Brakes

Module 1 Section 1

Braking Components Introduction

Energy Conversion The main purpose of the braking system is simple; it is to slow down or stop a vehicle. To do this the energy in the vehicle movement must be taken away - or converted. This is achieved by creating friction. The resulting heat takes energy away from the movement. In other words, kinetic energy is converted into heat energy. Vehicle Brakes The main braking system of a car works by hydraulics. This means that when the driver presses the brake pedal, liquid pressure forces pistons to apply brakes on each wheel. Disc brakes are used on the front wheels of some cars and on all wheels of sports and performance cars. Braking pressure forces brake pads against both sides of a steel disc. Drum brakes are fitted on the rear wheels of some cars and on all wheels of older vehicles. Braking pressure forces shoes to expand outwards into contact with a drum. The important part of brake pads and shoes is the friction lining.
Brake system

Brake Pads Brake pads are steel backed blocks of friction material, which are pressed onto both sides of the disc. Older types were asbestos based so you must not inhale the dust. Follow manufacturers recommended procedures. Pads should be changed when the friction material wears down to 2 or 3 mm. The circular steel disc rotates with the wheel. Some are solid but many have ventilation holes.

There are

Many types of

Brake pads

In common use

There are

Many types of

Brake shoes

In common use

Brake Shoes Brake shoes are steel crescent shapes with a friction material lining. They are pressed inside a steel drum, which rotates with the wheel. The rotating action of the brake drum tends to pull one brake shoe harder into contact. This is known as self-servo action. It occurs on the brake shoe, which is after the wheel cylinder, in the direction of wheel rotation. This brake shoe is described as the leading shoe. The brake shoe before the wheel cylinder in the direction of wheel rotation is described as the trailing shoe.

Hydraulic Cylinders The master cylinder piston is moved by the brake pedal. In its basic form, it is like a pump, which forces brake fluid through the pipes. Pressure in the pipes causes a small movement to operate either brake shoes or pads. The wheel cylinders work like a pump only in reverse.

Master cylinder

Brake Servo The brake servo increases the force applied by the driver on the pedal. It makes the brakes more effective. Vacuum, from the engine inlet manifold, is used to work most brake servos.

Servo construction details Servo unit

Brake Pipes Strong, high quality pipes are used to connect the master cylinder to the wheel cylinders. Fluid connection, from the vehicle body to the wheels, has to be through flexible pipes to allow suspension and steering movement. As a safety precaution (because brakes are quite important!), brake systems are split into two sections. If one section fails, say by a pipe breaking, the other will continue to operate. Antilock Brake System If the brakes cause the wheels to lock and make them skid, steering control is lost. In addition, the brakes will not stop the car as quickly. ABS uses electronic control to prevent this happening.

Flexible pipes

Metal pipes

ABS layout

Load Compensation On most car braking systems, about 70% (or more) of the braking force is directed to the front wheels. This is because, under braking, the weight of the vehicle transfers to the front wheels. Load compensation, however, allows the braking pressure to the rear wheels to increase as load in the vehicle increases. Brake Fade If brakes become so hot that they cannot convert energy fast enough, they become much less efficient, or in other words, fade away! This is described as brake fade. A more serious form of brake fade can also be caused if the heat generated is enough to melt the bonding resin in the friction material. This reduces the frictional value of the linings or pads.
Pressure conscious regulator

Annual Test Requirements All components of the braking system must be in good working order, in line with most other vehicle systems. Braking efficiency means the braking force compared to the weight of the vehicle. For example, the brakes on a vehicle with a weight of 10 kN (1000 kg x 10 ms-2 [g]) will provide a braking force of, say, 7 kN. This is said to be 70% efficiency. During an annual test, this is measured on brake rollers. The current efficiency requirements in the UK are as follows: Service brake efficiency - 50% Second line brake efficiency - 25% Parking brake efficiency - 16%. Describe what is meant by brake fade.

Sketch the basic layout of a hydraulic brake system.

Look back over the previous section and write out a list of the key bullet points here:

Section 2

Hydraulic Components

Principle of Hydraulic Braking Shown here, is the principle of hydraulic brakes. The movement of the piston, labelled 2, causes an equal force in all parts of the system. The pistons, labelled 1, move a shorter distance. If larger area pistons are used, the force at the brakes can be increased. This is called a liquid lever and acts in addition to the leverage of the brake pedal. Braking System A complete braking system includes a master cylinder, which operates several wheel cylinders. The system is designed to give the power amplification needed for braking the particular vehicle. On any vehicle when braking, a lot of the weight is transferred to the front wheels. Most braking effort is therefore designed to work on the front brakes. Some cars have special hydraulic valves to limit rear wheel braking. This reduces the chance of the rear wheels locking and skidding.

Master cylinder

Wheel Cylinders Brake shoes can be moved by double or single-acting wheel cylinders. A common layout is to use one double acting cylinder and brake shoes on each rear wheel of the vehicle, and disc brakes on the front wheels. A double acting cylinder simply means that as fluid pressure acts through a centre inlet, pistons are forced out of both ends.

Slave cylinder components

Floating caliper

Fixed caliper Disc Caliper Piston Disc brake calipers are known as fixed, floating or sliding types. The pistons are moved by hydraulic pressure created in the master cylinder. A number of different calipers are used. Some high performance calipers include up to four pistons. However, the operating principle remains the same.

Sliding caliper

Brake Fluid Always use new and approved brake fluid when topping up or refilling the system. Manufacturers recommendations must always be followed. Brake fluid is hygroscopic, which means that over time, it absorbs water. This increases the risk of the fluid boiling due to the heat from the brakes. Pockets of steam in the system would not allow full braking pressure to be applied. Many manufacturers recommend that the fluid be changed at regular intervals. Make sure the correct grade of fluid is used. The current recommended types are known as DOT4 and DOT5. Brake System Shown here are the main arts of a typical modern braking system. A separate mechanical system is a good safety feature. Most vehicles have the mechanical parking brake working on the rear wheels but a few have it working on the front - take care. Note the importance of flexible connections to allow for suspension and steering movement. These flexible pipes are made of high quality rubber and are covered in layers of strong mesh to prevent expansion when under pressure.

A common type of brake fluid

Braking and other components

Tandem Master Cylinder Safety is built into braking systems by using a double acting master cylinder. This is often described as tandem and can be thought of as two master cylinders inside one housing. The pressure from the pedal acts on both cylinders but fluid can not pass from one to the other. Each cylinder is then connected to a separate circuit. These split lines can be connected in a number of ways. Under normal operating conditions, the pressure developed in the first part of the master cylinder is transmitted to the second. This is because the fluid in the first chamber acts directly on the second piston.

Master cylinder operation

Circuit Failure If one line fails, the first piston meets no restriction and closes up to the second piston. Further movement will now provide pressure for the second circuit. The driver will notice that pedal travel increases, but some braking performance will remain. If the fluid leak is from the second circuit, then the second piston will meet no restriction and close up the gap. Braking will now be just from the first circuit. Diagonal split brakes are the most common and are used on vehicles with a negative scrub radius. Steering control is maintained under brake failure conditions. Multi-Circuit Systems There are three common splits used on modern braking systems. The first two types listed are the most common: Diagonal split type, where if a fault occurs, the driver loses half of the front and half of the rear brakes Separate front and rear, where if a fault occurs, the driver loses all of the front or all of the rear brakes Duplicated front, where if a fault occurs, the driver loses the rear and part of the front or part of the front brakes only. Special front calipers are required when using this method.

Front/rear split

Diagonal split

State the three common splits used on modern braking systems AND advantages of each type.

Describe the operation of a sliding caliper disc brake

Look back over the previous section and write out a list of the key bullet points here:

Section 3

Disc, Drum and Parking Brakes

Disc Brakes The caliper shown is known as a single acting, sliding caliper. This is because only one cylinder is used but the pads are still pressed equally on both sides of the disc by the sliding action. Disc brakes are less prone to brake fade than drum brakes. This is because they are more exposed and can get rid of heat more easily. They also throw off water better than drum brakes. Brake fade occurs when the brakes become so hot they cannot transfer any more energy - and they stop working!

Sliding disc brake caliper components

Disc Brake Adjustment Disc brakes are self-adjusting. When the pedal is depressed, the rubber seal is pre-loaded. When the pedal is released, the piston is pulled back due to the elasticity of the rubber sealing ring.
Sliding disc brake caliper

Drum Bakes Brake shoes are mounted inside a cast iron drum. They are mounted on a steel backplate, which is rigidly fixed to a stationary part of the axle. The two curved shoes have friction material on their outer faces. One end of each shoe bears on a pivot point. The other end of each shoe is pushed out by the action of a wheel cylinder when the brake pedal is pressed. This puts the brake linings in contact with the drum inner surface. When the brake pedal is released, the return spring pulls the shoes back to their rest position.

Rear drum brake

Drum Brake Features Drum brakes are more adversely affected by wet and heat than disc brakes, because both water and heat are trapped inside the drum. However, they are easier to fit with a mechanical hand brake linkage.
Brake drum

Brake Adjustments Brakes must be adjusted so that the minimum movement of the pedal starts to apply the brakes. The adjustment in question is the gap between the pads and disc and the shoes and drum. Disc brakes are self-adjusting because as pressure is released it moves the pads just away from the disc. Drum brakes are different because the shoes are moved away from the drum to a set position by a pull off spring. Self-adjusting drum brakes are almost universal now on light vehicles. A common type uses an off set ratchet, which clicks to a wider position if the shoes move beyond a certain amount when operated.
Self-adjusting device

Manual Adjustment Adjustment through a hole in the back plate is often used. This involves moving a type of nut on a threaded bar, which pushes the shoes out as it is screwed along the thread. This method is similar to the automatic adjusters. An adjustment screw on the back plate is now quite an old method. A screw or square head protruding from the back plate moves the shoes by a snail cam. As a guide, tighten the adjuster until the wheels lock, and then move it back until the wheel is just released. You must ensure that the brakes are not rubbing as this would build up heat and wear the friction material very quickly.

Brake adjustment hole

Square type adjuster

Self-Servo Action The precise way in which the shoes move into contact with the drum affects the power of the brakes. If the shoes are both hinged at the same point then the system is said to have one leading and one trailing shoe. As the shoes are pushed into contact with the drum, the leading shoe is dragged by the drum rotation harder into contact, whereas the rotation tends to push the trailing shoe away. This 'selfservo' action on the leading shoe can be used to increase the power of drum brakes. This is required on the front wheels of all-round drum brake vehicles.

Self servo

Twin Leading Shoe Brakes The shoes are arranged so that they both experience the self-servo action. The shoes are pivoted at opposite points on the backplate and two wheel cylinders are used. The arrangement is known as twin leading shoe brakes. It is not suitable for use on the rear brakes because if the car is travelling in reverse then it would become a twin trailing shoe arrangement, which means the efficiency of the brakes would be seriously reduced. The leading and trailing layout is therefore used on rear brakes, as one shoe will always be leading no matter in what direction the vehicle is moving.

Twin leading shoe system

Leading and Trailing Shoe Brakes The standard layout of drum brake systems is normally: Twin leading shoe brakes on the front wheels Leading and trailing shoe brakes on the rear wheels. Disc brakes are now used on the front wheels of all light vehicles but many retain leading and trailing shoe brakes on the rear. In most cases, it is easier to attach a handbrake linkage to the system with shoes on the rear. This method will also provide the braking performance required when the vehicle is reversing.
Leading and trailing system

Hand Brake Linkages Inside a brake drum, the hand brake linkage is usually a lever mechanism as shown here. This lever pushes the shoes against the drum and locks the wheel. The hand brake lever pulls on one or more cables and has a ratchet to allow it to be locked in the on position. There are a number of ways in which the hand brake linkage can be laid out to provide equal force, or compensation, for both wheels: Two cables, one to each wheel Equaliser on a single cable pulling a U section to balance effort through the rear cable (as shown here) Single cable to a small linkage on the rear axle. Disc Type Handbrake Some sliding caliper disc brakes incorporate a handbrake mechanism. The footbrake operates as normal. Handbrake operation is by a moving lever. The lever acts through a shaft and cam, which works on the adjusting screw of the piston. The piston presses one pad against the disc and because of the sliding action, the other pad also moves.

Sliding caliper parking brake

Handbrake Drum in Disc Some manufacturers use a set of small brake shoes inside a small drum, which is built in to the brake disc. The caliper is operated as normal by the footbrake. The small shoes are moved by a cable and lever. Summary In summary, remember that the purpose of the braking system is to slow down or stop a vehicle. This is achieved by converting the vehicles movement energy into heat. Friction is used to do this. Braking system developments have improved efficiency, reliability and ease of servicing. Describe the leading/trailing layout of the shoes on drum brake systems when used front and rear.

State why disc brakes are self-adjusting

Look back over the previous section and write out a list of the key bullet points here:

Module 2 Section 1

Servos, Force Control and ABS Brake Servo Operation

Introduction The brakes of a vehicle must perform well, whilst the effort required by the driver is kept to a reasonable level. This is achieved by the use of a brake servo. It is also called a brake booster. Vacuum operated systems are commonly used on light vehicles.
Vacuum servo

Hydraulic Power Brakes Hydraulic power brakes use the pressure from an engine driven pump. The pump will often be the same as the one used to supply the power assisted steering. Pressure from the pump is made to act on a plunger in line with the normal master cylinder. As the driver applies force to the pedal, a servo valve opens in proportion to the force applied by the driver. The hydraulic assisting force is therefore also proportional. This maintains the allimportant 'driver feel'.

Hydraulic Accumulator A hydraulic accumulator (a reservoir for fluid under pressure) is incorporated into many systems. This is because the pressure supplied by the pump varies with engine speed. The pressure in the accumulator is kept between set pressures in the region of 70 bar. A warning therefore: If you have to disconnect any components from the braking system on a vehicle fitted with an accumulator, you must follow the manufacturers recommendations on releasing the pressure first. Vacuum Servo A common servo system uses low pressure (vacuum) from the manifold on one side, and the higher atmospheric pressure on the other side of a diaphragm. The low pressure is taken via a non-return safety valve from the engine inlet manifold. A pump is often used on diesel-engined vehicles as most do not have a throttle butterfly and hence do not develop any significant manifold vacuum. The pressure difference, however created, causes a force, which is made to act on the master cylinder.

Accumulator

Hydraulic brake servo

Servo unit

Servo construction

Servo Operation The vacuum servo is fitted in between the brake pedal and the master cylinder. The main part of the servo is the diaphragm. The larger this diaphragm, the greater the servo assistance provided. A vacuum is allowed to act on both sides of the diaphragm when the brake pedal is in its rest position. When pedal force is applied to the piston a valve cuts the vacuum connection to the rear chamber and allows air at atmospheric pressure to enter. This causes a force to act on the diaphragm so assisting with the application of the brakes. Servo Assistance Once the master cylinder piston moves, the valve closes again to hold the applied pressure. Further effort by the driver on the brake pedal will open the valve again and apply further vacuum assistance. In this way, the driver can 'feel' the amount of braking effort being applied. The cycle continues until the driver effort reaches a point where the servo assistance remains fully on. Vacuum Supply On petrol engines, the vacuum is obtained from the inlet manifold. On diesel engines, a vacuum pump is used. A non-return valve is fitted in the line to keep vacuum in the servo chamber. This means that it is possible to carry out three or four braking operations, with servo assistance, without the engine running. The valve also prevents fuel vapours getting in the servo and damaging the diaphragm.

A check valve is fitted in the vacuum supply

Fail Safe Mode If the vacuum servo stops working the brakes will still operate, but extra force will be required from the driver. The connection to the inlet manifold will normally be via a check valve as an extra safety feature.
Safety is important

Summary A brake servo assists the driver when the brakes are applied. The feel must be maintained during operation. Most servos are vacuum operated.

Brake servo

Explain what happens if the vacuum servo stops working.

Describe the operation of a vacuum servo as the brakes are applied.

Look back over the previous section and write out a list of the key bullet points here: