller because of deformation. Be-
cause of the ability of the sun wheel to
align radially and/or the high manufac-
turing precision common today, the
bearing forces resulting from the un-
even load distribution are so small that
they can be neglected when selecting
the sun wheel bearings. At high
Bearing arrange-
ment for an input
shaft with two
deep groove ball
bearings
56
friction in the bearings and additional

forces on the cages – to be kept as
small as possible.
The specifically heavy radial loads,
the rotating outer rings, and not least,
the mass inertia forces cause high fric-
tion. Therefore special demands are
placed on the lubrication and cooling
of the planetary wheel bearings.
The least space is taken up by a
needle roller and cage assembly as
shown in fig 36 . This very cost-favour-
able bearing arrangement is very
suitable for small units (up to approx-
imately 50 mm between shafts) as well
as for light loads or short periods of
operation as, for example, with small
lifting gear.
The pins and bores of the planetary
wheels serve as bearing raceways.
Bearing arrange-
ment for a sun Planetary wheels Recommendations regarding raceway
wheel with two The conditions for the planetary wheels hardness and design are given in the 3
deep groove ball are characterised by heavy radial load section ”Recommended fits” (➔ page
bearings from the forces of two meshes as well 106). The planetary wheel is axially
as by the infuence of radial accelera- guided by thrust washers. These are
tions and the mass inertia forces result- secured on the planetary carrier so
ing from these. Bearings having high that they cannot turn.
radial load carrying capacity are need- The bearing arrangement shown in
ed, and their cages should be able to fig 37 with two cylindrical roller bear-
endure the mass forces. ings of the NJ design offers the advant-
An internal bearing arrangement is ages of very high radial load carrying
suitable for the planetary wheels as it capacity and very high accuracy as
takes up the least space. This means well as high rupture strength in respect
rotating load for the outer ring and of the cage forces if window-type
point load on the inner ring. Thus, the cages are used.
Bearing arrange- outer rings must have interference fits The planetary wheel is guided axi-
ment for a plane-
tary wheel with a and the seatings must be accurately ally by the flanges of the cylindrical rol-
needle roller and machined in order to keep the rotating ler bearings. To prevent the bearings
cage assembly inaccuracy – which leads to increased from being axially clamped, the inter-
mediate ring on the pin should be at
least 1 mm wider than the retaining
ring in the bore of the wheel.
Even though the two cylindrical roller
bearings are virtually immediately ad-
jacent to each other, it is not necessary
to resort to special bearings for paired
mounting (DR execution). Modern
manufacturing methods mean that
standard bearings differ only slightly in
their cross section (bore and outside
diameters + internal clearance) from
each other. When using two bearings
per wheel the deviation will, at the
most, cause a slight angular misalign-
ment which is largely compensated for
by deformation, so that any effect on
the mesh or the load carrying capacity
of the bearings is negligible.
57
Bearing arrange- Bearing arrange-
ment for a plan- ment for a plan-
etary wheel with etary wheel with
two cylindrical two cylindrical
roller bearings roller bearings
without outer
ring
To achieve the maximum load carry- The design provides very high load
ing capacity in the limited space, the carrying capacity in a small space.
bearing outer rings can be dispensed However, full complement cylindrical
with, as shown in fig 38 . Cylindrical roller bearings cause more friction and
roller bearings of the RN design are are susceptible to wear. They are not
used. The wheel is guided axially by suitable for high normal accelerations.
the flange rings and the inner ring Therefore, this bearing arrangement is
flanges. The dimensions of the rings more appropriate for short-term opera-
are not standardised and should be tion, also with heavy load shocks,
agreed with the bearing manufacturer. rather than for constant operation.
Recommendations regarding design of A typical application area is that of
the raceways in the wheel bore will be mobile gear units.
found in the section “Recommended The use of a spherical roller bearing
fits” (➔ page 106). to support a planetary wheel, as shown
Another way to increase load carry- in fig 40 , allows the wheel to adjust to
ing capacity is to use full complement the mesh. When the planetary carriers
cylindrical roller bearings as shown in deform, so that the overhung pins
fig 39 . In this case, a special double become misaligned, the mesh is im-
row bearing without outer ring is used. proved by the use of a self-aligning
Bearing arrange- Bearing arrange-
ment for a plan- ment for a plane-
etary wheel with a tary wheel with
double row full one spherical
complement roller bearing
cylindrical roller
bearing without
outer ring
58
Fig 41 Planetary wheel

bearing arrangement, when compared bearing arrange-
to a rigid bearing arrangement incorp- ment with one
orating more than one bearing. The CARB
advantage of this self-alignment can
also be exploited at high speeds and
correspondingly small tooth forces,
as there is not much deformation in
the tooth contact and the mesh will be
good. The easy adjustment of the mesh
is also an advantage when the wheels
are wide. The smaller theoretical load
carrying capacity of the single spher-
ical roller bearing as compared with
rigid arrangements where two or more
bearings are used is partly compens-
ated for by the even distribution of
load over the two rows of rollers.
Because of its exceptionally high
load carrying capacity compared with
other roller bearings and its low cross
section, the CARB is eminently suit-
able for planetary gear bearing ar- 3
rangements (➔ fig 41 ). Its insensitivity
to angular misalignment is particularly
important for correct meshing in this
case. The planetary wheel can align
itself so that even meshing is obtained
across the whole tooth width. The
favourable distributon of the tooth
forces thus obtained has a positive
influence on the life of the gearbox.
59
Planetary carriers centres itself via the planetary wheels

To achieve equal power splitting in in the hollow shaft (housing) and on
planetary gear units, it is possible to the supported sun wheel. This multiple
avoid the need for an additional bearing centring is only possible if manufactur-
support for the planetary carrier if the ing precision is adequate.
following conditions apply:
● the planetary carrier is not subjected

to load from the output shaft or the
torque support;
● the weight of the planetary carrier is
negligible.
Planetary gearbox The planetary carrier centres itself

of cartridge type under load via the planetary wheel
with two deep meshes.
groove ball bear-
ings supporting
Fig 42 shows a gearbox where the
the planetary planetary carrier of the high-speed
carrier stage is not supported by bearings. It
60
The casing is supported by the plan-

etary carrier of the slow-speed stage.
The two deep groove ball bearings in a
cross-located arrangement are under
load from the restoring force of the
torque support and from the weight of
the gearbox. The resultant bearing
forces are generally small and the
rotational speed low so that the load
carrying capacity of deep groove ball
bearings is usually sufficient.
The planetary carrier with take-off
shaft shown in fig 43 is supported by
two full complement cylindrical roller
bearings. This arrangement enables Bearing arrange-
additional forces from the power take- ment for planetary
carrier with two
off to be accommodated. full complement
cylindrical roller
bearings
61
Demands on the rolling Bearing selection

bearings The following list may be found useful
The special requirements placed on to check that the chosen bearings
the bearings for planetary gearboxes satisfy the demands.
are derived from the particular condi-
tions pertaining at the various bearing ● Adjusted rating life
positions. A brief summary is given in ● Permissible radial acceleration
Tables 12 to 14 . ● Permissible speed
● Friction and cooling
● Adequate bearing play to prevent
inadmissible preload at the maxi-
mum operating temperature (sun
wheel) or under interference fits
(planetary wheel)
Demands on sun Table 12
wheel bearings
Specific operating conditions Requirements of bearings/steps to
Light loads; idling Use of deep groove ball bearings preferred

to avoid over-dimensioning.
Requirements for clearance-free Adjust deep groove ball bearings axially by springs.
operation and quiet running
Large temperature differentials Particularly where casings are solid and/or well cooled use
when starting up (slim sun wheel shaft deep groove ball bearings with internal clearance to C3.
heats up more quickly than the casing
which is better cooled)
Demands on Table 13
planetary wheel
bearings Specific operating conditions Requirements of bearings/steps to
Heavy radial loads Use roller bearings with high load carrying capacity. If lubricant
film formation is also inadequate, corresponding to a viscosity
ratio (actual to required) of κ < 1 use lubricants with suitable
EP additives.
When κ < 0,5 only use bearings with cages (not full complement
bearings).
When κ < 0,1 reduce the specific bearing load; aim for s0 > 10.
Radial accelerations resulting from move- Check cage stresses by calculating mass inertia forces.
ment of the planetary wheels around the Pay consideration to mass inertia forces of planetary wheel
axis of rotation of the sun wheel when calculating bearing life.
Increased friction caused by mass Ensure adequate lubricant supply and cooling.
intertia forces and rotating outer Use heat-stable lubricants.
rings (rotating inaccuracy) For gearboxes which continuously, or frequently (high
frequency of use) operate at high tempeatures (> 80 °C) and
which should also have long service life (> 20 000 hours)
bearings with metallic cages should be used.
Deformation of planetary wheel by For thin-walled planetary wheels (wall thickness < 3 × modulus)
two meshes on opposite sides take into account the influence of the tension band load distribution
on the loaded zone of the bearing (FEM calculation).
62
● Deformation of planetary wheel

when wall thickness small; influence
on the load distribution in the bearing
● Static load safety in respect of load
shocks
A preliminary bearing selection can be

made by referring to the most fre-
quently used bearing series listed
in Table 15 .
Table 14 Demands on
planetary carrier
Specific operating conditions Requirements of bearings/steps to bearings
Very slow speeds with additional Use preferably bearings with small cross section.
loads from the drive When κ < 1 use lubricants with suitable EP additives.
When κ < 0,5 only use bearings with cages (not full
complement bearings). 3
When κ < 0,1 reduce the specific bearing load; aim for
s0 > 10.
Operating Bearing series normally used

Planetary wheels Sun wheels Planetary carriers
Low radial accelerations or NJ 23 ECP 60, 62, 63 618, 619

short operation periods NCF 30 V NCF 18 V, NCF 29 V
NJG 23 VH 239 CC
230 CC
232 CC
223 E(CC)
Moderate radial accelerations NJ 3 ECMA 60, 62, 63 618, 619

and continuous operation NJ 23 ECMA NCF 18 V, NCF 29 V
230 CC 239 CC
232 CC
223 E(CC)
High radial accelerations NJ 2 ECML 60, 62, 63 618, 619

NJ 3 ECML NCF 18 V, NCF 29 V
NJ 23 ECML 239 CC
223 CCJA/VA405
In addition to the bearing series listed above, a CARB can be used for planetary wheels
63
4 Calculation of bearing
arrangements
Bearing loads . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Determination of external
forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Calculation of bearing
loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Dimensioning the bearing

arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Life calculation . . . . . . . . . 76
Static safety factor . . . . . . . 79
Axial load carrying
capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Minimum load . . . . . . . . . . 80
Normal acceleration and
cage load carrying capacity 80
Friction and cooling . . . . . . 81
Permissible speeds . . . . . . 82
Internal clearance
and preload . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Adjustment values for
single row angular
contact bearings . . . . . . . . 85
4 Calculation of bearing arrangements
Bearing loads
Calculation of bearing
arrangements
Following the preliminary selection of bearing
type, it is necessary to determine all the exter-
nal forces acting on a gear unit and from them
to calculate the bearing loads. For the final
selection of bearing size (and execution) several
criteria must be observed, the most important
of which is bearing life.
Bearing loads fying assumptions and models;

● advanced methods where bearings,
To calculate the bearing loads it is first shafts and in part also housings
necessary to determine all the external (casing) are considered as a non-
forces acting on the shaft/bearing rigid system; these methods involve
system. The following are external for- extensive calculations and require
ces: the use of sophisticated computer
programs available in house at SKF.
● tooth forces,
● mass inertia forces from radial ac- Where experience is available from
celerations in planetary gears, the same or similar designs it is still
● coupling and propeller shaft forces, the custom to use the conventional
● belt forces, and methods for comparative calculations.
● weights of shafts and gear wheels. Because of the greater information
obtained using the sophisticated
An analysis of the force distribution methods it is recommended that they
over the bearings must then be made. be applied for new designs and also
There is a choice of method: when conducting damage analysis.
Please contact SKF for assistance.
● conventional methods based on the
beam model, suitable for manual
calculations and the corresponding
computer programs (included in the
SKF CADalogue and ADAM soft-
ware); these methods rely on simpli-
65
Determination of external forces
Determination of Symbols
K tooth force acting at right angles
external forces to the tooth flank, N
Kp tangential component of K
Tooth forces (= peripheral force), N
The magnitude of the tooth forces is Ka component of K acting parallel to
dependent upon the torque which is to the shaft axis (= axial force), N
be transmitted. As the torque is the Kn component of K acting at right
fundamental criterium on which all cal- angles to the shaft axis
culations are based, and consequently (= normal force), N
also the evaluation of the bearing M torque to be transmitted by gear
arrangement, it should be determined wheel, Nmm
as accurately as possible, e.g. by W power to be transmitted by gear
measuring or based on experience. wheel, kW
Additional forces caused by inaccur- r pitch radius (mean radius for
acies in the mesh which come from bevel gear wheels), mm
the manufacturing process, or by n rotational speed of gear wheel,
shocks originating from the input or r/min
output drives, are taken into account α angle of engagement, degrees
by selecting an application-related β angle of inclination, degrees
minimum life. δ half cone angle of bevel gear
When calculating the forces for spur, wheels, degrees
bevel and planetary gears (➔ fig 1 ), γ pitch of worm, degrees
tooth friction is ignored. Friction is only Z number of teeth
taken into account for hypoid and worm µ coefficient of friction of tooth
gears where there is a larger propor- flanks of hypoid and worm gears
tion of sliding friction. η degree of efficiency for hypoid
In the following equations the index and worm gears
1 is used for the driving wheel and the
index 2 for the driven wheel.
The peripheral force Kp depends
on the torque or power and can be ob-
tained from
M W
Kp = = 9,5517 × 106
r nr
For spur and bevel gears, the gear Tooth forces

ratio is
Fig 1
n1 r Z Kp
= 2 = 2
n2 r1 Z1
r
K
Ka
Kn
66
Spur gear For spiral cut or curved bevel gear

For straight cut spur gear units units (➔ fig 5 ) the equations shown
(➔ fig 2 ) in Table 1 should be used.
As the equations
Ka = 0
Ka2 = Kn1
Kn = Kp tan α
Kn2 = Ka1
and for spiral cut spur gear units
(➔ fig 3 ) also apply to bevel gear units where
the shafts are at right angles to each
Ka = Kp tan β other, it is sufficient in this case to cal-
culate the forces acting on the driving
wheel, as this will also determine the
tan α
Kn = Kp forces on the driven wheel.
cos β
Where the teeth are straight cut, the
forces Kn and Ka always act in the
Bevel gear units directions shown in fig 4. For spiral cut
For straight cut bevel gear units or curved teeth, the forces may act in
(➔ fig 4 ) the opposite direction, depending on
the angles α, β and δ. In this case, the
Ka1 = Kp tan α sin δ1 calculated values for Kn and Ka are
negative.
Kn1 = Kp tan α cos δ1
Ka2 = Kp tan α sin δ2

4
Kn2 = Kp tan α cos δ2
Tooth forces of Fig 2 Fig 3 Tooth forces of

straight cut helical cut spur
Kp Kp gears
β
Ka
Kn Kn
r r
Tooth forces of Fig 4 Fig 5 Tooth forces of

straight cut helical cut bevel
Kp Kp gears
β
δ
Ka Ka
Kn Kn
r r
67
Tooth forces for Table 1
helical and curve
toothed bevel Driving wheel
gears Kp
Ka1 = (− sin β cos δ1 + tan α sin δ1)
cos β
Kp
Kn1 = (sin β sin δ1 + tan α cos δ1)
cos β
Kp
Ka1 = (sin β cos δ1 + tan α sin δ1)
cos β
Kp
Kn1 = (− sin β sin δ1 + tan α cos δ1)
cos β
Driven wheel
Kp
Ka2 = (sin β cos δ2 + tan α sin δ2)
cos β
Kp
Kn2 = (− sin β sin δ2 + tan α cos δ2)
cos β
Kp
Ka2 = (− sin β cos δ2 + tan α sin δ2)
cos β
Kp
Kn2 = (sin β sin δ2 + tan α cos δ2)
cos β
Tooth forces for Table 2

hypoid gears
Driving wheel
Ka1 = K (− cos α sin β1 cos δ1 + sin α sin δ1 + µ cos β1 cos δ1)
Kn1 = K (cos α sin β1 sin δ1 + sin α cos δ1 − µ cos β1 sin δ1)
Ka1 = K (cos α sin β1 cos δ1 + sin α sin δ1 − µ cos β1 cos δ1)
Kn1 = K (− cos α sin β1 sin δ1 + sin α cos δ1 + µ cos β1 sin δ1)
Driven wheel
Ka2 = K (cos α sin β2 cos δ2 + sin α sin δ2 − µ cos β2 cos δ2)
Kn2 = K (− cos α sin β2 sin δ2 + sin α cos δ2 + µ cos β2 sin δ2)
Ka2 = K (− cos α sin β2 cos δ2 + sin α sin δ2 + µ cos β2 cos δ2)
Kn2 = K (cos α sin β2 sin δ2 + sin α cos δ2 − µ cos β2 sin δ2)
68
Hypoid gear units The forces Ka and Kn are obtained

As can be seen from fig 6 , the two using the equations shown in Table 2 ,
shafts of a hypoid gear unit do not lie taking into account the requirements
in the same plane. Therefore, the for the direction of the spiral cut and of
angle of inclination β1 of the driving rotation.
wheel is not the same as β2 of the
driven wheel. The wheels are so Worm gear units
chosen that β1 is larger than β2. The When calculating worm gears it is
directions of the peripheral forces Kp1 common practice to take the angle of
and Kp2 do not coincide, in contrast to pitch γ instead of the angle of inclina-
spur and bevel gear units. tion β. The following equations can be
For hypoid gears, the ratio is used
γ = 90 − β
n1 Z r cos β2
= 2 = 2 ×
n2 Z1 r1 cos β1
h
tan γ =
2 π r1
As (cos β2/cos β1) > 1, the pitch radius
of the pinion is greater for a given ratio
and a given size of the wheel which where h in mm is the pass height of
the pinion engages than is the case for the worm on the partial cylinder and r1
a bevel gear unit. in mm the pitch radius of the worm.
The peripheral force Kp1 which acts Generally, the worm drives the worm
on the pinion is obtained from wheel and the following calculation is
for this case. Index 1 refers to the
worm and index 2 to the worm wheel
M1
Kp1 = (➔ fig 7 ). 4
r1
The tooth forces are obtained from
The tooth force which acts vertically on

M1
the tooth flank is obtained from Kp1 =
r1
Kp1
K =
cos α cos β1 + µ sin β1 cos α cos γ − µ sin γ
Ka1 = Kp1
cos α sin γ + µ cos γ
and the peripheral force for the large
wheel from = Kp1 cot γ η
Tooth forces of
Hypoid gears Kp2 = K (cos α cos β2 + µ sin β2) worm gears
Fig 6 Fig 7
Kn1
Kp1
Kp2
r1
Ka1
Ka2
Kn2
r2
69
pitch radius of the hollow wheel R and

sin α
Kn1 = Kp1 its planetary wheel to that of the sun
cos α sin γ + µ cos γ
wheel and its planetary wheel. The
magnitude of the radius s, which for
tan α
= Kp1 [sin2 γ (1 − η) + η] corrected toothing must not be
sin γ
(R + r) /2, does not matter here.
The advantage of this method is that
As can be seen from fig 7 the forces the various types with double planetary
acting on the worm wheel are deter- wheels can be calculated in a simple
mined by calculating the forces on manner. The same equations can be
the worm as follows used for all planetary gear units of ty-
pes I to III (➔ fig 8 a), which are equi-
Kp2 = Ka1; Ka2 = Kp1; Kn2 = Kn1 valent to the simple unit (➔ fig 8 b).
It should be remembered that the
The reduction ratio for worm gear values of R, s and r to be inserted in
units is the equation for u correspond to the
lever of the three parts which act on
the assumed double lever in the plane-
n1 Z
= 2 tary wheel (thus, R is not always the
n2 Z1
radius of the hollow wheel, s not
always the radius of the planetary
where Z1 is the number of passes of wheel and r not always the radius of
the worm and Z2 the number of teeth the sun wheel).
of the worm wheel. The basic ratio is obtained from
Planetary gear units

R (s − r)
The determination of the forces is u =
(R − s) r
shown for the most common type of
planetary gear, i.e. with parallel shafts
and toothed pinion. Using the following For normal toothing
equations it is of no importance for the
determintion of the speeds and torques (s − r) = (R − s)
which of the three parts is connected
to the drive, the power take-off, or the is valid so that
stationary part (casing), or whether all
three parts are in motion and transmit
R
Construction of
power. u =
r
planetary gearbox The calculation starts with the basic
(schematic) ratio u, which is the ratio of the rolling
Fig 8
type I type II type III simple unit
R R R R
S S S S
r
r r
a b
70
If the symbols R, s and r are inserted Torques:

for the different equivalent planetary
units according to fig 8 a, the the Ms = Mr + MR = (u + 1) Mr
upper equation for u is again valid.
1
Speeds: = ( + 1) MR
u
nr = (u + 1) ns − u nR
1 1
Mr = M = M
(u + 1) ns − nr u R u+1 s
nR =
u
u
MR = u Mr = M
n + u nR u+1 s
ns = r
u+1
Tooth forces:
Speeds of the planetary wheels about The peripheral force is obtained from
their own axes
a) for simple planetary gear units
Mr Mr
Kp = or Kp =
r Zpl R Zpl
R
npl = (nr − ns)
R−s
where Zpl = number of planetary whe-
els.
r
= (ns − nr)
s−r
For straight cut teeth 4
1
= (nR − nr) Ka = 0
s−r R−s
+
r R
Kn = Kp tan α
b) for double planetary units and for spiral cut teeth

type I:
Ka = Kp tan β
R
npl = (nR − nr)
R−r tan α
Kn = Kp
cos β
s
= (ns − nr)
s−r
type II:
R
npl = (nR − ns)
R−s
r
= (ns − nr)
s−r
type III:
r
npl = (nR − nr)
R−r
s
= (nR − ns)
R−s
71
Fig 9 Fig 10
FG
M S1
r
ϕ
Kr
a
S2
FG
Cardan shaft Belt forces

forces Inertia forces from the radial lowing radially acting pair of maximum
acceleration forces should be used for calculations
The rotation of the planetary carrier
about its own axis causes inertia forces
M
on the planetary wheels which must be FG max = tan ϕ
a
considered when calculating the bear-
ing load if speeds are high.
For the inertia (gyratory) force on a where
planetary wheel FG max = maximum, periodically
changing force, N
F = m rs ω2 M = torque to be transmitted, Nmm
a = distance between bearings,
where mm
F = inertia force, N ϕ = bending angle of joint, degrees
m = mass of planetary wheel, kg
rs = radius of centre of gravity of As FG max is the maximum of the peri-
rotating planetary wheel, m odically changing force, an approxim-
ω = angular velocity of the planetary ate average force can be obtained from
carrier
Fm = 0,75 FG max
(= π30n ), s
s −1
assuming that the bearings are only

ns = rotational speed of the planetary subjected to load caused by the joint
carrier, r/min forces. If the bearings are also sub-
jected to other forces then the follow-
Coupling and propeller ing approximation applies
shaft forces
When selecting and designing torque-
1 2
transmitting couplings, it is desirable Fm = Fmin + F
3 3 max
that no reactionary forces act on the
shaft/bearing system. Even though this
is not completely possible, because of Fmin = forces other than the joint force
inaccuracies governed by manufacture which act on the bearings, N
or deviations when aligning the Fmax = all forces acting on the bearing,
coupled shafts, and not least because including the joint force
of deformations, it may still be assu- FG max, N
med that the coupling forces are negli-
gible in comparison to the tooth forces. As the bending angle ϕ changes there
With propeller shafts, forces are pro- will be a compensation in length of the
duced when the torque is transmitted. propeller shaft which, because of fric-
These forces rotate with the rotation tion, will produce an axial force
of the shaft and change periodically
(➔ fig 9 ). For two bearings, the fol-
72
Table 3 Kr produced by the belt (➔ fig 10 ) can

Type of Preload factor f be calculated using
belt drive at peripheral speed (m/s)
<5 5 to 20 > 20
M
Kr = f Kp = f
Flat belts 3 to 4 2,5 to 3,5 2 to 3 r
V belts 1,5 to 2,5 1,5 to 2,5 1,5 to 2,5

where
Toothed belts 1,1 to 1,3 1,1 to 1,3 1,1 to 1,3 Kr = resultant belt force, N
Kp = peripheral force, N
M = torque, Nmm
f = tensioning factor
r = radius of belt pulley, mm
Appropriate values of tensioning factor,

Preload factor M
Fa = µ cos ϕ depending on the peripheral speed,
rm can be obtained from Table 3 .
where Forces from the torque support

M = torque, Nmm In cartridge-type gear units, the bear-
rm = mean radius of the sliding ings on the output shaft are subjected
profile, mm not only to the tooth forces, but also to
µ = coefficient of friction forces from the reaction to the torque
ϕ = angle of bending, degrees and from the weight (➔ fig 11 ).
The force K1 acting on the output
As this axial force only acts during cer- shaft bearings can be obtained from
tain periods – namely when the ben- 4
ding angle changes – it should be
M a
taken into account for the time it acts K1 = +G
l l
when calculating the life, or if the
change in angle occurs when the shaft
is not rotating, it should be included in where
the calculation of the static safety fac- K1 = force acting on the bearings, N
tor s0. M = reaction torque (for simplicity it
can be taken as being equal to
Belt forces the torque of the output shaft),
The gear unit may be driven by a belt Nmm
Torque support and power take-off may also be via a G = weight of gear unit including
forces belt. The radial force acting on the shaft motor and base plate, N
l = distance between torque support
Fig 11 and output shaft, mm
a = distance between torque support
K1 and centre of gravity, mm
When calculating bearing load it

should be remembered that the force
K1 is introduced via the bearing outer
rings from the casing.
Weights of shafts and gears

The weights of shafts and gears are
generally negligible compared with
G the tooth forces. They should not be
K2 ignored, however, when dealing with
vertical units as they act axially and
a
may constitute a considerable part of
the total bearing load – particularly in
l
large units.
73
Calculation of bearing loads
Calculation of bearing can be made by taking into account

the resilience of the shaft and bear-
loads ings. This can be done with the in-
Once the external forces have been house computer programs developed
determined it is possible to calculate by SKF.
the bearing loads. It is sensible to
divide the forces, as shown in fig 12 , The external force acts on the
into three vertically acting components. shaft between the pressure
The forces act at the pressure centres centres of the bearings
of the bearings. For deep groove ball The bearings with pressure centres I
bearings, cylindrical roller bearings and II at a distance l corresponding to
and spherical roller bearings, the pres- fig 12 are loaded by a force K acting
sure centre is at the geometric centre in any direction. The force is divided
of the bearing. For single row angular into the components Kp, Kn and Ka.
contact ball bearings and taper roller For the forces acting vertically at the
bearings, the distance between the bearing positions
pressure and geometric centres of the
bearing will be found for each bearing
l−a r
in the SKF General Catalogue. F1 I = Kn − K
l l a
If a shaft is supported in a double
row angular contact bearing, or in two
a r
single row angular contact bearings F1 II = K + K
l n l a
arranged back-to-back, plus an addi-
tional bearing, and if the distance be-
tween the bearings is relatively small, and for the forces acting horizontally
under a load consisting of a radial
force component Kn and an axial com-
l−a
ponent Ka, the position of the line of F2 I = Kp
l
action of the radial force Fr acting on
the bearing pair or bearings will influ-
a
ence the distribution of the external F2 II = K
l p
load over the three rows of rolling ele-
ments. The distance ax of the line of
Forces acting at action can be determined approxim-
the bearing posi- ately from the diagram in fig 13 in Position of the
tions when an relation to the contact angle of the force produced by
external force is double row and
applied at a point bearing and the load ratio Fa/Fr. paired single row
between the pres- A more realistic determination of the angular contact
sure centres load distribution over the three rows bearings
Fig 12 Fig 13
Kp
r Ka = Fa b
0
F1I
K ax
Ka
FrI I Kn Kn Fr
F2I FrII F1II 0,5

II 0,4
Fa
Ball bearings
F2II 0,3
0,2 Roller bearings
0,1
a
0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2
l
Fa cotα
Fr
74
Calculation of bearing loads
The resultant radial load s for the bear- and for the horizontally acting forces
ings can then be determined using
a−l
Fr I = √ F1 I2 + F2 I2 F2 I = Kp
l
Fr II = √ F1 II2 + F2 II2
a
F2 II = K
l p
The axial force Fa acts on one of the
two bearings – the locating bearing –
in addition to the radial forces. When The resultant radial loads acting on the
the bearing is not a single row angular bearing can then be obtained, as be-
contact bearing, Fa = Ka. In single row fore, from
angular contact bearings under radial
load, an axial force will be induced Fr I = √ F1 I2 + F2 I2
which must be taken into account
when calculating the equivalent dy- Fr II = √ F1 II2 + F2 II2
namic bearing load. Details will be
found in the SKF General Catalogue. Once the radial load Fr and the axial
load Fa have been determined, the
The external force acts on the equivalent dynamic bearing load P and
shaft away from the pressure then the bearing rating life L10h can be
centres of the bearings determined following the instructions
The force K is also divided into three given in the SKF General Catalogue.
components: Kp, Kn and Ka. According The conventional determination of
to fig 14 , for the bearing forces acting the bearing load described here is
vertically based on many simplifying assump-
tions in order to permit manual calcula- 4
tion. More realistic results are obtained
a−l r
F1 I = Kn − K if the deformation of bearings, shafts
l l a
and possibly also of the casing can be
taken into account. This can be done
a r
F1 II = Kn − K using the sophisticated SKF computer
l l a
programs available in house.
Forces acting at For shaft systems supported at
the bearing posi- three or more positions it is imperative
tions when an that deformations are considered, as
external force is
applied at a point the conventional methods often lead to
outside the pres- rather unrealistic results. Even for stat-
sure centres ically determinate doubly supported
shafts, it is advisable to calculate using
Fig 14 the more sophisticated methods when
the application limits for a new design
Kp are being evaluated, or when addition-
K al information is required on bearing
F2I
Ka and gear displacements and misalign-
I
FrI ments, or on rolling element loads and
F1II
stresses in the rolling contact, rather
F1I than the approximate life.
FrII Kn
II r
F2II
Fa
75
Dimensioning the bearing arrangement
Dimensioning the A more reliable selection can be

made by calculating the adjusted
bearing arrangement rating life L10ah which also takes into
The bearing size and execution re- account lubrication. The calculation
quired for a given bearing arrange- requires information regarding the vis-
ment are determined based on the cosity of the lubricant to be used and
following criteria: the bearing operating temperature in
addition to the load and speed. By cal-
● life culating the adjusted rating life it is
● static load carrying capacity also possible to determine whether the
● axial load carrying capacity lubricant is suitable and whether cool-
● minimum load ing would give better results. A deter-
● normal acceleration and cage load mination of the adjusted rating life is
carrying capacity also helpful for the following reasons.
● friction and cooling
● speed capability ● Bearings operating at high speeds
● internal clearance and preload but which are lightly loaded are
● adjustment values for single row negatively influenced by high tem-
angular contact bearings. peratures and large inertia forces.
Lubricant film formation is promot-
In many cases bearing size is simply ed at high speeds and an adjusted
selected on the basis of the calculated rating life calculation can show that
life. The list above and the following a smaller bearing can be used than
comments serve to show that for reli- would be suggested by a basic
able performance of the bearing, a rating life calculation, so that friction
number of other criteria should be con- as well as inertia forces will be re-
sidered in addition to the calculated duced. The reliability of the bearing
bearing life. arrangement will be enhanced.
● Slowly rotating bearings operating
Life calculation under heavy loads are subject to
The Lundberg and Palmgren theory of deformations with correspondingly
bearing fatigue life forms the basis for high proportions of sliding in the rol-
bearing life calculations. The life equa- ling contact and are susceptible to
tions derived from the theory are to be wear. The slow speeds mean that
found in the SKF General Catalogue. lubricant film formation will be poor-
Their use for gearbox bearing calcula- er, and the adjusted rating life cal-
tion will be discussed here. culation will lead to the choice of
Bearing life can be calculated with bearings having higher load carrying
greater accuracy and reliability, the capacity. This will mean that the
more accurately the operating condi- specific bearing loads will be lighter,
tions are known or can be determined. deformations and wear will be re-
To calculate the basic rating life L10h duced, and reliability enhanced.
according to ISO it is only necessary
to know the basic dynamic load rating Contamination has a considerable
of the bearing, the equivalent bearing effect on the life of gearbox bearings.
load and the rotational speed. Import- The influence of contamination can be
ant influences such as lubricant film calculated using the SKF New Life
formation in the bearing and lubricant Theory. The fatigue load limit is also
cleanliness are not considered in the considered when calculating the ad-
L10h calculation. In spite of this, if ex- justed rating life L10aah according to the
perience of similar bearing arrange- New Life Theory so that it is possible
ments is available and the other para- to design an arrangement for infinite
meters which affect bearing life, but life.
which are not considered in the calcu-
lation are reasonably constant, a basic
rating life calculation may be sufficient
to determine the appropriate bearing
size.
76
The following parameters are con- and size of the driven machine, on
sidered when calculating L10aah: the length of service and on demands
regarding operational reliability. If no
● dynamic load rating of the bearing, experience is available then the guide-
● fatigue load limit of the bearing, line values for the requisite basic rating
● equivalent dynamic bearing load, life L10h given in Table 4 can be
● rotational speed, used.
● lubricant viscosity, In similar applications, the drives of
● operating temperature and cooling, large machines are generally subject-
and ed to more arduous conditions than
● contamination and sealing. the drives of smaller machines be-
cause of stronger shock loads and
Calculations according to the New Life larger defomations. This should be
Theory are particularly suitable for taken into consideration when choosing
making parametric studies to deter- the guide-line value from Table 4.
mine the influence of the different fac- When bearing arrangements are in-
tors. It should be noted that the various tended for very slow rotational speeds
factors have a strong influence on and/or are to have a very short life,
each other, and such calculations are the requisite basic dynamic load rating
only meaningful when the operating of the bearing is very small. This can
conditions are exactly known. When lead to an unsuitable bearing being
bearing life calculations for the selection chosen which will give inadequate
of bearing size are made, only those static safety, or the formation of only
results obtained using one and the an inadequate lubricant film, or to the
same method should be compared. overloading and consequent deforma-
When determining a suitable life it is tion of the associated components. If,
necessary to consider how the gear- in addition to the requisite life, a mini- 4
box is to be used. The requisite basic mum requisite value of the static safety
rating life is dependent on the type factor s0 is also to be considered, this
Table 4 Guideline values

for the requisite
Gearbox application L10h basic rating life
(operating hours) L10h for gearboxes
for various appli-
cations
Machines and equipment infrequently used: 300 to 3 000
Household appliances
Agricultural machinery
Medical equipment
Machines used for brief periods or intermittently: 3 000 to 10 000

Cranes
Lifts and elevators
Construction machinery
Machines for daily (8 hour) use: 10 000 to 30 000

Machine tools
Woodworking machines
Fans
Conveyor drives
Centrifuges
Machines for 24-hour use: 30 000 to 50 000

Rolling mills
Compressors
Pumps
Barges
Machines for 24-hour operation where high reliability is required: 50 000 to 100 000
Cement mills
Rotary furnaces
Power generating plant
Large-size open cast mining equipment
Wind and water turbines
Ocean-going ships
77
should be based on the κ value (ratio ● when κ < 0,1 no life should be given;
of actual to required viscosity). The the material will fatigue under condi-
decision not only depends on the oper- tions of small κ, but the operational
ating speed therefore, but also on the reliability and service life will not
viscosity at the operating temperature depend on fatigue but on other fac-
and on the mean bearing diameter. tors which are indirectly accounted
Table 5 contains recommendations for by the static safety factor s0.
as whether the bearing selection should
be based on the requisite life or on the
static safety, taking the value of κ into
account. Thus
● when κ > 0,5, the static safety factor

s0 should be checked in addition to
the requisite life;
● when κ ≤ 0,5 then the static safety
factor s0 must be considered;
Selection criteria Table 5
Viscosity Bearing selection based on

ratio fatigue life static safety factor
κ
over incl. L10h L10ah L10aah s0
0,1 − − − +
0,1 0,5 − o + +
0,5 1 + + + o
1 + + + o
Symbols
+ recommended
– not appropriate
o can also be used
Guideline values Table 6

for the static
safety factor s0 Bearing type Type of operation
Rotating, Rotating, Rotating at very slow Stationary
statically brief shock speeds under load
loaded loads
nrel = 0 nrel > 0 κ < 0,1 κ = 0,1 to 0,5
Ball bearings 2 2 10 5 0,5
Roller bearings 3,5 3 10 5 1
Full complement – 3 20 10 1
cylindrical roller bearings
78
Static safety factor ● light axial load,

The basic static load rating C0 is used when 0,1 < κ ≤ 0,5: Fa max = 0,05 Fap,
to select bearing size in the following when 0,5 < κ ≤ 1: Fa max = 0,1 Fap,
cases: when 1 < κ ≤ 2: Fa max = 0,2 Fap,
where Fap is the maximum permiss-
● when the bearing rotates at a rel- ible axial load at κ ≥ 2
ative speed of 0 (bearing arrange- ● there is an adequate supply of a CLP
ments of shifting gears) under load oil which offers good protection
(rotating static load); against wear
● when the bearing rotates and must, ● the arrangements for oil supply and
in addition to the normal loads, take drainage are designed so that wear
up heavy shock loads for a fraction particles will not collect in the
of a revolution (e.g. rolling mill bearing
drives);
● when the bearing rotates very slowly
under constant load;
● when the bearing is stationary and is
under constant load or is subjected
to shock (short duration) loads, e.g.
in mobile gearboxes.
The guideline values of the static

safety factor s0 for different bearing
types given in Table 6 are valid when
there is adequate lubrication using a
CLP oil to DIN 51 517 which offers
good protection against wear. 4
Bearing selection based on the
static safety factor s0 is described in
the SKF General Catalogue.
Axial load carrying capacity

The axial loads acting on rolling bear-
ings are considered when calculating
the equivalent dynamic and static bear-
ing loads, see SKF General Catalogue.
However, the axial load carrying capa-
city of cylindrical roller bearings is
primarily determined by the load carry-
ing ability of the sliding surfaces of the
roller ends and flanges and is very
strongly dependent on the lubrication
and cooling. When calculating the
permissible axial load according to the
SKF General Catalogue, a viscosity
ratio κ ≥ 2 is presupposed. When κ is
smaller friction and wear will increase.
Based on experience these effects can
be kept at an acceptable level for
slowly rotating gearbox bearings if the
fol-lowing favourable conditions pertain
79
Minimum load The development of smearing – the

In order for bearings to perform corr- typical damage caused during idling –
ectly they must always be subjected and its prevention are being studied.
to a given minimum load. This will pre- SKF application engineers will gladly
vent the rolling elements from sliding provide information on the latest re-
on the raceways which would lead to search results.
smearing and premature bearing fail-
ure. This minimum bearing load can be Normal acceleration and cage
calculated using the information given load carrying capacity
in the SKF General Catalogue. When The movement of a planetary gear
this minimum load is constantly applied, bearing is made up of a guidance or
there will be practically no sliding in the locating movement, resulting from the
bearings. This load can be applied rotation of the planetary carrier, and a
rather easily to thrust bearings, e.g. by relative movement resulting from the
springs, even when they are idling, but bearing turning in the planetary carrier.
may be more difficult to arrange for In comparison with bearings mounted
radial bearings. in stationary housings, the guidance
In cases where the weights of shaft and coriolis accelerations cause addi-
and gears are insufficient for the mini- tional inertia forces to act on the plan-
mum load requirements, the risk of etary gear bearings. The mass of the
sliding can at least be reduced if the planetary gear and the associated
following recommendations are bearing rings produces a force as a
respected. result of the normal guidance accelera-
tion which the bearing arrangement
● Use ball bearings, taper roller bear- must also accommodate. These accel-
ings or spherical roller bearings erations also mean that the masses of
where possible (full complement the rolling elements and cage will exert
cylindrical roller bearings are most additional forces as well as the bearing
at risk). itself.
● Use bearings with small rolling These additional inertia forces act
elements – in critical cases at the on the rolling elements, bearing rings
expense of basic rating life. and, to a high degree, also the bearing
● Keep bearing internal clearance cage. It is thus possible that a bearing
small and – if at all possible – apply will fail not from fatigue but because of
a preload. cage fracture.
● Avoid metallic contact in the rolling The additional forces increase the
element/raceway contacts (ensure sliding friction in the contacts which
adequate supply of lubricant having guide the rolling elements and cage.
sufficient viscosity; if necessary use In full complement cylindrical roller
bearings with black oxidised rolling bearings, because of the normal accel-
elements). eration, the rollers are in contact with
● Ensure high accuracy of position each other, so that friction increases
and form of the associated com- and lubricant film formation is hin-
ponents and use bearings of corre- dered. As a result the risk of scuffing
spondingly high precision. or seizure is increased.
● Avoid vibrations wherever possible. SKF has specially developed com-
● Limit periods of idling under insuffi- puter programs for the calculation of
cient load as far as possible. the cage carrying capacity and also for
how much the friction will be increased
Experience shows that idling under in- by the additional forces as well as the
sufficient load in gearboxes cannot al- risk of seizure for full complement
ways be avoided. The bearings which cylindrical roller bearings.
are most susceptible to damage under
such conditions are large cylindrical
roller bearings (d > 150 mm) as well as
full complement cylindrical roller bear-
ings. Often the bearings are damaged
during test running without load.
80
An estimate of the permissible nor- Friction and cooling

mal acceleration for the bearing and Bearing friction depends on the follow-
cage designs most frequently used for ing factors:
planetary gears can be made using
the following equation and catalogue ● load,
data ● speed,
● bearing type,
● bearing size,
dm0,8
an ≤ ka g × 103 ● lubricant properties (viscosity in
C0
operation), and
● lubricant quantity.
where
an = permissible normal acceleration The total frictional resistance in a
ka = a factor (➔Table 7 ) bearing is made up of
dm = mean bearing diameter
= 0,5 (d + D), mm ● rolling and sliding friction in the
C0 = basic static load rating, N rolling element/raceway contacts,
● sliding friction in the rolling element/
cage contacts (rolling element
guidance),
● sliding friction in the cage/bearing
ring contact (cage guidance),
● friction in the lubricant, and
● sliding friction of the rubbing seals
in sealed bearings.
Friction influences heat generation 4

and consequently bearing operating
temperature. In gearboxes, the gears
produce more friction than the bear-
ings. When making arrangements for
cooling, therefore, it is necessary to
consider the total friction in the gear-
box.
Factor ka Table 7
Bearing type Bearing design Factor ka

for circulating for oil bath lub-
oil lubrication rication without
with good cooling special cooling
Cylindrical roller ECP 120 40

bearings ECJ 170 50
ECM 150 50
ECMR 400 150
ECMA 700 250
ECMP 1 400 500
ECML 1 800 600
Spherical roller E 250 100

bearings CC 600 200
CC/VA405 1 400 500
81
Operating temperatures in the gear- where

box (and thus the bearings) should Q = oil quantity (oil flow rate), l/min
preferably not exceed 100 °C and de- f = factor depending on bearing type
finitely not be higher than 150 °C for and duty
the following reasons: = 0,00003 for radial ball bearings,
and radial roller bearings for
● High lubricant viscosity enhances moderate duty
lubricant film formation. = 0,00005 for radial roller bearings
● The lubricant ages more slowly, the in general
lower the temperature. = 0,00001 for thrust bearings,
● The dimensional changes in the radial roller bearings with rotat-
bearing rings and rolling elements ing outer ring and planetary
resulting from micro-structural gear bearings
changes in the material are smaller, D = bearing outside diameter, mm
the lower the temperature. B = bearing total width (radial bearings)
● The temperature differential across or height (thrust bearings), mm
a bearing is smaller, the lower the
temperature, so that preset bearing The guideline values for the oil flow
clearance or preload will not change rate are generally on the safe side. For
as much. small bearings only very small quantit-
ies are required and it is difficult to ar-
The power loss resulting from the bear- range for a correct supply, particularly
ing friction can be calculated using infor- when the temperature varies. Often,
mation given in the SKF General Cata- the oil from pockets which capture oil
logue. Heat is removed from a bearing will be sufficient. As there is a risk with
by conduction, convection, radiation forced oil circulation that the leads and
and by the lubricant. If circulating oil nozzles become blocked it is recom-
lubrication is to be used, the requisite mended that either at least 0,25 l/min
quantity of oil can be calculated from is supplied to each bearing, or supply
pumps should be used which allow
larger supply cross sections even
NR
Q = 0,039 where oil quantities are small and
Ta − Te
pressures high.
where Permissible speeds

Q = requisite quantity of oil (oil flow When considering the operating
rate), l/min speed, the speed ratings quoted in the
NR = power loss, W SKF General Catalogue should be
Ta = oil temperature at exit, °C used as a reference. Bearing speeds
Te = oil temperature at inlet, °C which are higher than 70 to 80 % of
the catalogue speed ratings are con-
By experience, approximately 1/3 of sidered high. In such cases the follow-
the power loss is dissipated by the oil ing influences must be specially taken
and 2/3 through heat conduction, con- into consideration.
vection and radiation. A value of 10 °C
can be assumed for the temperature ● The heat produced as a result of the
difference (Ta – Te). friction increases bearing tempera-
The guideline values obtained using ture; lubrication (viscosity, type of
the equation below have been found to lubricant, lubricant supply) and
be good estimates of the oil flow rates. cooling must be checked.
● As the heat loss via the casing is
Q = fDB usually good, the temperature dif-
ferential from inner to outer ring is
larger, and a bearing having in-
creased internal clearance
(e.g. to C3) is required.
82
● To ensure proper performance of the ● For radial roller bearings in gearbox-

bearing (no slip and proper rolling es (e.g. cylindrical, spherical and
motion of the rolling elements) a double row taper roller bearings) a
correspondingly higher minimum slight radial internal clearance is
load is required. favourable as the bearings and
associated components (shaft,
The maximum permissible speeds are casing) usually have high radial stiff-
much higher than the speed ratings ness. Radial preload combined with
(see SKF General Catalogue, factor fn). the deviations from form normally
This also applies to gearbox bearings, tolerated in gearboxes, or combined
so that the maximum permissible with unexpected differences in tem-
speeds for deep groove ball bearings, perature would increase the risk of
cylindrical roller bearings (with cage), inadmissibly high additional stresses
angular contact ball bearings and four- occurring which would overload the
point contact ball bearings are twice bearing.
the speed ratings. If operating speeds ● For single row taper roller bearings,
are to exceed the speed ratings by although they have high radial stiff-
more than 50 %, however, it is not only ness, an axial preload can always
necessary to consider the points out- be allowed if it can be expected that
lined above but also the following bearing overloading can be avoided
points. by the casing walls ‘‘giving” in the
axial direction.
● Use oil jet lubrication with a jet ● For ball bearings zero clearance is
speed of approximately 15 m/s. The best; a slight preload is less critical
oil should be directed at the inner for ball bearings than for the much
ring raceway or the gap between stiffer radial roller bearings.
cage and inner ring. 4
● Particularly stable cage designs When calculating the clearance in op-
should be chosen, e.g. one-piece eration it must be rememberd that the
outer ring centred machined brass clearance range quoted in the General
cages (window-type), designation Catalogue will be reduced when the
suffix ML, for cylindrical roller bearing is mounted with interference
bearings. fits and by the temperature differential
● Minimise the vibrations produced in from inner to outer ring. The Normal
the complete drive system. This bearing clearance is sufficiently large
means using bearings with increas- so that if the fits are as normally
ed accuracy of dimensions and form recommended and operating condi-
and associated components with tions are normal, a sensible operation-
correspondingly high accuracy. al clearance will be obtained. In gear-
● Take into account the critical bend- boxes, unusual operating conditions
ing and torsional vibrations when (e.g. in the cases below) often require
designing the gearbox shafts. the use of bearings with greater than
Normal internal clearance to C3 or C4.
In cases where bearings fitted with In such cases it is advisable to check
special cages or with increased ac- the operational clearance.
curacy are required, it is advisable to
contact the SKF application engin-eer- ● Bearings mounted inside gears for
ing service. which an interference fit for the outer
ring is required. This will further
Internal clearance and preload reduce internal clearance.
The clearance in a bearing in opera- ● Bearings on high-speed slim shafts
tion is important with regard to proper which will heat up much more rapid-
performance of the bearing and to ly than the casing. The temperature
proper load distribution on the rolling differential across the bearing will
elements. The following conditions then be particularly large.
should be aimed for when the bearings
have reached their operating temper-
ature.
83
● Gearboxes where the casing is well The operational clearance (mounted

cooled. Again there will be a large bearings which have reached the oper-
temperature differential across the ating temperature) can be calculated
bearings. Examples include gear- by following the scheme shown in
boxes operating out of doors where Table 8 .
ambient temperatures are low and
gearboxes having thick-walled or
fan-cooled casings.
Calculation of
operational
clearance
Bearing (designation): ..........................
Tolerances (shaft/housing bore): .......................... low high
Radial clearance (µm)

1 Bearing bore (deviation ∆dmp) .......... ..........
2 Shaft (deviation) .......... ..........
3 Theoretical interference (+) or clearance (−): Zth = Point 2 − Point 1 .......... ..........
4 Expected interference Z = Zth − smoothing1) .......... ..........
5 Expansion of inner ring:
d d/F [1 − (di/d)2]
el = Z (solid shaft) el = Z (hollow shaft) .......... ..........
F 1 − (d/F)2 (di/d)2
6 Bearing outside diameter (deviation ∆Dmp) .......... ..........

7 Housing bore (deviation) .......... ..........
8 Theoretical interference (+) or clearance (−): Zth = Point 6 − Point 7 .......... ..........
9 Expected interference: Z = Zth – smoothing1) .......... ..........
10 Compression of outer ring:
E/D [1 − (D/Da)2]
eA = Z .......... ..........
1 − (D/Da)2 (E/D)2
11 Total radial clearance reduction (Point 5 + Point 10) .......... ..........

12 Radial internal clearance before mounting (min/max) .......... ..........
13 Radial internal clearance after mounting (Point 12 − Point 11) .......... ..........
14 Thermal expansion:
∆t
et = 1,1 dm (µm, with dm in mm) .......... ..........
100
15 Radial clearance in operation (Point 13 − Point 14) .......... ..........
Axial clearance (µm) for double row angular contact bearings

11a Total axial clearance reduction (Point 11 × cot α) .......... ..........
12a Axial internal clearance before mounting (min/max) .......... ..........
13a Axial internal clearance after mounting (Point 12a − Point 11a) .......... ..........
14a Thermal expansion:
∆t
eta = 1,1 dm cot α (µm, with dm in mm) .......... ..........
100
15a Axial clearance in operation (Point 13a − Point 14a) .......... ..........
1)
For guideline values for smoothing see Table 9.
84
Guideline values Table 9
for smoothing of Influence of temperature on the
mating surfaces Nominal Smoothing adjustment of angular contact
diameter bearings
over incl The inner rings of bearings mounted
mm µm on gearbox shafts are generally hotter
than the outer rings. This will reduce
– 50 4 the set clearance or increase the set
preload. The influence of temperature
50 100 6 on the adjustment can be calculated
100 – 8 using the following equation provided
both shaft and casing are of steel or
a material with the same thermal
behaviour
∆a = 11 × 10−6 [0,5 (dmA T∆A cot αA

Adjustment values for single
row angular contact bearings + dmB T∆B cot αB) ± T∆m L]
Single row angular contact bearings
(angular contact ball bearings, taper where
roller bearings) are adjusted axially on Da = reduction in axial internal
mounting. The adjustment values clearance caused by tem-
(axial clearance or preload) are based perature differential, mm
on the operating conditions when the dm = mean bearing diameter
bearing is under load and has reached = 0,5 (d + D), mm
its operating temperature. Light pre- L = mean distance between
load is recommended for gearbox bearings (➔ fig 15 ), mm
bearings and provides the following α = contact angle of bearing, 4
advantages compared with clearance: degrees (cot α = 1,5/e;
for values of bearing-
● accurate shaft guidance, dependent factor e see
● increased stiffness, SKF General Catalogue)
● extended calculated and service T∆A, T∆B = temperature differential from
lives, inner to outer ring across
● quiet running, and bearings A and B, °C
● compensation for settling move- T∆m = temperature differential
ments in operation. from shaft to casing, °C
As the bearings have to be adjusted The plus sign is used for bearings
on mounting, i.e. in an unloaded con- arranged face-to-face, the minus sign
dition at ambient temperature, the for bearings arranged back-to-back.
changes produced when the bearings
are in operation must be considered
when determining the adjustment
values. The main influences are those
of temperature and deformations.
Definition of
distance between
bearings
Fig 15
L L
A B A B
Face-to-face arrangement Back-to-back arrangement
85
If the value of the temperature dif- Influence of deformations on the

ferential T∆ is not known from experi- adjustment of angular contact
ence or measurements, the following bearings
guideline values can be used: When considering deformations it
should be remembered that the total
T∆ = 5 to 10 °C for slowly rotating gear- resilience is influenced not only by the
box shafts resilience of the bearings but also by
T∆ = 10 to 20 °C for intermediate the elasticity of the associated compo-
shafts and moderate speeds nents, the fits and the elastic deforma-
T∆ = 20 to 30 °C for slim high-speed tions of all other components through
shafts which the forces pass, including the
T∆ = 30 to 40 °C for high-speed input gearbox support. The effects of the
shafts and well-cooled gearboxes different stiffnesses of the associated
components can be represented in
preload force/preload path diagrams.
The three preload force/preload path
diagrams shown in Diagrams 1 to 3
show the influence of casing stiffness
Preload force/pre- Diagram 1

load “path” dia-
grams for a bear-
ing arrangement Preload force F0
(Design 1)
Bearing B Bearing A
Bearing position A
Bearing total
position B
total
Ka
F01
Axial displace-
δ a1 ment δa
δ1
Preload force/pre- Diagram 2

grams for a bear-
ing arrangement Preload force F0
(Design 2)
Bearing B Bearing A
Bearing position A
total
Bearing
position B
total
Ka
F02
Axial displace-
δ a2 ment δa
δ2= δ1
86
Diagram 3 Preload force/pre-

grams for a bear-
Preload force F0 ing arrangement
Bearing B Bearing A (Design 3)
Bearing position A
Bearing position B total
total
Ka
F01 =
F03
Axial dis-
δ a3 placement δa
δ3
on the axial displacement δa for the the preload in order to limit the axial
pinion shaft shown in fig 16 as a re- displacement.
sult of the external force Ka. Using the application example
In all three cases, the bearing stiff- shown in fig 17 (a bevel/spur gear)
ness and the external force Ka are the the choice of adjustment (axial clear-
same. The casing in case 1 is very stiff ance, zero clearance or preload) will
whereas the casings in cases 2 and 3 be discussed. 4
are less stiff. Cases 2 and 3 differ only The locating bearings for the bevel
in the preload. Whereas in case 2 the pinion shaft have axial clearance
preload path d is kept constant with because the temperature differential
respect to case 1, for case 3, the pre- from shaft to casing is relatively large
load force F0 is the same as for case 1. as the speed is high and the pinion
Irrespectively of whether the preload shaft has a small mass. Also the bear-
path or the preload force is kept con- ings are arranged in the (hook-shaped)
stant, the axial displacement δa will sleeve and this arrangement is relatve-
change depending on the casing stiff- ly stiff in the axial direction.
ness. Thus it is imperative that the The intermediate shaft bearings and
total resilience at the bearing positions those on the output (power take-off)
is taken into account when determining shaft can be either clearance-free or –
Fig 16 Pinion shaft

bearing arrange-
B A ment
Ka
δa
87
Bevel/spur gear-
box bearing depending on casing stiffness – even fig 16 . Whereas the life of bearing A
arrangements be adjusted to preload. The reason for which is subjected to the external force
this is that the speeds are low (less Ka immediately drops with increasing
frictional heat), the masses of the shafts preload, bearing B will achieve its
are relatively large, and the axial stiff- maximum life when it has a slight
ness of the casing is lower. In fact, preload.
because of the axial forces generated Diagram 4 shows qualitatively the
in the bearings, the casing tends to dependence of bearing life on preload
deform (bulge). and clearance. From this it will be seen
that the stiffness does not increase
Influence of adjustment on very much with increasing preload
bearing life whereas there is a risk that bearing life
The adjustment has different effects on will be shortened and there will be inc-
the life of the two bearings shown in reased friction and heat. Thus it is
advisable to choose the adjustment so
Influence on bear- Diagram 4
ing life of preload that when under load and at the operat-
and clearance ing temperature the bearing arrange-
Life ment will have virtually zero clearance.
An adjustment to give a distinct pre-
load should only be chosen if the oper-
Bearing A ating conditions (loads, temperatures,
deformations) are accurately known,
so that the preload force can be deter-
Bearing B
mined using sophisticated computer
programs.
Preload Clearance
88
When selecting the bearings there-

fore, not only must the complete bear-
ing designation (cage design, bearing
clearance) be established, but informa-
tion regarding adjustment values, oil
flow rates and minimum load must also
be given to production and assembly
as well as to the end user, so that
proper bearing performance can be
guaranteed.
89
5 Lubrication and maintenance
Grease lubrication . . . . . . . . 92
Oil lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Lubrication and
maintenance
Rolling bearings will only perform reliably
when they are adequately lubricated. The lub-
ricant prevents intermetallic contact between
rolling elements, raceways and cage and also
protects the bearing surfaces against corrosion.
The importance of lubrication can be seen from
the fact that of all premature bearing failures,
some 80 to 90 % are caused by faulty lubrica-
tion and/or contamination. Long experience
indicates that the same estimate holds true for
gearbox bearings. 5
The task of the gearbox designer to load and speed but is also affected
choose the most suitable method of by changes in ambient temperature.
lubrication as well as the most suitable Since, generally, only one method of
lubricant is made more difficult be- lubrication and one lubricant are to
cause of the different and varying de- be used for a gearbox, the optimum
mands on lubrication which exist for will never be achieved. To find the best
one and the same gearbox. Generally, compromise all the demands regarding
the lubrication must not only be appro- lubrication and lubricant properties
priate for the bearings but also for the must be weighed against each other.
gears. Additionally, the operating con- The explanations and recommenda-
ditions for the individual bearings in a tions given in the following may be
gearbox are often very different. One helpful.
type of lubrication can be the optimum
for high-speed, lightly loaded bearings,
but unsuitable for heavily loaded bear-
ings which rotate slowly. The operating
temperature, which has a significant
influence on the quality of the lubrica-
tion, is often not only dependent on the
91
Grease lubrication
Grease lubrication Greases

The following properties must be con-
The most important advantages of sidered when selecting an appropriate
grease lubrication are: grease.
● good protection against corrosion as Base oil viscosity

the grease adheres well to the bear- Generally speaking, the base oil vis-
ing surfaces; cosity of a grease can be used to calcu-
● the efficiency of seals against ex- late the adjusted rating life Lna, see
ternal contaminants is reinforced; SKF General Catalogue. This viscosity,
● there is little risk of leakage; ν, should preferably be greater than
● reliable lubricant supply – particularly the required viscosity ν1, both viscos-
when operation is intermittent – as ities being at the bearing operating
the grease is retained at the bearing temperature.
position;
● freedom from maintenance for Consistency
lubricated-for-life bearings. Greases of consistency 2 and 3 are
generally used for rolling bearing lub-
From this it is possible to define the rication. Greases with lower consist-
main areas where grease lubrication ency are easier to pump; those with
can be employed in gearboxes. It is higher consistency are easier to retain
used mostly for small units and particu- at the bearing position. At low temperat-
larly for geared motors, and the gears ures soft greases of consistency 0 or 1
are also grease lubricated. Small gear- may be used, but special grease supply
boxes may often be used in varying arrangements must then be made
positions (horizontal, vertical or in- (e.g. 100 % grease fill, or a central
clined at an angle). In such cases lub- lubrication unit and short relubrication
ricant supply is more reliable if grease intervals). For gearboxes subjected to
is used rather than oil bath lubrication. vibrations or which are arranged verti-
Sealing arrangements can also be cally, a consistency 3 grease with high
simpler if grease is used. The life mechanical stability is preferable.
requirements are often very moderate When ‘‘gearbox greases” are used
for small units and if they are only for small gearboxes, lubrication is a
used for short periods at a time, they type of ‘‘dip” lubrication. The greases
will require no maintenance, being have a consistency of 0 or 00.
literally lubricated for life.
For oil bath lubricated vertical gear- Temperature range
boxes it is sensible to grease the upper The expected operating temperature
bearings as the amount of oil splashed should lie within the temperature range
up is generally inadequate. The grease permitted for the grease. When the
can be retained in position by baffle temperature is too low, the grease will
plates. not have sufficient lubricating properties
and when it is too high, ageing will be
accelerated. An increase of 15 °C
halves the original relubrication inter-
val.
Load carrying ability and wear

protection
For heavily loaded bearings (C/P < 10,
e.g. bearings on the intermediate and
output shafts) or in cases where a fully
separating lubricant film is not present
(κ < 1), EP greases are used. As the
effect of some EP additives may be
detrimental to bearing life, it is advis-
able to contact the lubricant supplier
for recommendations.
92
Grease lubrication
Protection against corrosion thickener of the old and new greases

Usually gearboxes are well protected are compatible. When a combination
against the penetration of water. Never- of oil and grease lubrication is used
theless the presence of water or (e.g. grease lubricated bearings and oil
moisture cannot be completely preven- lubricated gears) the lubricants should
ted as differences in temperature allow also be compatible with each other if
condensation to form. Since any water negative results are to be avoided.
in the rolling contacts of a bearing will This is particularly important when syn-
quickly destroy the bearing surfaces, thetic gear oils and mineral oil based
only greases having good rust inhibit- bearing greases are used.
ing properties should be used.
Oil bleed
A grease must bleed oil to allow the
formation of a lubricant film in the rol-
ling contact. At low temperatures con-
siderable bleeding is advantageous to
ensure lubricant supply. At very slow
speeds grease will be pushed away
from the raceways and will no longer
participate in bearing lubrication. Oil
will not bleed to the raceways so that
starvation will occur in the rolling con-
tact. Consequently, oil lubrication is to
be preferred for very slow speed oper-
ation. A much more moderate oil
bleed is preferred at higher temper-
atures (> 80 °C) in order to give long
relubrication intervals.
Miscibility
If, for some reason, it is necessary to 5
change to another grease it should be
checked whether the base oil and SKF greases
93
Grease lubrication
SKF greases cation intervals are in the range one

The SKF range of lubricating greases week to six months and the quant-
covers nearly all the requirements for ities required are up to 500 g. This
gearbox bearing lubrication. These means that manual relubrication
quality greases were specially devel- can be used for bearings with out-
oped for bearing lubrication. The most side diameters up to 420 mm.
important technical data will be found ● For larger bearings (D > 420 mm),
in the SKF General Catalogue. Table larger quantities of grease (G >
1 gives recommendations regarding 500 g), or shorter relubrication
the particular suitability of the various intervals than one week, a continu-
greases for different gearbox applica- ous supply of grease is more reliable
tions. and also more economic. This is also
true where the number of bearings
Methods of grease lubrication to be grease lubricated is large.
The selection of the lubrication method
is basically governed by the relubrica- When designing the grease supply,
tion interval which can be determined care should be taken to ensure that
using the information given in the SKF grease cannot escape at the supply
General Catalogue. side of the bearing, i.e. that it is com-
pelled to pass through the bearing. At
● In cases where the relubrication the opposite side of the bearing, the
interval is longer than the expected emerging used grease will prevent
service life of the bearings a single contaminants from entering the bear-
grease fill will suffice. This presup- ing. For double row bearings, the most
poses that the grease can be retain- efficient method is to supply the grease
ed in the bearings and that any oil via the lubrication holes in the outer
bled from the grease cannot escape ring or, for paired taper roller bearings,
through openings below the bear- through the lubrication holes in the
ings. Lubrication for life has only intermediate ring.
been found suitable for small and
medium-sized bearings (bearing
outside diameter up to 240 mm).
● Manual relubrication using a
grease gun is suitable when relubri-
Suitable SKF lubri- Table 1
cating greases for
gearbox bearings SKF grease Use, properties
Designation
LGMT 2 Small bearings (outside diameter D up to approx. 62 mm)

Light to moderate loads
Moderate temperatures up to 80 °C (max 120 °C)
Low friction, quiet, good protection against corrosion
LGMT 3 Medium-sized bearings (outside diameter > 62 mm up to approx. 240 mm)

Moderate loads
Multi-purpose grease, good protection against corrosion
LGEP 2 Heavily loaded roller bearings

Good protection against corrosion
LGEM 2 Heavily loaded roller bearings at low speeds

Water repellant
LGLT 2 Small, lightly loaded bearings at high speeds

Low temperatures down to −20 °C
Low friction, water repellant
LGHQ 3 High temperatures above 80 up to 150 °C

Moderate loads
Moderate speeds
Water repellant
94
Oil lubrication
Oil lubrication Load carrying ability, wear protection

EP oils (lubricating oils CLP to DIN
Gearbox bearings are generally oil 51 517) are preferred for the lubrication
lubricated when the gears are to be of spur, bevel and planetary gearboxes.
oil lubricated and it is simpler to use a As some EP additives have a detri-
single lubricant. The use of oil lubrica- mental effect on bearing life and EP
tion for bearings has the following oils also have varying load carrying
advantages: ability and wear protection properties,
it is advisable to contact the lubricant
● oil can remove heat when bearings supplier for recommendations regard-
operate at high speeds and high ing the particular application.
temperatures;
● at very slow speeds and under Protection against corrosion,
heavy loads, oil penetrates to the behaviour in presence of water
bearing surfaces more easily than The rust inhibiting lubricating oils CLP
grease; to DIN 51 517 provide enhanced pro-
● less maintenance is required in tection against corrosion as they have
respect of supplying oil to the bear- good surface wetting properties. Free
ing position than for grease lubrica- water in the rolling contact is extremely
tion, so that operational reliability is damaging even when the actual
enhanced; amounts are very small. This is par-
● the intervals between oil changes ticularly true of bearings where the
are longer than the grease relubri- proportion of sliding is high (e.g. hea-
cation intervals, particularly for vily loaded spherical roller bearings
medium and large-sized bearings; and
● changing oil is simpler than chan- all bearings subjected to centrifugal
ging grease. force). It is thus desirable that the oil
will emulsify the small quantities of
Lubricating oils water which cannot be avoided.
The following lubricant properties
should be considered when selecting Behaviour in presence of air
the oil. At moderate to high speeds there is a 5
danger of air becoming mixed into
Viscosity the oil (foaming). Gear oils should be
Preferably the viscosity of the oil ν capable of expelling dispersed air and
should be greater than the required oil should not be able to form a stable
viscosity ν1, both viscosities being at foam.
the bearing operating temperature
(see under adjusted rating life in the Ageing
SKF General Catalogue). When deter- Lubricating oils oxidise as a result of
mining the appropriate viscosity for the external influences, mainly high tem-
different bearing requirements (speeds, peratures and exposure to air. This
temperatures etc.) in a gearbox, as oxidation is catalysed (accelerated) in
well as for gear lubrication, it is advis- the presence of some metals such as
able, if κ values < 1 are found for some copper or iron (wear particles). Anti-
of the positions, to err on the side of oxidant additives will slow down the
higher viscosity for the compromise process. Synthetic lubricating oils are
solution. more resistant to oxidation than min-
The intention is to improve the lub- eral oils, but are not always as good
rication conditions for the heavily load- in respect of lubricant film formation.
ed bearings rotating at slow speed at Synthetic oils are used for worm gears
the expense of generating more friction, because of lower friction, and for gears
because of the higher viscosity, in the which are to be used in a wide range
high speed bearings. The operating of temperatures, e.g. wind turbine
viscosity and lubricant film formation gears.
can be influenced by selecting an oil
of the appropriate viscosity class, but
also by cooling.
95
Oil lubrication
the casing walls is collected. The feed

Oil lubrication methods to the bearings should be designed
When selecting the method of lubrica- to lead the oil through the bearings
tion the first aim should be to ensure a before it flows back to the sump. If the
reliable supply of lubricant to the bear- feed is on the seal or cover side, then
ings. The oil mist inside a gearbox is the drainage should be laterally
not sufficient as bearings in modern displaced and should be positioned
gearboxes are heavily loaded and sufficiently high so that the oil must
under conditions of lubricant starvation pass through the bearings but at the
will wear and fatigue prematurely. The same time, any surplus oil can run off
most used methods are described in without impinging on the seals. This
the following. also supports oil circulation and
exchange at the bearing position on
Oil bath lubrication the cover side, thus improving cooling
This method is commonly used for (➔ fig 1 ).
gears operating at peripheral speeds If there is a risk that insufficient oil
of up to 15 m/s. The oil level should will be caught by the oil pockets, the oil
reach the centre of the lowest rolling supply can be improved by providing
element. Greater depths mean losses baffle plates or wipers.
because of churning and higher friction. Bearings with asymmetrical cross
This is often accepted for small and section which dip into oil have a pump-
medium-sized vertical gears (for oscil- ing action by virtue of their design,
lation and agitation, and submerged and this can contribute to cooling.
units) where the bearings may be fully Appropriate feed and return ducts
submerged. should be provided.
Bearings which are arranged above
Oil supply and the surface of the oil must be supplied
return ducts for oil with oil which is captured by oil pockets
bath lubrication or grooves where the oil running down
96
Oil lubrication
Circulating oil ● To guarantee that the bearings are

Circulating oil lubrication should be lubricated right at the start, the oil
considered above all when supply leads must be dimensioned
to provide oil even when the gear-
● circulating oil is to be used for the box is first started up. There is other-
gears, wise a risk that oil will only arrive at
● the oil is to be used for heat re- positions where the feed cross sec-
moval, tion is larger (e.g. for the gears).
● speeds are high to prevent rapid ● To prevent the oil nozzles from be-
ageing of the oil, coming blocked they should have an
● oil bath lubrication will not provide opening diameter of at least 1,5 mm.
enough oil for the bearings, e.g. on Where oil pressures are high a suit-
vertical or inclined shafts, able throttle length can be used to
● very large quantities of oil are re- limit the oil flow. The throttle should
quired for oil bath lubrication be- be positioned immediately in front of
cause of the size of the gearbox, or each bearing, so that larger and
● the oil is to be continuously ‘‘fresh- thus more reliable oil lead diameters
ened” by filtration or centrifuging. can be used with high oil pressures.
● Bearings operating at high speeds
When designing for oil circulation the produce turbulence which rejects
following points should be remem- the oil. Care must be taken to see
bered. that the oil can actually enter the
bearing at the feed side. Double row
bearings are usually best lubricated
via the lubrication holes in the outer
ring (or paired single row taper roller
bearings through the holes in the
Oil jet lubrication intermediate ring). For single row
bearings the oil should preferably
be supplied at the cover side.
5
Oil jet lubrication
At very high speeds (n × dm > 106) oil
jet lubrication must be used. As shown
in fig 2 , the oil should be injected in
the gap between inner ring and cage
at high speed (v ≈ 15 m/s). Rejected
oil must be able to run off between the
bearings so that heat can be removed
without excessive losses.
97
Maintenance
Maintenance Monitoring lubrication

Lubricant supply and lubricant quality
Gearbox bearing maintenance consists should be checked. To check the lub-
basically of monitoring the operating ricant supply, simple means are avail-
conditions in the gearbox and of monit- able, e.g. a dip stick for oil bath lubrica-
oring the condition of the bearings tion. For circulating oil lubrication, on
themselves. This preventive mainten- the other hand, complex systems are
ance should enable early identification required to check the oil pressure, flow
of any malfunction so that remedial rate and temperature at each lubrica-
action can be taken. Such action should tion position, and include an alarm
either prevent premature ending of the system. When choosing the monitoring
bearing service life or, at least, enable arrangements lubricant supply relibility
bearing replacement to be planned so should be weighed against the costs
that downtime costs can be minimised. which would occur in the event of a
For for analysis of Table 2
used oil
Machine: ............................................................. Oil:........................................................................
Type: ................................................................... Oil quantity in system: .......................................
No.: ...................................................................... Sample taken, date:............................................
Location: ............................................................ Sample taken by: ................................................
Property or Test method Unit Analysis Data for

guideline value (Standard) result for new oil
used oil
Colour, appearance Visual inspection – .................. ..................
Smell – – .................. ..................
Density at 15 °C DIN 51 757 kg/m3 .................. ..................
Kinematic viscosity DIN 51 562 mm2/s

at 40 °C .................. ..................
at 80 °C .................. ..................
at 100 °C .................. ..................
Acid number DIN 51 588, Part 1 mg KOH/g .................. ..................
Water content ISO 3733 % wt/wt .................. ..................
Solid contaminants e.g. IR % wt/wt .................. ..................

> 3 µm analysis
(quantity + type) DIN 51 451
Four ball test DIN 51 350, Part 4 N .................. ..................
Special test(s): ...............................................................................................................................................
Remarks: ...............................................................................................................................................
Characteristic Deviation from new oil

As new slight moderate large very large
Ageing
Contamination
Recommended action: .........................................................................................................................
............................................ ................................................ ..............................................................

Test date Test carried out at Tested by (Signature)
98
Maintenance
blockage. Oil quality can be monitored then recommended that the gearbox
by measuring the temperature in the be inspected to determine the source
oil bath, in the return duct and in the of the wear and to take remedial action
bearings either continuously or at to prevent further damage.
regular intervals. This allows the oper- Wear particle analysis also enables
ating viscosity to be evaluated. Addi- gear wear and seal efficiency to be
tionally, regular analysis of the used monitored.
oil is recommended (according to the
scheme shown in Table 2 , for Monitoring vibrations
example). The results should always Bearings in operation generate slight
be compared to a similar analysis of noise even when in perfect condition.
the fresh oil. This running noise could be listened to
by holding a wooden stick to the hous-
Monitoring load ing and to the ear. In the past this was
The power consumption of the drive is one of the most reliable monitoring
sometimes used as a measure of the methods in spite of human failings
load, but this is not suitable for monit- such as limited frequency spectrum,
oring bearing loads, as the peak loads subjective judgements and inability to
are very much smoothed in the record- relate frequencies heard to causes.
ing. Better information is obtained by With the methods and equipment avail-
measuring torque and measuring able today diagnoses can be made
stress at the root of the gear teeth. and condition monitoring is effective.
A reliable bearing load measurement Suitable proven procedures are:
can only be obtained by using special
force measuring bearings equipped ● comparative measurements on
with strain gauges. As this method is similar gearboxes under the same
very expensive, it is generally only operating conditions, allowing dif-
used for new developments or during ferences to be observed, and/or
damage analysis. ● trend measurements on one gear-
box at given intervals, again allow-
Monitoring temperature ing differences to be noticed.
An indication of incipient bearing 5
damage will be given quite late by the SKF has developed special measuring
temperature, and at low speeds there techniques as well as the requisite
may be no indication at all. Therefore, equipment allowing a broad spectrum
measuring bearing temperature is only of vibrations to be monitored and
appropriate for condition monitoring of making it possible to analyse the type
bearings at high speeds, and then only and magnitude of incipient damage in
as an indication of trends. To be of any a bearing. The more important items
use, the temperature should preferably of equipment and associated software
be measured directly on the bearing are described in the following.
rings.
Temperature measurements of bear- SKF VIB Pen
ings, gearbox and oil are very suitable This very handy vibration measuring
for monitoring the operating viscosity probe (dimensions 150 × 20 × 18 mm;
of the oil. This allows important deduc- mass 80 g) can measure vibration
tions to be made with respect to the velocities of 0,1 to 99,9 mm/s in the
operating conditions. fre-quency range 10 to1 000 Hz. It is
poss-ible to determine whether the
Monitoring wear machine vibrations are in the range
Under favourable operating conditions allowed according to ISO 3945.
(adequate lubricant film thickness and Bearing dam-age can only be identifi-
clean lubricant) bearings will operate ed when it is in an advanced stage
practically without wear. Where there using this method. However, as inad-
is a clear indication that particles of missible vibrations will considerably
bearing steel are among the wear par- shorten bearing life, the VIB Pen is a
ticles the conclusion is that a bearing simple and reliable instrument for
has already become damaged. It is maintenance personnel to monitor
operating conditions.
99
Maintenance
Photograph (from
left to right)
SKF SEE Pen SKF Multilog SKF Thermo Pen,
The SEE Pen measures differences in This is a system for plant monitoring SKF Picolog, SKF
vibration acceleration with time in the with permanently installed sensors and SEE Pen, SKF VIB
Pen (upper), SKF
frequency range 250 to 350 Hz. The is more powerful than the SKF Microlog.
Tachometer
signals in the high frequency band It can be used for the continuous (lower), SKF Oil
which are measured, evaluated and monitoring of rolling bearings and Check, SKF
recorded using the SEE (Spectral machines. Stethoskop, SKF
Emitted Energy) method are only pro- In practice, the SEE method indic- Microlog
duced by ‘‘damaged” bearings. The ates incipient bearing damage earlier
indications may be for lubricant starva- and more clearly than other methods.
tion, contamination or actual bearing This is particularly true when the
damage. Thus the SEE Pen is an ideal damage consists of micro cracks
complement to the VIB Pen (both have and/or cold welding (lubricant starva-
the same dimensions) to give simple tion) in the rolling contact. Because of
and reliable bearing condition monit- the early warning, the user has time to
oring. Here too, trend measurements plan bearing replacement.
e give the optimum evaluation.
SKF Picolog
-
This compact, breast-pocket size
apparatus combines the measuring
capabilities of the VIB and SEE Pens
and can also be used for ‘‘enveloping”.
The peaks of the enveloped bearing
noise are evaluated. The distance be-
tween peaks enables the bearing com-
ponent which is damaged to be identi-
fied. Up to 500 recorded measure-
- ments and alarm levels can be stored
and downloaded on to a PC. Evalu-
ations can be made using PRISM2 Jr.
software. The Picolog is an excellent
tool for bearing condition monitoring.
SKF Microlog
This portable equipment (mass 2 kg)
can be used for frequency analysis
and gives optimum evaluation in the
low and high-frequency range (SEE).
The Microlog is a powerful data log
with a display panel. The PRISM2
software permits a variety of evalua-
tion methods to be used, e.g.waterfall
diagrams, storage of critical frequen-
cies, determination of alarm levels etc.
The Microlog can be used with hand-
held sensors or with permanently
installed sensors. As it records electric-
al signals, it can be used to measure
not only vibration velocities and accel-
erations but also distances, pressures
and temperatures.
100
Maintenance
101
6 Recommended fits
Recommended fits
The rings of rolling bearings deform elastically

under load and adapt themselves to their seat-
ings. To be able to fully exploit the load carry-
ing capacity and accuracy of the bearings, the
bearing rings must be supported with sufficient
firmness and accuracy by the associated com-
ponents. Where the load rotates with respect to
the ring, the ring should have an interference fit
on or in its seating (shaft, housing or gear). This
prevents a loosening of the bearing fit and the
ring will not ‘‘wander” under load. Fretting cor-
rosion will also be prevented. It is not possible
to provide a sufficiently tight fit for the ring
simply by clamping it axially. 6
The selection of fits is dealt with in The recommendations given in

detail in the SKF General Catalogue. Tables 2 and 3 are for special
The following recommendations cases which differ from the above, but
complement the catalogue information, which are typical of certain types of
giving the usual, proven tolerances for gear.
high-performance gearboxes for the
most common case, i.e. rotating inner
ring load and stationary outer ring load
(➔ Table 1 ).
103
6 Recommended fits
Recommended
fits, form and
position
tolerances for
gearbox bearings
Table 1
Bearing type Shaft tolerances Housing tolerances

(for solid steel shafts and rotating inner ring load) (for steel, spheroidal graphite or
grey cast iron and stationary outer ring load)
Shaft diameter (mm) Housing bore diameter (mm) Bearing

≤18 (18) (40) (100) (140) (200) (280) >500 ≤300 (300) >500 arrangement
to to to to to to to
40 100 140 200 280 500 500
Deep groove ball bearings j5 k5 k5 k6 k6 m6 m6 m6 J6 J6 H7 Locating

(for light loads P ≤ 0,06 C) G6 G7 F7 Non-locating
Angular contact
ball bearings
single row (adjusted j6 k6 k6 m6 m6 n6 p6 p6 J6 J6 H7 Cross located
via the outer ring)
double row,
paired single row j5 k5 k5 m5 m5 m5 – – J6 J6 H7 Locating
(series 32, 33, 70 BG,
72 BG, 73 BG)
double row (series 33 D) k5 k5 m5 m5 – – – – J6 J6 H7 Locating
Four-point contact
ball bearings k5 k5 m5 m5 n6 – – – approx. 1 mm radial Thrust
clearance (locate to bearing
prevent turning)
Cylindrical roller bearings k5 k5 m5 m5 n6 p6 p6 r6 J6 J6 H7 –

(N, NU, NJ designs)
Spherical roller bearings k5 k5 m5 m5 n6 p6 p6 r6 J6 J6 H7 Locating

G6 G7 F7 Non-locating

single row (adjusted k6 k6 m6 m6 n6 p6 p6 – J6 J6 H7 Cross located
via the outer ring)
double row,
paired single row k5 k5 m5 m5 n6 p6 p6 r6 J6 J6 H7 Locating
Thrust ball bearings h6 h6 h6 h6 h6 g6 g6 g6 G7 G7 F7 Thrust

bearing
Spherical roller
thrust bearings j6 (for all diameters) approx. 1 mm radial Thrust
clearance bearing
Form and position

tolerances, surface
roughness
Cylindricity IT5/2 (for all diameters)
Rectangularity IT5 (for all diameters)
Permissible surface 4 4 4 6,3 6,3 6,3 6,3 10 8 10 16

roughness Rz (µm)
When shaft tolerances p6 and r6 are used, use of the oil injection method will ease dismounting
104
6 Recommended fits
Housing
tolerances
for special cases
Table 2
Case Housing tolerance

Housing bore diameter (mm)
< 300 (300) > 500
to
500
Deep groove ball bearings and spherical roller bearings as non-locating bearings G7 F7 E8
with rotating inner ring load and stationary outer ring load and a temperature
differential > 10 °C from outer ring to housing (e.g. when heating via the shaft,
high speed operation, very solid housings, low environmental temperatures)
Deep groove ball bearings and spherical roller bearings, cross located, with
rotating inner ring load and stationary outer ring load
a) axial displacement of outer ring in housing required, e.g. with thermal G6 G7 F7

expansion of shaft and axially stiff housing
b) axial displacement of outer ring not required, e.g. when thermal expansion J6 J6 H7
of shaft is compensated by elastic deformation of housing without
overloading bearings
Cylindrical roller bearings of NUP design with rotating inner ring load and
stationary outer ring load
a) locating bearing G6 G7 F7
b) non-locating bearing J6 J6 H7
Locating bearings and cylindrical roller bearings under oscillating outer ring JS6 JS6 JS7
load, e.g. when weight and tooth force act in different directions. Special
steps have to be taken when mounting in one-piece (non-split) housings
(e.g. heating the housing)
Shaft tolerances ➔ Table 1
105
6 Recommended fits
Tolerances for
bearings mounted
in gear hubs
Table 3
Bearing type Bearing arrangement Shaft tolerance Housing tolerance

Shaft diameter (mm) Housing bore diameter (mm)
< 120 (120) (250) < 120 (120) > 250
to to to
250 315 250
Deep groove ball Shifting gear j5 js6 k6 M61) M61) N61)

bearings (inner and outer rings rotate at
same speed)
Planetary gear, intermediate gear h5 h6 h6 M61) M61) M61)

(outer ring rotates, inner ring stationary)
Spherical roller bearings Planetary gear, intermediate gear h5 h6 h6 N6 P61) R61)

Cylindrical roller (outer ring rotates, inner ring stationary)
bearings
Cylindrical roller Planetary gear, intermediate gear see Table 1 N61) P61) R61)
bearings (rotating inner and outer ring load)
Cylindrical roller bearings Planetary gear, intermediate gear h5 h6 h6 G62) F62) F62)
without outer ring (planetary gear rotates, inner ring
stationary)
Cylindrical roller bearings Planetary gear, intermediate gear f62) e62) e62) N6 P6 R6
without inner ring (outer ring rotates)
Needle roller and Planetary gear, intermediate gear g52) g52) – G62) G62) –
cage assemblies
1)
C3 internal clearance required
2)
For raceways on the planetary pins and in gear hubs,
the deviation from circularity should be < 25 % of actual diameter tolerance;
the deviation from cylindricity should be < 50 % of actual diameter tolerance;
the surface roughness should be Ra ≤ 0,2 µm and Rz ≤ 1 µm;
hardness should be 58 to 64 HRC
and the case depth when finish machined should be Eht = 0,5 √Dw – 0,5 ≥ 0,3 mm, with Dw = rolling element diameter in mm
Measuring a
distance for
adjustment of
taper
roller bearings
106
6 Recommended fits
107
7 Mounting and dismounting
bearings
Adjustment of angular
contact bearings . . . . . . . . .109
7 Mounting and dismounting bearings
Adjustment of angular contact bearings
Mounting and dismounting

bearings
Rolling bearings are precision products which
must be carefully handled when they are being
mounted if they are to perform properly. Equal
care must be taken when dismounting if the
bearings are going to be re-used.
Basically, there are three things to

remember when mounting:
Adjustment of angular
contact bearings
● cleanliness, to prevent damage to When mounting angular contact bear-
the raceways by contamination and ings (angular contact ball bearings,
corrosion; taper roller bearings) in gearboxes,
● accuracy of all associated compon- particular attention should be paid to
ents, to avoid additional forces the adjustment of the bearings as this
arising from deformations and to determines not only the performance
avoid imprecise running; of the bearings themselves but also
● the force used to mount and dis- the guidance of the shafts and conse-
mount should not be applied via the quently the load carrying ability of the 7
rolling elements and cage; direct gears. The calculation of the adjust-
blows should be avoided so that ment value is described in the section
indentations and initial damage to ‘‘Dimensioning rolling bearings” (➔
the raceways are prevented. Section 4). The choice of adjustment
method depends on whether the bear-
The SKF General Catalogue contains ings are to be adjusted to axial clear-
more detailed instructions regarding ance or to preload.
mounting and dismounting based on
the above requirements. A compre-
hensive selection of SKF tools, equip-
ment and maintenance products are
presented in publication 4100 “SKF
Bearing Maintenance Handbook”. SKF
also offers various training courses
and seminars for personnel involved in
mounting and dismounting.
109
Adjustment of taper roller ● Rotate the shaft by hand (if neces-

bearings arranged face-to-face sary by turning the input or output
to axial clearance shaft) and press the outer ring of the
First it is necessary to determine the upper bearing downwards in its seat-
zero clearance condition as accurately ing until all the rollers in the bearing
as possible. This is rather difficult for turn about their own axes. The bear-
taper roller bearings on horizontal ing arrangement is now free of clear-
shafts, as the weight of the shaft and ance.
gears displaces the outer rings axially ● The requisite length of the spigot in
because of the taper angle, so that the the cover is determined from a =
clearance-free roller end/flange con- x – s where s is the required axial
tact, which is decisive for the adjust- clearance.
ment, is difficult to achieve. The pro- ● Mount the finish machined cover
cedure described in the following is with shims (if necessary).
well proven and is very much simpler
and more reliable. A device is used to The weight of the shaft and gears acts
swing the gear shaft into the vertical as a measuring load on the lower
position for the adjustment (➔ fig 1 ). bearing. The upper bearing is free of
clearance as soon as all the rollers
● Mount the inner rings on the shaft rotate about their own axes when the
(take care that the rings abut the shaft is rotated.
shoulders correctly). A limited range of matched single
● Push the outer rings over the roller row taper roller bearings (DF execu-
and cage assemblies. tion) is available. The bearing pairs are
● Place the shaft with bearings in the supplied with an appropriate interme-
gearbox which should be horizont- diate ring, so that adjustment is not
ally positioned required. The user can also match
● Mount the top of the casing. single row taper roller bearings him-
● Screw down the cover at one side of self; the requisite width of the interme-
the casing. diate ring, taking into consideration the
Adjustment of ● Tilt the casing so that the shaft is fit, is determined as follows.
taper roller
bearings arranged supported via the bearing by the
face-to-face with cover. ● Mark the bearing components as
axial clearance shown in fig 2 using an electric pen.
● Place bearing A on three gauge
Fig 1 blocks (➔ fig 3 ).
● Apply the measuring load:
300 N for bearings with outside dia-
meter up to and including 240 mm
a 500 N for bearings with outside dia-
meter over 240 mm.
x ● Turn outer ring 1A by hand so that
the rollers abut the flange of the Marking of bearing
inner ring 1A. components
Fig 2
a=x–s
s = requisite 1B 1B
axial
clearance
1
C
1A 1A
110
Fig 3 FB1 + FB2 + FB3

FB = (mm)
3
Measuring ● Determine the width of the interme-

load
diate ring from
C = FA + FB + ∆a (mm)
F Gauge
block
where ∆a = maximum axial clearance
according to Table 1 or for special
bearings, the maximum value of the
special clearance.
The following tolerances apply to
the width C of the intermediate ring:
Measuring the
standout F
● Measure the standout FA at three 0/–0,04 mm for bearings with outside
points using the gauge blocks. diameter D ≤ 140 mm and 0/–0,06
● Calculate the average value of FA mm for berings with outside diameter
from D > 140 mm
FA1 + FA2 + FA3 The axial clearance values given take

FA = (mm)
3 into account the clearance reduction
caused by the interference fit when the
● Repeat the above procedure for shaft tolerances (also given in Table
bearing B. 1 ) are applied. These tolerances are
● Calculate the average value of FB required for rotating inner ring loads
Maximum stand-
from which are moderate to heavy. The ard axial clearance
outer ring with its point load should of matched taper
have a seating to tolerance J6 or H7. roller bearings
Table 1
Bearing bore Shaft Maximum standard axial clearance ∆a before mounting

diameter tolerance
d Bearings of series
over incl. 329 320 X 330 331 302,322 332 303,323 313 (X)
mm – mm
– 30 k5 – 0,120 – – 0,140 0,150 0,170 0,100

30 40 k5 0,200 0,140 – 0,160 0,160 0,170 0,180 0,110
40 50 m5 0,220 0,160 0,220 0,180 0,180 0,170 0,200 0,120
50 65 m5 0,250 0,180 0,240 0,200 0,200 0,190 0,220 0,140

65 80 m5 0,270 0,200 0,290 0,240 0,220 0,220 0,260 0,170
80 100 m5 0,310 0,230 0,390 0,270 0,270 0,260 0,300 0,170 7
100 120 m5 0,330 0,280 0,400 0,300 0,280 0,300 0,340 0,190
120 140 m5 0,370 0,300 0,400 – 0,300 – 0,390 0,220
140 160 n6 0,430 0,330 0,400 – 0,330 – 0,430 0,240
160 180 n6 0,430 0,370 – – 0,370 – 0,450 –

180 190 n6 0,430 0,400 – – 0,400 – 0,500 –
190 200 n6 0,450 0,400 – – 0,400 – 0,500 –
200 225 p6 0,500 0,450 – – 0,450 – 0,550 –

225 250 p6 0,500 0,500 – – 0,500 – 0,600 –
250 280 p6 0,600 0,550 – – 0,550 – – –
280 300 p6 0,700 0,600 – – 0,600 – – –

300 340 p6 0,700 0,650 – – 0,650 – – –
340 360 p6 0,750 0,750 – – – – – –
111
There will be virtually no reduction in basis or a collective method based on

clearance from any deformation of the tolerances has not found acceptance
outer ring. If looser fits are chosen, in gearbox applications as there is
then the axial clearance value will be excessive scatter of the preload force
slightly larger when the bearing is when these methods are used.
mounted. If a tighter fit is used then it However, the friction torque can be
is advisable to check that the bearing used indirectly for adjustment as will
will not be axially preloaded. be seen from the following.
Adjustment of taper roller ● The friction torque of the two bear-

bearings arranged face-to-face ings which are to be adjusted
to preload against each other is measured in
When adjusting bearings which are a rig for a given preload force and at
to have a preload it is necessary to a defined measuring speed and
achieve a certain preload force. If the recorded.
preload distance (path) method is to ● After mounting the bearings in the
be used, it is first necessary to meas- gearbox, the preload force is applied
ure the force and displacement in the by inserting shims until the recorded
mounted condition. This is the only friction torque is obtained. The
way to be able to take housing resili- speed and lubrication conditions
ence into account when determining the when the torque is measured must
appropriate distance. Fig 4 shows the be the same as when the original
principle of a force/distance measure- recorded measurements were made.
ment. Diagram 1 shows the result of
such measurements. The characteris- This method is advantageous particu-
tic curve has been extrapolated (brok- larly when large numbers of bearings
en line) for small loads because the are to be adjusted if it is easier to
measurements are not sufficiently measure torque than force at the
accurate under such light loads. Using assembly position.
the characteristic curve the desired
preload can be set by fitting a shim or Adjustment of taper roller Recorded force/
Principle of
spacer ring. bearings arranged back-to-back path diagram for
force/path The adjustment of taper roller bear- To ensure sufficient accuracy, the shaft/bearing/
measurement ings using the friction torque as a bearing rings should always be mount- housing system
Fig 4 Diagram 1
Axial force
Axial load
Axial preload path s
112
Fig 5 ● Rest the shaft with bearing H and

casing in a vertical position on
the face of the pinion (➔ fig 5 ).
● Turn the casing by hand so that the
rollers of bearing H abut the inner
ring flange.
● Measure the standout X at three
points (dial gauge).
Bearing V ● Calculate average standout X.
X Spacer ring
B (shim) X1 + X2 + X3
X = (mm)
3
● Lay bearing V on measuring plate

(➔ fig 6 ).
● Apply measuring load:
Bearing H meter D up to and including 240 mm
meter D > 240 mm.
● Rotate the outer ring of bearing V by
hand so that the rollers abut the
inner ring flange.
● Measure the standout Z at three
Adjustment of
taper roller ed against a fixed abutment face which points (dial gauge).
bearings arranged is at right angles to the shaft axis. For ● Calculate average standout Z.
back-to-back on taper roller bearings arranged back-to-
pinion shaft back, therefore, a shim (spacer ring) is
Z1 + Z2 + Z3
inserted between one of the two bear- Z = (mm)
3
ings and a shaft shoulder. The follow-
ing procedure allows the shim to be
fitted without having to mount and dis- ● Determine reduction in axial clear-
mount bearing V; this would be rather ance ∆p taking into account the
difficult because of the requisite inter- shaft fit from
ference fit of the bearing on the shaft.
∆p = ∆r 0,4 cot α
● Mount outer ring of bearing H in the
casing. 1,5
= ∆r 0,4 (mm)
● Mount the inner ring with roller and e
cage assembly of bearing H on the
pinion shaft and introduce the shaft where 7
Measurement of into the casing. ∆p = reduction in axial clearance, mm
standout Z ∆r = radial interference, mm
e = bearing-related calculation fac-
Fig 6 tor, see bearing tables in SKF
General Catalogue
Measuring load
● Determine width B of shim for a
given adjustment of the pinion bear-
ing arrangement using
Z
B = X + Z + ∆p ± ∆a (mm)
Bearing V
where
Measuring
plate + ∆a is the desired axial clearance
and − ∆a is the desired preload.
113

Rolling Bearings in Industrial Gearboxes

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Rolling Bearings in Industrial Gearboxes

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Rolling bearings in

Printed in Denmark on environmentally

1 Industrial gearboxes – overview 1

2 Bearing types for industrial gearboxes 2

3 Design of bearing arrangements 3

4 Dimensioning the bearing arrangement 4

5 Lubrication and maintenance 5

7 Mounting and dismounting bearings 7

This Handbook is intended to provide the gearbox designer

Spherical roller bearings ............................................... 26

Taper roller bearings ...................................................... 28

Spherical roller thrust bearings .................................... 30

3 Design of bearing arrangements............................. 33

Shafts in bevel gearboxes ............................................. 44

Shafts in worm gearboxes............................................. 50

Shafts and gear wheels for planetary gearboxes........ 56

4 Calculation of bearing arrangement ....................... 65

Determination of external forces .................................. 66

Calculation of bearing loads ......................................... 74

Dimensioning the bearing arrangement ...................... 76

5 Lubrication and maintenance.................................. 91

Oil lubrication ................................................................. 95

7 Mounting and dismounting bearings .................... 109

8 Application examples ............................................. 115

SKF has developed the Channel concept in

The SKF Engineering & Research Centre

Selecting the gears . . . . . . . 14

Designing the casing . . . . . . 15

Types of gearbox take-off. The coupling housing has no

Geared transmissions ● Gear wheels with straight cut teeth

Spur gear unit

● With straight cut teeth (➔ fig 4 a),

● Bevel gears with helical teeth

Fig 7 Simple planetary

● the volume, weight and centrifugal

These advantages have led to a

Demands made on Selecting the gears

Designing the casing

● forces and supporting moments

The increase in load carrying capacity

Deep groove ball bearings . 18

Angular contact ball

Cylindrical roller bearings . . 22

CARB™ roller bearings . . . . 24

Spherical roller bearings . . . 26

Taper roller bearings . . . . . . 28

Spherical roller thrust

Bearing types for

Deep groove ball These improvements also bring ad-

The dominant role for deep groove ball

● spur gear units (drive shaft and hol-

● optimised raceway geometry

Angular contact ball The improvements made by SKF

Single direction implies that axial

Cylindrical roller Practically all improvements made

● heavily loaded shafts in spur

Two versions of CARB are available:

Shafts and gear wheels

Shafts in bevel gearboxes . . 44

Shafts in worm gearboxes . 50

Shafts and gear wheels for

It is quite possible that several different bearing

therefore appropriate when selecting bearings,

bending and bearing misalignment must