Bumper (car)

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For other uses, see Bumper.

Chrome plated front bumper on a 1958 Ford Taunus

Rear bumper with integrated tail lamps and a rubber-faced guard

A bumper (American English)[1] or shield (British English)[2] is a structure attached to or integrated

with the front and rear ends of a motor vehicle, to absorb impact in a minor collision, ideally
minimizing repair costs.[3] Stiff metal bumpers appeared on automobiles as early as 1904 that had a
mainly ornamental function.[4] Numerous developments, improvements in materials and technologies,
as well as greater focus on functionality for protecting vehicle components and improving safety
have changed bumpers over the years. Bumpers ideally minimize height mismatches between
vehicles and protect pedestrians from injury. Regulatory measures have been enacted to reduce
vehicle repair costs and, more recently, impact on pedestrians.

Contents

 1History
 2Physics
 3Pedestrian safety
 4Height mismatches
o 4.1Truck vs. car
o 4.2SUV vs. car
 5Regulation
o 5.1International standards
 5.1.1Pedestrian safety
  5.1.2Bull bars
 5.1.3Off-road bumpers
o 5.2United States
 5.2.1First standards 1971
 5.2.2Regulatory effect on design
 5.2.3Zero-damage standards 1976
 5.2.4Stringency reduced in 1982
o 5.3Canada
 6See also
 7References
 8Further reading

History[edit]
Bumpers were at first just rigid metal bars.[5] The first bumper appeared on a vehicle in 1897, and it
was installed by Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau-Fabriksgesellschaft, a Czech carmaker. The construction
of these bumpers was not reliable as they featured only a cosmetic function.[6]. Early car owners had
the front spring hanger bolt replaced with ones long enough to be able to attach a metal bar.[4] G.D.
Fisher patented a bumper bracket to simplify the attachment of the accessory.[4] The first bumper
designed to absorb impacts appeared in 1901. It was made of rubber and Frederick Simms gained
patent for this invention in 1905.[7]

1955 Cadillac Eldorado with heavily chromed "Dagmar" or "bullet" bumper

Bumpers were added by automakers in the mid-1910s, but consisted a strip of steel across the front
and back.[8] Often treated as an optional accessory, bumpers became more and more common in the
1920s as automobile designers made them more complex and substantial.[8] Over the next decades,
chrome plated bumpers became heavy, elaborative, and increasingly decorative until the late 1950s
when US automakers began establishing new bumper trends and brand specific designs.[8] The
1960s saw the use of lighter chrome plated blade-like bumpers with a painted metal valance filling
the space below it.[8] Multi-piece construction became the norm as automakers
incorporated grilles, lighting, and even rear exhaust into the bumpers.
On the 1968 Pontiac GTO, General Motors incorporated an "Endura" body-colored plastic front
bumper designed to absorb low-speed impact without permanent deformation. It was featured in a
TV advertisement with John DeLorean hitting the bumper with a sledgehammer and no damage
resulted.[9] Similar elastomeric bumpers were available on the front and rear of the 1970-71 Plymouth
Barracuda.[10] In 1971, Renault introduced a plastic bumper (sheet moulding compound) on
the Renault 5.[11]
Current design practice is for the bumper structure on modern automobiles to consist of a plastic
cover over a reinforcement bar made of steel, aluminum, fiberglass composite, or plastic.[12] Bumpers
of most modern automobiles have been made of a combination of polycarbonate (PC)
and Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) called PC/ABS.[citation needed]
Ford Model A (1927–31) with metal bumpers

1955 Lincoln Capri with large, heavily chromed mid 20th century bumper

Pontiac GTO (1968-1972) with pioneering elastomeric bumper designed to absorb low speed impact without
permanent deformation

Physics[edit]
Bumpers offer protection to other vehicle components by dissipating the kinetic energy generated by
an impact. This energy is a function of vehicle mass and velocity squared.[13] The kinetic energy is
equal to 1/2 the product of the mass and the square of the speed. In formula form:

A bumper that protects vehicle components from damage at 5 miles per hour must be four times
stronger than a bumper that protects at 2.5 miles per hour, with the collision energy dissipation
concentrated at the extreme front and rear of the vehicle. Small increases in bumper protection
can lead to weight gain and loss of fuel efficiency.
Until 1959, such rigidity was seen as beneficial to occupant safety among automotive
engineers.[14] Modern theories of vehicle crashworthiness point in the opposite direction, towards
vehicles that crumple progressively.[15] A completely rigid vehicle might have excellent bumper
protection for vehicle components, but would offer poor occupant safety.[16]

Pedestrian safety[edit]
Bumpers are increasingly being designed to mitigate injury to pedestrians struck by cars, such
as through the use of bumper covers made of flexible materials. Front bumpers, especially, have
been lowered and made of softer materials, such as foams and crushable plastics, to reduce the
severity of impact on legs.[17]

Height mismatches[edit]

Damage from a low-speed but high-level impact; the energy-absorbing front bumper system is
completely bypassed and untouched.

For passenger cars, the height and placement of bumpers is legally specified under both US and
EU regulations. Bumpers do not protect against moderate speed collisions, because during
emergency braking, suspension changes the pitch of each vehicle, so bumpers can bypass
each other when the vehicles collide. Preventing override and underride can be accomplished
by extremely tall bumper surfaces. [18] Active suspension is another solution to keeping the
vehicle level.
Bumper height from the roadway surface is important in engaging other protective
systems. Airbag deployment sensors typically do not trigger until contact with an obstruction,
and it is important that front bumpers be the first parts of a vehicle to make contact in the event
of a frontal collision, to leave sufficient time to inflate the protective cushions.[19]
Energy-absorbing crush zones are completely ineffective if they are physically bypassed; an
extreme example of this occurs when the elevated platform of a tractor-trailer completely misses
the front bumper of a passenger car, and first contact is with the glass windshield of the
passenger compartment.
Truck vs. car[edit]
Underride collisions, in which a smaller vehicle such as a passenger sedan slides under a larger
vehicle such as a tractor-trailer often result in severe injuries or fatalities. The platform bed of a
typical tractor-trailer is at the head height of seated adults in a typical passenger car, and can
cause severe head trauma in even a moderate-speed collision. Around 500 people are killed this
way in the United States annually.[20]
Following the 1967 death of actress Jayne Mansfield in an auto/truck accident, the US
government agency NHTSA recommended requiring a rear underride guard, also known as a
"Mansfield bar", an "ICC bar", or a "DOT (Department of Transportation) bumper".[21][22] They are
required to be not more than 22 in (56 cm) from the road. The trucking industry has been slow to
upgrade this safety feature,[19] and there are no requirements to repair ICC bars damaged in
service.[23] However, in 1996 NHTSA upgraded the requirements for the rear underride
prevention structure on truck trailers, and Transport Canada went further with an even more
stringent requirement for energy-absorbing rear underride guards,[24] and in July 2015 NHTSA
issued a proposal to upgrade the US performance requirements for underride guards.[25]
Many European nations have also required side underride guards, to mitigate against lethal
collisions where the car impacts the truck from the side.[20] A variety of different types of side
underride guards of this nature are in use in Japan, the US, and Canada.[26] However, they are
not required in the United States.[20]
SUV vs. car[edit]
Modest mismatches between SUV bumper heights and passenger car side door protection have
allowed serious injuries at relatively low speeds.[19][27] Unlike trucks, SUVs with bumpers more
than 22 in (56 cm) from the road are illegal in the United States, as are vehicles with the fuel
tank located behind the rear axle (see Ford Pinto). In the United States, NHTSA is studying how
to address this issue as of 2014.[28]
Beyond lethal interactions, repair costs of passenger car/SUV collisions can also be significant
due to the height mismatch.[29] This mismatch can result in vehicles being so severely damaged
that they are inoperable after low speed collisions.[30]

Regulation[edit]
In most jurisdictions, bumpers are legally required on all vehicles. Regulations for automobile
bumpers have been implemented for two reasons – to allow the car to sustain a low-speed
impact without damage to the vehicle's safety systems, and to protect pedestrians from injury.
These requirements are in conflict: bumpers that withstand impact well and minimize repair
costs tend to injure pedestrians more, while pedestrian-friendly bumpers tend to have higher
repair costs.[31]
Although a vehicle's bumper systems are designed to absorb the energy of low-speed collisions
and help protect the car's safety and other expensive components located nearby, most
bumpers are designed to meet only the minimum regulatory standards.[32]
International standards[edit]
International safety regulations, originally devised as European standards under the auspices of
the United Nations, have now been adopted by most countries outside North America. These
specify that a car's safety systems must still function normally after a straight-on pendulum or
moving-barrier impact of 4 km/h (2.5 mph) to the front and the rear, and to the front and rear
corners of 2.5 km/h (1.6 mph) at 45.5 cm (18 in) above the ground with the vehicle loaded or
unloaded.[28][33]
Pedestrian safety[edit]
European countries have implemented regulations to address the issue of 270,000 deaths
annually in worldwide pedestrian/auto accidents.[17]
Bull bars[edit]
Specialized bumpers, known as "bull bars" or "roo bars", protect vehicles in rural environments
from collisions with large animals. However, studies have shown that such bars increase the
threat of death and serious injury to pedestrians in urban environments,[34] because the bull bar is
rigid and transmits all force of a collision to the pedestrian, unlike a bumper which absorbs some
force and crumples. In the European Union, the sale of rigid metal bull bars which do not comply
with the relevant pedestrian-protection safety standards has been banned.[35]
Off-road bumpers[edit]
Off-road vehicles often utilize aftermarket off-road bumpers made of heavy gauge metal to
improve clearance (height above terrain), maximize departure angles, clear larger tires, and
ensure additional protection. Similar or identical to bull bars, off-road bumpers feature a rigid
construction and do not absorb (by plastic deformation) any energy in a collision, which is more
dangerous for pedestrians than factory plastic bumpers. The legality of the aftermarket off-road
bumpers varies significantly from country to country (from state to state in the USA).
United States[edit]
The United States has focused on protecting consumers from repair costs, using government
legislation.
First standards 1971[edit]

Front and rear bumpers on Chrysler A platform cars before

(left, 1971) and after (right, 1974) the US 5-mph bumper

standard took effect. The 1974 bumpers protroude farther

from the body and the rear one no longer contains

the taillamps.

In 1971, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) issued the country's
first regulation applicable to passenger car bumpers. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No.
215 (FMVSS 215), "Exterior Protection," took effect on 1 September 1972—when most
automakers would begin producing their model year 1973 vehicles. The standard prohibited
functional damage to specified safety-related components such as headlamps and fuel system
components when the vehicle is subjected to barrier crash tests at 5 miles per hour (8 km/h) for
front and 2.5 mph (4 km/h) for rear bumper systems.[36] The requirements effectively eliminated
automobile bumpers designs that featured integral automotive lighting components such as tail
lamps.
In October 1972, the US Congress enacted the Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Saving Act
(MVICS), which required NHTSA to issue a bumper standard that yields the "maximum feasible
reduction of cost to the public and to the consumer".[37] Factors considered included the costs
and benefits of implementation, the standard's effect on insurance costs and legal fees, savings
in consumer time and inconvenience, as well as health and safety considerations.
The 1973 model year passenger cars sold in the US used a variety designs. They ranged from
non-dynamic versions with solid rubber guards, to "recoverable" designs with oil and nitrogen
filled telescoping shock-absorbers.[38]
The standards were further tightened for the 1974 model year passenger cars, with standardized
height front and rear bumpers that could take angle impacts at 5-mile-per-hour (8 km/h) with no
damage to the car's lights, safety equipment, and engine. There was no provision in the law for
consumers to 'opt-out' of this protection.
Regulatory effect on design[edit]
Cars for the US market were equipped with bulky, massive, heavy, protruding bumpers to
comply with the 5-mile-per-hour bumper standard in effect from 1973 to 1982.[39] This often
meant additional overall vehicle length, as well as new front and rear designs to incorporate the
stronger energy absorbing bumpers.[40] Passenger cars featured gap-concealing flexible filler
panels between the bumpers and the car's bodywork causing them to have a "massive, blockish
look".[41] A notable exception that year was the new AMC Matador coupe that featured "free
standing" bumpers with rubber gaiters alone to conceal the retractable shock absorbers.[41]

US (left) and rest-of-world (right)

 Front bumpers on Mercedes-Benz W116 (top), BMW E28 5 Series

(middle), Lamborghini Countach (bottom). The US bumpers are

larger and protrude farther from the bodywork.

All 'domestic' cars had this feature, and imported vehicles were also required to comply. With
very few exceptions, such as Volvo 240 and Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow, foreign manufacturers
only sold this feature in markets that mandated it, the U.S. and Canada, so 'rest-of-the-world'
models had a notably distinct appearance.
US bumper height requirements effectively made some models, such as the Citroën SM,
suddenly ineligible for importation to the United States. Unlike international safety regulations,
U.S. regulations were written without provision for hydropneumatic suspension.
Zero-damage standards 1976[edit]
The requirements promulgated under MVICS were consolidated with the requirements of
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard Number 215 (FMVSS 215, "Exterior Protection of
Vehicles") and promulgated in March 1976. This new bumper standard was placed in the United
States Code of Federal Regulations at 49 CFR 581, separate from the Federal Motor Vehicle
Safety Standards at 49CFR571. The new requirements, applicable to 1979-model
year passenger cars, were called the "Phase I" standard. At the same time, a zero-damage
requirement, "Phase II", was enacted for bumper systems on 1980 and newer cars. The most
rigorous requirements applied to 1980 through 1982 model vehicles; 5 miles per hour (8 km/h)
front and rear barrier and pendulum crash tests were required, and no damage was allowed to
the bumper beyond a 3⁄8 in (10 mm) dent and 3⁄4 in (19 mm) displacement from the bumper's
original position.[42]
 Freestanding 5-mph shock-absorbing zero-damage bumper on 1976 AMC Matador coupe

All-wheel-drive "cross-over" cars such as the AMC Eagle were classified as multi-purpose
vehicle or trucks, and thus exempt from the passenger car bumper standards.[43]
Stringency reduced in 1982[edit]
The recently elected Reagan administration had pledged to use cost–benefit analysis to reduce
regulatory burdens on industry, which impacted this standard.[44]
As discussed in detail under Physics, prior to 1959, people believed the stronger the structure,
including the bumpers, the safer the car. Later analysis led to the understanding of crumple
zones, rather than rigid construction that proved deadly to passengers, because the force from
impact went straight inside the vehicle and onto the passenger.[14]
NHTSA amended the bumper standard in May 1982, halving the front and rear crash test
speeds for 1983 and newer car bumpers from 5 miles per hour (8 km/h) to 2.5 miles per hour
(4 km/h), and the corner crash test speeds from 3 miles per hour (5 km/h) to 1.5 miles per hour
(2 km/h).[45] In addition, the zero-damage Phase II requirement was rolled back to the damage
allowances of Phase I. At the same time, a passenger car bumper height requirements of 16 to
20 inches (41–51 cm) was established for passenger cars.[42]
NHTSA evaluated the results of its change in 1987, noting it resulted in lower weight and
manufacturing costs, offset by higher repair costs.[46]
Despite these findings, consumer and insurance groups both decried the weakened bumper
standard. They presented the argument that the 1982 standard increased overall consumer
costs without any attendant benefits except to automakers.[37][47][48][49] In 1986, Consumers
Union petitioned NHTSA to return to the Phase II standard and disclose bumper strength
information to consumers. In 1990, NHTSA rejected that petition.[50]
A market failure is created when consumers do not have the information to choose autos based
on better/worse repair costs. In the United States, this gap is helped by the Insurance Institute
for Highway Safety, which subjects vehicles to low speed barrier tests (6 mph or 9.7 km/h) and
publicizes the repair costs.[51] Car makers that do well in these tests will publicize them.[52]
As an example, in 1990 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety conducted four crash tests on
three different-year examples of the Plymouth Horizon. The results illustrated the effect of the
changes to the US bumper regulations (repair costs quoted in 1990 United States dollars):[50]

 1983 Horizon with Phase-II 5-mph bumpers: $287

 1983 Horizon with Phase-I 2.5-mph bumpers: $918
 1990 Horizon: $1,476
Canada[edit]
Canada's bumper standard, first enacted at the same time as that of the United States, was
generally similar to the 8 km/h (5 mph) US regulation. Canada mirrored U.S. design legislation in
this area, but did not revise it to 4 km/h (2.5 mph) based on the 1982 Cost Benefit Analysis. [53]
Some automakers chose to provide stronger Canadian-specification bumpers throughout the
North American market, while others chose to provide weaker bumpers in the US market,
another hindrance to private importation of vehicles between the US and Canada.[54]
In early 2009, Canada's regulation shifted to harmonize with US Federal standards and
international ECE regulations.[55] As in the U.S., consumer protection groups were upset with the
change, while Canadian regulators maintained that the 4 km/h (2.5 mph) test speed is used
worldwide and is more compatible with improved pedestrian protection in vehicle-
pedestrian crashes. [56]

See also