CHAPTER I

1. INTRODUCTION
The disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel by the friction
caused by pushing brake pads against a brake disc with a set of calipers. The brake disc
(or rotor in American English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be
made of composites such as reinforced carbon–carbon or ceramic matrix composites.
This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the
form of brake pads, mounted on a device called a brake caliper, is forced mechanically,
hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc.
Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes convert motion to
heat, and if the brakes get too hot, they become less effective, a phenomenon known as
brake fade.

Disc-style brakes development and use began in England in the 1890s. The first
caliper-type automobile disc brake was patented by Frederick William Lanchester in his
Birmingham, UK factory in 1902 and used successfully on Lanchester cars. Compared to
drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping performance, because the disc is more
readily cooled. As a consequence discs are less prone to the "brake fade"; and disc brakes
recover more quickly from immersion (wet brakes are less effective). Most drum brake
designs have at least one leading shoe, which gives a servo-effect. By contrast, a disc
brake has no self-servo effect and its braking force is always proportional to the pressure
placed on the brake pad by the braking system via any brake servo, braking pedal or
lever, this tends to give the driver better "feel" to avoid impending lockup. Drums are
also prone to "bell mouthing", and trap worn lining material within the assembly, both
causes of various braking problems.

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1.1 BRAKE DISC :

The brake disc is the component of a disc brake against which the brake pads are
applied. The material is typically grey iron,[18] a form of cast iron. The design of the disc
varies somewhat. Some are simply solid, but others are hollowed out with fins or vanes
joining together the disc's two contact surfaces (usually included as part of a casting
process). The weight and power of the vehicle determines the need for ventilated discs.
[13]
The "ventilated" disc design helps to dissipate the generated heat and is commonly
used on the more-heavily-loaded front discs.

Beginning in the 1960s on racing cars, it is now common for high-performance cars,
motorcycles and even bicycles, to have brakes with drilled holes or slots. This "cross-
drilling" is done for a number of reasons: heat dissipation, surface-water dispersal, brake
squeal elimination, mass reduction, or marketing cosmetics. An alleged disadvantage of
cross drilling for racing or other severe conditions is that the holes might become a
source of stress cracks.

Discs may also be slotted, where shallow channels are machined into the disc to aid in
removing dust and gas. Slotting is the preferred method in most racing environments to
remove gas and water and to deglaze brake pads. Some discs are both drilled and slotted.
Slotted discs are generally not used on standard vehicles because they quickly wear down
brake pads; however, this removal of material is beneficial to race vehicles since it keeps
the pads soft and avoids verification of their surfaces.

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As a way of avoiding thermal stress, cracking and warping, the disc is sometimes
mounted in a half loose way to the hub with coarse splines. This allows the disc to
expand in a controlled symmetrical way and with less unwanted heat transfer to the hub.

On the road, drilled or slotted discs still have a positive effect in wet conditions because
the holes or slots prevent a film of water building up between the disc and the pads.
Cross-drilled discs may eventually crack at the holes due to metal fatigue. Cross-drilled
brakes that are manufactured poorly or subjected to high stresses will crack much sooner
and more severely.

1.2 MOTORCYCLES AND SCOOTERS:

Lambretta introduced the first high-volume production use of a single, floating,

front disc brake, enclosed in a ventilated pressed-steel shroud and actuated by cable,
during 1964 on their range-topping GT200 scooter. The 1969 Honda CB750 introduced
hydraulic disc brakes on a large scale to the wide motorcycle public, following the lesser
known 1965 MV Agusta 600, which had cable-operated mechanical actuation. [

Unlike car disk brakes that are buried within the wheel, bike disc brakes are in the
airstream and have optimum cooling. Although cast iron discs have a porous surface
which give superior braking performance, such discs rust in the rain and become
unsightly. Accordingly, motorcycle discs are usually stainless steel, drilled, slotted or
wavy to disperse rain water. Modern motorcycle discs tend to have a floating design

3
whereby the disc "floats" on bobbins and can move slightly, allowing better disc
centering with a fixed caliper. A floating disc also avoids disc warping and reduces heat
transfer to the wheel hub. Calipers have evolved from simple single-piston units to two-,
four- and even six-piston items. Compared to cars, motorcycles have a higher center of
mass:wheelbase ratio, so they experience more weight transfer when braking. Front
brakes absorb most of the braking forces, while the rear brake serves mainly to balance
the motorcycle during braking. Modern sport bikes typically have twin large front discs,
with a much smaller single rear disc. Bikes that are particularly fast or heavy may have
vented discs.

Early disc brakes (such as on the early Honda fours and the Norton Commando) sited
the calipers on top of the disc, ahead of the fork slider. Although this gave the brake pads
better cooling, it is now almost universal practice to site the caliper behind the slider (to
reduce the angular momentum of the fork assembly). Rear disc calipers may be mounted
above (e.g. BMW R1100S) or below (e.g. Yamaha TRX850) the swinging arm: a low
mount is marginally better for CG purposes, while an upper siting keeps the caliper
cleaner and better-protected from road obstacles.

A modern development, particularly on inverted ("USD") forks is the radially

mounted caliper. Although these are fashionable, there is no evidence that they improve
braking performance, nor do they add to the stiffness of the fork. (Lacking the option of a
fork brace, USD forks may be best stiffened by an oversize front axle).

1.3 OTHER VEHICLES

Disc brakes are increasingly used on very large and heavy road vehicles, where
previously large drum brakes were nearly universal. One reason is that the disc's lack of
self-assist makes brake force much more predictable, so peak brake force can be raised
without more risk of braking-induced steering or jackknife on articulated vehicles.
Another is disc brakes fade less when hot, and in a heavy vehicle air and rolling drag and
engine braking are small parts of total braking force, so brakes are used harder than on
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lighter vehicles, and drum brake fade can occur in a single stop. For these reasons, a
heavy truck with disc brakes can stop in about 120% the distance of a passenger car, but
with drums stopping takes about 150% the distance. [26] In Europe, stopping distance
regulations essentially require disc brakes for heavy vehicles. In the U.S., drums are
allowed and are typically preferred for their lower purchase price, despite higher total
lifetime cost and more frequent service intervals.

A railroad bogie and disc brakes Still-larger discs are used for railroad cars and

some airplanes. Passenger rail cars and light rail vehicles often use disc brakes outboard
of the wheels, which helps ensure a free flow of cooling air. However, on some modern
passenger rail cars, such as the Amfleet II cars, inboard disc brakes are used. This reduces
wear from debris, and also provides protection from rain and snow, which would make
the discs slippery, and unreliable. However, there is still plenty of cooling for reliable
operation. In contrast, some airplanes have the brake mounted with very little cooling and
the brake gets quite hot in a stop, but this is acceptable as there is then time for cooling,
and where the maximum braking energy is very predictable.

1.3.1Racing[edit]

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Reinforced carbon brake disc on aFerrari F430 Challenge race car

In racing and very-high-performance road cars, other disc materials have been
employed. Reinforced carbon discs and pads inspired by aircraft braking systems such as
those used on Concorde were introduced in Formula One by Brabham in conjunction
with Dunlop in 1976.[24] Carbon–carbon braking is now used in most top-level
motorsport worldwide, reducingunsprung weight, giving better frictional performance
6
and improved structural properties at high temperatures, compared to cast iron. Carbon
brakes have occasionally been applied to road cars, by the French Venturi sports car
manufacturer in the mid 1990s for example, but need to reach a very high operating
temperature before becoming truly effective and so are not well suited to road use. The
extreme heat generated in these systems is easily visible during night racing, especially at
shorter tracks. It is not uncommon to be able to look at the cars, either live in person or
on television and see the brake discs glowing red during application.

1.4 COMPONENTS USE DISC BRAKE

1.4.1CALIPERS

GM disc brake caliper (twin-piston, floating) removed from its mounting for changing
padsnThe brake caliper is the assembly which houses the brake pads and pistons. The
pistons are usually made of plastic, aluminium orchrome-plated steel.

Calipers are of two types, floating or fixed. A fixed caliper does not move relative to
the disc and is thus less tolerant of disc imperfections. It uses one or more pairs of
opposing pistons to clamp from each side of the disc, and is more complex and expensive
than a floating caliper.

A floating caliper (also called a "sliding caliper") moves with respect to the disc, along
a line parallel to the axis of rotation of the disc; a piston on one side of the disc pushes the
inner brake pad until it makes contact with the braking surface, then pulls the caliper
body with the outer brake pad so pressure is applied to both sides of the disc. Floating

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caliper (single piston) designs are subject to sticking failure, caused by dirt or corrosion
entering at least one mounting mechanism and stopping its normal movement. This can
lead to the caliper's pads rubbing on the disc when the brake is not engaged or engaging it
at an angle. Sticking can result from infrequent vehicle use, failure of a seal or rubber
protection boot allowing debris entry, dry-out of the grease in the mounting mechanism
and subsequent moisture incursion leading to corrosion, or some combination of these
factors. Consequences may include reduced fuel efficiency, extreme heating of the disc or
excessive wear on the affected pad. A sticking front caliper may also cause steering
vibration.

Another type of floating caliper is a swinging caliper. Instead of a pair of horizontal bolts
that allow the caliper to move straight in and out respective to the car body, a swinging
caliper utilizes a single, vertical pivot bolt located somewhere behind the axle centerline.
When the driver presses the brakes, the brake piston pushes on the inside piston and
rotates the whole caliper inward, when viewed from the top. Because the swinging
caliper's piston angle changes relative to the disk, this design uses wedge-shaped pads
that are narrower in the rear on the outside and narrower on the front on the inside.

Various types of brake calipers are also used on bicycle rim brakes.

1.4.2 BRAKE PADS

Brake pads are designed for high friction with brake pad material embedded in the
disc in the process of bedding while wearing evenly. Friction can be divided into two
parts. They are: adhesive and abrasive.

Depending on the properties of the material of both the pad and the disc and the
configuration and the usage, pad and disc wear rates will vary considerably. The
properties that determine material wear involve trade-offs between performance and
longevity.

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 The brake pads must usually be replaced regularly (depending on pad material, and
drivestyle), and some are equipped with a mechanism that alerts drivers that replacement
is needed, such as a thin piece of soft metal that rubs against the disc when the pads are
too thin causing the brakes to squeal, a soft metal tab embedded in the pad material that
closes an electric circuit and lights a warning light when the brake pad gets thin, or an
electronic sensor.

Generally road-going vehicles have two brake pads per caliper, while up to six are
installed on each racing caliper, with varying frictional properties in a staggered pattern
for optimum performance.

Early brake pads (and linings) contained asbestos, producing dust which should not be
inhaled. Although newer pads can be made of ceramics, Kevlar, and other plastics,
inhalation of brake dust should still be avoided regardless of material

1.4.4 BRAKE SQUEAL

Sometimes a loud noise or high pitched squeal occurs when the brakes are applied. Most
brake squeal is produced by vibration (resonance instability) of the brake components,
especially the pads and discs (known as force-coupled excitation). This type of squeal
should not negatively affect brake stopping performance. Techniques include adding
chamfer pads to the contact points between caliper pistons and the pads, the bonding
insulators (damping material) to pad backplate, the brake shims between the brake pad
and pistons, etc. All should be coated with an extremely high temperature, high solids
lubricant to help reduce annoying squeal. This allows the metal to metal parts to move
independently of each other and thereby eliminate the buildup of energy that can create a
frequency that is heard as brake squeal, groan, or growl. Cold weather combined with
high early-morning humidity (dew) often worsens brake squeal, although the squeal
generally stops when the lining reaches regular operating temperatures.

Dust on the brakes may also cause squeal and commercial brake cleaning products are
designed to remove dirt and other contaminants.
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Some lining wear indicators, located either as a semi-metallic layer within the brake pad
material or with an external "sensor", are also designed to squeal when the lining is due
for replacement. The typical external sensor is fundamentally different from the noises
described above (when the brakes are applied) because the wear sensor noise typically
occurs when the brakes are not used.

1.4.5 BRAKE JUDDER

Brake judder is usually perceived by the driver as minor to severe vibrations

transferred through the chassis during braking. The judder phenomenon can be classified
into two distinct subgroups: hot (or thermal), or cold judder.

Hot judder is usually produced as a result of longer, more moderate braking from high
speed where the vehicle does not come to a complete stop.It commonly occurs when a
motorist decelerates from speeds of around 120 km/h (74.6 mph) to about 60 km/h
(37.3 mph), which results in severe vibrations being transmitted to the driver. These
vibrations are the result of uneven thermal distributions, or hot spots. Hot spots are
classified as concentrated thermal regions that alternate between both sides of a disc that
distort it in such a way that produces a sinusoidal waviness around its edges. Once the
brake pads (friction material/brake lining) comes in contact with the sinusoidal surface
during braking, severe vibrations are induced, and can produce hazardous conditions for
the person driving the vehicle.

Cold judder, on the other hand, is the result of uneven disc wear patterns or disc
thickness variation (DTV). These variations in the disc surface are usually the result of
extensive vehicle road usage. DTV is usually attributed to the following causes: waviness
and roughness of disc surface, misalignment of axis (runout), elastic deflection, wear and
friction material transfers

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1.4.6 BRAKE DUST

When braking force is applied, the act of abrasive friction between the brake pad
and the rotor wears both the rotor and pad away. The brake dust that is seen deposited on
wheels, calipers and other braking system components consists mostly of rotor
material Brake dust can damage the finish of most wheels if not washed off.[citation
needed]Generally a brake pad that aggressively abrades more rotor material away, such
as metallic pads, will create more brake dust.

2. BRAKE FAILURE CAUSES:

 Before you can understand brake failure, you must understand how brakes work.
 The brake system is rather like this children's song verse, "The head bone's
connected to the neck bone, the neck bone's connected to the shoulder bone ..." In
vehicles, the brake pedal is connected to the pistons, and the pistons are connected
to the brakes. Most modern cars have disc front brakes and drum rear brakes.
 Functioning brakes stop a vehicle by using friction. In this way, they are unlike the
engine, which must always be kept lubricated to run smoothly. In front brakes,
friction stops the brake calipers and pads. In rear brakes, friction hits the brake
drums and shoes.
 Several factors can interfere with this friction and lead to brake failure:

 Grease or oil on brakes causes brake failure, because it interferes with friction. If
oil leaks, it may indicate that an oil seal has failed.

2.1 HOT SPOTS:

 When the brakes overheat to a great degree, the metal in the brake rotors or drums
develops hard spots. These are known as hot spots. The hot spots resist the friction from
the brake shoes and pads. Because the shoes or pads have nothing they can grasp, there's
no friction. Consequently, braking power is lost.

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 Brakes that squeal indicate that the brake pads are wearing thin. By the time the brakes
begin making a grinding sound, they've worn down past the pads to the rotors, which will
cost more than pads to replace [source: Gray].

Do you know anyone who nervously "rides the brake" when driving? How about the
scaredy-cat driver who often stops in a panicked way? This type of driver is headed for
crystallized brake pads or shoes. Because of the heat generated over repeated overuse of
the brake, the pads and the shoes grow hard and are ineffective. Brake material has to be
flexible and able to grasp the disc or drum in order to stop the vehicle.

Now let's look at the dangers a driver faces when brakes fail.

2.2DANGERS OF BRAKE FAILURE:

Brakes function because of a special hydraulic, or liquid-based, system. Brake fluid

moves from the pedal through the brake-line system. Because liquids can't be
compressed, they move. It is this movement that pushes against the mechanism that stops
the vehicle. So when this fluid runs low, brake problems will occur.

If the brake system is failing, the vehicle may pull to one side. This situation can cause
accidents that range from fender-benders to serious collisions. You might also feel
pulling if there's been a leak of brake fluid, if the brakes aren't adjusted properly or if the
brake has locked. [source: Grey].

The most apparent danger in brake failure is the possibility of injury or death. As a result,
it is important to wear a seat belt and to be certain that guidelines for infant and child car
seats are met to ensure safety. Don't forget to be alert to and aware of pedestrians on or
near the roadway.

12
Another concern is property damage. This includes the vehicle itself but also trees, power
lines, highways signs and telephone poles. Damage to private or public property will
need to be compensated, which can affect your auto insurance premium.

Don't let the dangers of brake failure frighten you. Read on to learn what you can do in
the event of brake failure.
2.3 HOW TO HANDLE BRAKE FAILURE

Complete brake failure in modern vehicles is rare, but it can happen. This can be the
result of a defective brake system from the manufacturer, so pay attention to recall
notices. Total brake failure could also occur if all the brake fluid has leaked out.
Fortunately, most of us would notice either a leak or a sound before that happened.

One common temporary brake failure occurs when the vehicle hydroplanes. This
happens when the brakes are wet, usually after driving through a deep puddle. If you
experience this, remove your foot from the accelerator. Hold the steering wheel straight.
Do not swerve or jerk the vehicle. This way, the vehicle will slow down and you can
regain control of the car

Perhaps the most important action a driver can take when the brakes fail is to remain
calm. Panicking doesn't help. The next step -- the first action step -- is to lift the foot from
the accelerator. Notice the flow of traffic and any obstacles or pedestrians, and look for a
place to pull over safely. Then try downshifting to a lower gear, whether your vehicle is
an automatic or a standard. This is called engine-braking. As the vehicle slows down,
keep shifting to lower gears.

Once the vehicle is moving at 30 mph or less, you can try engaging the parking
brake. Because it is a separate system from the regular brakes, it should still work.

As a final resort, put the car in reverse. But remember, this could destroy the car, so
never use it as a first response.

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 Try to maneuver the car off the road if possible as you come to a complete stop.
Turn your hazards on and call or wait for help.

We've discussed dealing with break failure in your car - but what if more than your
car is involved. What if your brakes fail while you're towing something? Read on to find
out.

3 .MANUFACTURING OF BRAKE DISC:

3.1Introduction:

   In modern days, the use of metal is vast and there are various methods of
manufacturing a product from only use of pure molten metal or from any other state of
metal as well. When considering the different methods of manufacturing, most popular
methods used in large industries are as follows:
    -Metal Casting
    -Metal Cutting
    -Metal Forming and shaping
    -Fabrication and welding
The above mentioned are few that are used by industries to produce different products
that could make up a machine such as a vehicle, electronic components or other day to
day tools.
In this particular report will be concentrating more about an automotive part which
involves metal casting in manufacturing process of it, this part is necessary for any
vehicle to have and that particular part would be the brake disc of an automobile.

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When talking about the braking systems of an automobile it has two different braking
systems which would be disc brake system and drum brake system.

The disc brake system is one important system to look at since it is not only used in
automotive industries but also in locomotives and in jumbo jets as well and hence
elaborating more on disc brake system, the main components of a disc brake are the
Brake disc or Rotor, Brake pads, Caliper

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 In this report I would be hoping to elaborate more about the brake disc (rotor) and
how it is manufactured, the materials used and its quality and defects compared to other
brake discs which are made from different materials.

The disc brake system is an assembly product and these parts are manufactured
separately through different procedures to one anothe

3.2.THE MATERIALS USED FOR THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS.

The disks are 99% made of cast iron with nodular graphite. It is the best compromise
between cost, eco-friendliness and performance. Graphite in the nodular form aids
thermal dissipation without degrading the mechanical properties too much.

The main issue against the adoption of any other solution is cost. No one wants to and
accepts to increase the cost of components in automobiles in our era even for an
exceptional performance. Costs need to be cut. So unless you can find something cheaper
that cast iron (and that's a real challenge), cast iron will be (until electro-magnetic braking
will be able to recover all the kinetic energy, that is

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Apart from those mentioned Carbon ceramic brakes, Composite material made of carbon
and a ceramic material with ceramic material as the matrix reinforced with carbon. These
are getting very popular nowadays and are increasingly being used in sports cars.

Advantages
Very little wear
 No fading is experienced, even under high load.
 The corrosion resistance
 The disk mass is only 40% of a metal disk. This translates into less unsprung
and rotating mass.

3.3 CAST IRON :

 is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. The alloy

constituents affect its colour when fractured: white cast iron has carbide impurities
which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast iron has graphite flakes
which deflect a passing crack and initiate countless new cracks as the material
breaks.
 Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements, with the amount
ranging from 2.1–4 wt% and 1–3 wt%, respectively. Iron alloys with less carbon
content are known as steel. While this technically makes these base alloys ternary
Fe–C–Si alloys, the principle of cast iron solidification is understood from
the binary iron–carbon phase diagram. Since the compositions of most cast irons
are around the eutectic point of the iron–carbon system, the melting temperatures
closely correlate, usually ranging from 1,150 to 1,200 °C (2,100 to 2,190 °F),
which is about 300 °C (572 °F) lower than the melting point of pure iron.
 Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. With its relatively low
melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability, resistance to
deformation and wear resistance, cast irons have become an engineering
material with a wide range of applications and are used in pipes, machines
and automotive industry parts, such as cylinder heads (declining usage), cylinder

17
 blocks and gearbox cases (declining usage). It is resistant to destruction and
weakening by oxidation (rust).
 The earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered
by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient
China for warfare, agriculture, and architecture. During the 15th century, cast iron
became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during
the Reformation. The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s byAbraham
Darby III, and is known as The Iron Bridge. Cast iron is also used in
the construction of buildings.

3.4EQUIPMENT/TOOLS USED FOR MANUFACTURING

 The equipments and tools used in this process will be talked more about in the
manufacturing details section of this report but some of the main tools used in as follows:

 Furnaces and a press

 Permanent molds
 Crucibles
 Drilling machines 
 Computer guided machines

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The Manufacturing Details of Ceramic Composite Brake discs.
The manufacturing method used in production of brake discs is the metal casting
process and to be more specific, it is the permanent mold casting process that takes place
in the production of these brake discs that usually gives out a good surface finish for the
end product.2.

To begin this process following ingredients, short carbon fibers, carbon powder and heat
molded resin must be mixed together. 
  Then using an automated machine this mixture is poured into a permanent aluminum
mold cavity which is in shape of a brake disc (disc ring), until it is half full, Fig. 4 shows
the permanent aluminum mold. Once it is half full, the mold is removed and workers
have to insert aluminum cores into a belt with gaps around the mold that allows the cores
to be inserted into the mold. These cores will form a ventilation cavity in the disc ring
(brake disc) to prevent the disc from overheating.

19
  4.  The mold again moves back into the automated machine to fill the other half of the
mold cavity with the  rest of the mixture that was poured into first half of the cavity.
Once the cavity is full it is leveled using   roller and then using the cover or the other half
of the permanent mold, it is covered and is pressed lightl   to compact the contents inside.

5.    Then the fully covered mold is sent to a large press which applies 20 tons of pressure
and heating to  almost of 400oF. This heat and pressure compact the carbon fiber and
resin into plastic and makes it stronger. 
6.   Once the mold is cooled down to be handled, submerge it in cold water for 5-8
minutes which cools the  disc ring completely, enabling them to pull out the cores that
were inserted for the ventilation purposes.

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7.   Once all the cores have been removed, remove the cover of the mold and pull out the
disc ring from the mold as shown in Fig.. Then using the computer guided machines
smooth out all the rough edges on th   disc ring and drill tiny ventilation holes.
8.   They then put the disc ring into an oven and on over two days it gradually heats it to
1800oF. This would then cause the chemical change which transform plastic into carbon.

9. Then take a crucible which is a high heat resistant container and place five mounts
inside so that it can hold the disc ring on them without having the disc ring to touch the
base of the crucible. Fig. shows the crucible and the five mounts. Once the disc is
mounted on the crucible, place a funnel at the center of the disc ring and fill it with a fine
silicon powder.

21
Then they load the crucible into a furnace for 24hours and allows it to gradually heat the
disc ring to temperature of 3000oF until the silicon is melted completely. This liquid
silicon is then drawn into the disc ring by the pores of the framework of the disc ring and
forms a completely new material called silicon carbide which makes the disc ring
exceptionally hard. 
Once after it is removed from the furnace, a drill machine bores the mounting holes on
the disc ring. And then the disc ring goes to a chamber to receive a coat of protective
paint. This paint is used to shield the carbon and disc ring from oxygen and this process is
very critical since at high temperatures, oxygen burns carbon. Hence this anti oxidation
process increases the lifetime of the disc ring.  Once the protective player is applied, with
the help of a computer guided robot arm, moves the disc and polishes the entire disc
surfaces

After when all the polishing has been completed, a computer guided machine thoroughly
inspects the disc ring surface by taking high definition photographs to further examine
the molecular and crystal structures to detect any defects. Fig. 10 shows how the

22
photographs are taken using the laser technology. 

Quality considerations and defects that would occur in production. For quality

considerations, as I have mention in the above section, a computer guided machine
produces high definition photographs to examine the quality of the disc rings by looking
into the microstructures of the disc rings. 

These disc rings manufactured from the materials mentioned in the above sections, will
not subject to wear and they are also heat and rust resistant during day to day use.
These disc rings also ensures very high consistent frictional values throughout the
deceleration process of a vehicle. As the only disadvantage of these disc rings would be
its high production cost compared to the production cost that would take to manufacture a
cast iron brake disc but this would not seem to be a great disadvantage since ceramic
composite brake discs have a longer life existence when compared to the ones that are
made from cast iron. 

As for defects, there would be very little defects that could be found in disc ring since
the process is all computerized and checked through computer guided machines but if
there would be any defects they would have to come from the sections that were man
handled for example the section on which the cores are inserted, these cores must be
properly inserted and to make sure each and every core must be hammered inside by

23
using a hammer if this would not be done properly, there would be defects arising inside
the disc.

Chemical composition :

and Fly ash is taken as reinforced particulate. Tensile strength-Tensile test is conducted
with Universal testing machine and the specimen is prepared as per ASTM
standard dimensions.

Hardness -Hardness is the resistance to surface indentation (e.g., a local dent or scratch).
Thus, it is a measure of plastic deformation. The Hardness of the composites samples
were measured using a Leitz, Brinnel hardness measuring machine with a load of 100 N.
The specimen prepared as per ASTM standard and the dimension of the specimen is
19X19 mm Wear--Wear test is carried out with pin-on disc setup with ASTM standard
dimension. To check the wear rate on different loading conditions.

24
COMPARISON OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
It is observed from the comparison of results that the mechanical properties of hybrid
aluminium composite is superior to the monolithic Aluminium metal.

25
26
 CHAPTER 4
4. METHODOLOGY:
The following methodology is being adopted to carry out the above mentioned
objectives:
1. The ansys achieved by aircraft landing gear and CAD model was designed by CATIA
V5
2. Using ANSYS the overall thermal distribution are computed and tried to validate with
classical theory.
3. Using these equivalent properties of the composite the natural frequency computations
are done.
Fig.3.1 shows present methodology.

27
4 INTRODUCTION TO CATIA

CATIA which stands for computer aided three dimensional interactive

applications is the most powerful and widely used CAD (computer aided design)
software of its kind in the world. CATIA is owned/developed by Dassault system of
France and until 2010, was marketed worldwide by IBM.

The Following general methodologies and best practices can be followed in the
modeling of components in CATIA. The Below methodologies and Best practices
followed will help in capturing the design intent of the Feature that is to be Modeled and
will make the design robust and easy to navigate through.

 Specification tree structuring

 Renaming appropriate features & bodies in specification tree
 Handling input data & foreign bodies
 Dimensioning & constraining in sketches
 Parameters and relations.

4.1 SPECIFICATION TREE STRUCTURING

a) The SPECIFICATION TREE is the place where the histories of the features
modeled are captured. So it is highly important to have an organized tree structure
which gives ease for navigation of the features when any modification takes place.

b) The SPECIFICATION TREE in a structured manner. The Machining Body

features are grouped under one body and base block features in another and so on
with appropriate feature operations.
c) It is also important in structuring the reference and construction element in the tree
in an orderly manner.

28
 d) The points that would be often used (like the Global Origin Point 0, 0, 0,) can be
created under Points GEOMETRICAL SET and any reference planes defining
legal limits can be created in the planes GEOMETRICAL SET.

4.2 RENAMING APPROPRIATE FEATURES & BODIES IN SPECIFICATION

TREE

a) The renaming of features within the design becomes mandatory as it will be useful
for the end users to by far identify things for modification.
b) For instance an end user who wants to identify the M5 holes on the model the
SPECIFICATION TREE helps easily in identifying the M5 holes in the model
there by making modifications easy.
c) Also renaming all the features every now and then as it is created will easy things
at the end.
d) “Base Block Sketch” and “Base Block” is which will be useful in identifying
them at a later stage.
e) Renaming the Bodies also helps in navigation.

4.3 HANDLING INPUT DATA AND FOREIGN BODIES

a) Any external data that are to be handled in the model can be grouped under a
GEOMETRICAL SET called input data which can be used in the model
when situation demands.

b) Some foreign elements like planes, points, curves and surfaces that would be used
in the modeling process.

c) By grouping the foreign elements in a separate GEOMETRICAL SET it is easy to

identify them in the SPECIFICATION TREE.

29
4.4 DIMENSIONING AND CONSTRAINING IN SKETCHES
a) Planes should be intersected in the sketches and made as construction elements
and should be used as dimension reference for geometries, this helps in identifying
the dimension line clearly in a complex sketch.
b) Equivalent dimension should be used wherever possible to minimize modification
time in the sketches.
c) Usage of sketch analysis command is mandatory at the end of every sketch build
which helps in diagnosing the sketch thereby identifying abnormalities.
d) Robust design Intent can be Achieved with the Integration of Parameters and
Relations.

.
4.5 THE MODEL DESIGN AND BRAKING CONDITIONS:
Design Consideration
 Brake Power
 Larger diameter rotors more will be brake power with the same amount of clamp
force than a smaller diameter rotor.
 The higher the coefficient of friction for the pad, the more brake power will be
generated
 Dynamic Coefficient Of Friction
 type of material used for the brake rotor.
 Speed Sensitive – Coefficient of friction typically drops as the speed of the
vehicle increases
 Pressure Sensitive - Coefficient of friction typically drops as more clamp force is
generated.
 Temperature Sensitive - Coefficient of friction typically drops as the temperature
of the brake system increases.

30
 Surface Area – The more surface area available on a brake system, the better
heat dissipation will be via convection.
 Material Selection– Material selection is important in trying to control where the
heat dissipates once generated
 Wear –wear is proportional to pressure intensity(p) and relative velocity (v) which
is proportional to radius. Thus W=k p r
 Thermal Mass –Must have enough material mass to properly handle the
temperatures during braking applications. This is limited by size and weight.
 The brake systems on vehicles must be capable of absorbing a lot more
horsepower than the engine typically produces because the heat (power) that is
generated when braking occurs over a short period of time

Iso _views Disc Brake

31
Front View

Side View

32
4.6Introduction to FEA
FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed
for specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A
company is able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the client's
specifications prior to manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product or
structure is utilized to qualify the product or structure for a new service condition. In case
of structural failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design modifications to meet
the new condition. FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid
called a mesh. This mesh is programmed to contain the material and structural properties
which define how the structure will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are
assigned at a certain density throughout the material depending on the anticipated stress
levels of a particular area. In practice, a finite element analysis usually consists of three
principal steps.

33
4.6.1. Preprocessing - The user constructs a model of the part to be analyzed in which
the geometry is divided into a number of discrete sub regions, or elements," connected at
discrete points called nodes." Certain of these nodes will have fixed displacements, and
others will have prescribed loads. These models can be extremely time consuming to
prepare, and commercial codes vie with one another to have the most user-friendly
graphical “preprocessor" to assist in this rather tedious chore. Some of these
preprocessors can overlay a mesh on a preexisting CAD file, so that finite element
analysis can be done conveniently as part of the computerized drafting-and-design
process.

4.6.2Analysis - The dataset prepared by the preprocessor is used as input to the finite
element code itself, which constructs and solves a system of linear or nonlinear algebraic
equations [K][U]=[F]
where u and f are the displacements and externally applied forces at the nodal points. The
formation of the K matrix is dependent on the type of problem being attacked, and this
module will outline the approach for truss and linear elastic stress analyses. Commercial
codes may have very large element libraries, with elements appropriate to a wide range of
problem types. One of FEA's principal advantages is that many problem types can be
addressed with the same code, merely by specifying the appropriate element types from
the library.
4.6.3 Postprocessing - In the earlier days of finite element analysis, the user would pore
through reams of numbers generated by the code, listing displacements and stresses at
discrete positions within the model. It is easy to miss important trends and hot spots this
way, and modern codes use graphical displays to assist in visualizing the results. Typical
postprocessor display overlays colored contours representing stress levels on the model,
showing a full field picture similar to that of photo elastic or moiré experimental results.
4.7 Introduction to ANSYS
ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package. Finite Element
Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into very small

34
pieces (of user-designated size) called elements. The software implements equations
that govern the behaviour of these elements and solves them all; creating a
comprehensive explanation of how the system acts as a whole. These results then can
be presented in tabulated, or graphical forms. This type of analysis is typically used for
the design and optimization of a system far too complex to analyze by hand. Systems
that may fit into this category are too complex due to their geometry, scale, or
governing equations

4.7.1.Structural Analysis:

IMPORTING GEOMETRY:

MESH GENERATION;

35
Mesh generation is an important step in the pre-processing of finite element
method, and it is time-consuming. The correct and reasonable meshing is the key to numerical
simulation of finite element method. The quality of the mesh will directly determine the speed,
accuracy and accuracy of the final analysis. This step plays a global role in the validity and
reliability of the finite element analysis. When the brake drum is meshed, the 3D entity Solid
tetrahedron element is selected, and each unit has 10 nodes. The brake drum is meshed by the
free meshing method

Nodes 120820
Elements 69651

ADDING CONSTRAINTS AND SOLVING CALCULATIONS.

36
 The brake drum modal test can get natural frequency of brake drum under free condition,
and the brake drum is usually connected with other parts, so the displacement constraints in the
bolt hole of cylinder brake drum and other parts connected on both axial and normal. Because
the external excitation frequency of the brake drum is low, the low order vibration mode plays a
decisive role in the dynamic performance of the brake drum. Therefore, the first 10 natural
frequencies and vibration modes of the brake drum are solved by Block Lanczos method. The
advantage of the method is that the mesh quality is low and the running speed is fast

Material Data
Gray Cast Iron
TABLE 15
Gray Cast Iron > Constants
Density 7200 kg m^-3
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 1.1e-005 C^-1
Specific Heat 447 J kg^-1 C^-1
Thermal Conductivity 52 W m^-1 C^-1
Resistivity 9.6e-008 ohm m

TABLE 16
Gray Cast Iron > Compressive Ultimate Strength
Compressive Ultimate Strength Pa
8.2e+008

TABLE 17
Gray Cast Iron > Compressive Yield Strength
Compressive Yield Strength Pa
0

TABLE 18
Gray Cast Iron > Tensile Yield Strength
Tensile Yield Strength Pa
0

TABLE 19
Gray Cast Iron > Tensile Ultimate Strength
Tensile Ultimate Strength Pa
2.4e+008

37
 TABLE 20
Gray Cast Iron > Isotropic Secant Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Reference Temperature C
22

TABLE 21
Gray Cast Iron > Isotropic Elasticity
Temperature
Young's Modulus Pa Poisson's Ratio Bulk Modulus Pa Shear Modulus Pa
C
1.1e+011 0.28 8.3333e+010 4.2969e+010

TABLE 22
Gray Cast Iron > Isotropic Relative Permeability
Relative Permeability
10000

38
Result and discussion:

When Hole Diameter 2:

Total displacement

39
When Hole Diameter 3:

Total displacement

40
When Hole Diameter 1.5mm:

Total displacement

41
Name Displacement(m) Stress (MPa)

42
 Diameter 1.5mm 0.0167 110.75
Diameter 2mm 0.017 120.77
Diameter 3mm 0.02 198.32

While comparing with various hole diameter of the disk brake goes to Fem static
structural analysis under 600Nm torque the various deformation and stress level
compared. According to that values when 3mm diameter disk brake reached
1983MPa stress level which is reach ultimate stress iron material it quickly reach
brake .other two disk would analyses for thermal condition

THERMAL ANALYSIS:

Thermal L Analysis is probably the most common application of the finite element
method. The term structural (or structure) implies not only civil engineering structures
such as bridges and buildings, but also naval, aeronautical, and mechanical structures
such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and machine housings, as well as mechanical
components such as pistons, machine parts, and tools. Thermal analysis to calculate the
heat flux, temperature gradient & temperature variation. For finite element Analysis of
Engine Head, SOLID92- Tetrahedral element has been used. Total number of elements
generated-4066.
Types of Solution Methods
Two solution methods are available for solving
structural problems.
 The h-method
 the p-method.
The h-method can be used for any type of analysis, but the p-method can be used only for
linear structural stati Depending on the problem to be solved, the hmethod usually

43
requires a finer mesh than the p-method. The 10702 p-method provides an excellent way
to solve a problem to a
desired level of accuracy while using a coarse mesh. ANSYS automatically calculates all
measures valid for a static analysis. Following points are important when specifying
loads and constraint sets for static analyses:
 If you delete a constraint or load set that you included in an analysis, you also delete
that set
from the analysis. Even if you create a new set with the same name as the set you deleted,
you must edit the analysis and reselect the set. Otherwise, you may invalidate the analysis
and any design studies in which you included the analysis. ANSYS calculates results
separately for each load set you include in the analysis

RESULT VALUES FOR NORMAL CAST IRON CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

(Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) 2.1–4 wt% and 1–3 wt%,  Remaining iron
IMPORTING GEOMETRY:

Material Data

Cast Iron

TABLE 16
Cast Iron > Constants

44
 Thermal
8.3e-002 W mm^-1 C^-1
Conductivity

Density 7.2e-006 kg mm^-3

Specific Heat 1.65e+005 mJ kg^-1 C^-1

Boundary condition

RESULT VALUES:
Thermal Distribution without holes

45
Result –modified design:

Analysis Result for disc brake which is having hole in with of disk brake which is
pass through inner part of the disc by using components we anal sized and result are
defined Convection boundary conditon for new design :

46
Temperature distribution when Hole dia 2mm

47
Temperature distribution when Hole dia 1.5 mm

Design Maximum Temperature Minimum temperature

Without Hole 50o 36.58o
With Hole 2mm dia 50o 18o
With Hole 1.5 mm dia 50 19o

48
CONCLUSION:
This paper presents thermal-structural analysis of a disk brake with and without hole for
ventilation. The analysis is performed using commercial FE software package, ANSYS where
the FE model only consists of a disc, it is found that
Comparing the different results of temperature rise, deflection, and stress field obtained
from analysis it shows that in the when using 2mm diameter hole it reduce temperature due to
that thermal stress formation may controlling the disk life .and life increasing

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