MODULE: MAINTENANCE OF STEERING AND BRAKE SYSTEM

LEARNING HOURS 90
AUTSB301
REQF Level: 3
Sector: Transport and Logistic
Sub-sector: Automobile

PURPOSE STATEMENT

This particular module describes the performance outcomes,

skills and knowledge required to maintain steering and brake
systems.
It is very core to every mechanic to perform steering and brake
systems maintenance in order to keep the vehicle steering and
brake systems in good condition.
 BRAKING SYSTEM

 Definition
.
Braking System is the use of friction to slow a vehicle for bring it to a
halt, or hold it in a standing position. A brake is a device that is secured
to the vehicle axle housings, which do not rotate, and used to slow
down or hold the wheels, which do rotate. When the rotating parts are
brought in contact with the non-rotating parts, the friction caused by the
rubbing creates the braking action.

A basic braking system has a:

 brake pedal,
 master cylinder to provide hydraulic pressure,
 brake lines and hoses to connect the master cylinder to the brake
assemblies,
 fluid to transmit force from the master cylinder to the wheel cylinders
of the brake assemblies; and
 Brake assemblies – drum or disc – that stop the wheels.
 Brake Lines
 Figure: Typical automotive braking system

 COMPONENTS OF HYDRAULIC BRAKE SYSTEM

 Brake pedal
A brake pedal is a level pivoted at one with the power brake valve rod
attached near the pivot end a four pads is attached to the lower end of the
pedal the force applied to the master cylinder at the four pad is multiplied
several times by the level ratio and the brake boaster. Foot pedal that moves a
piston in the master brake cylinder, the brake pedal is directly attached to the
master cylinder. Pedal pulsation, excessive pedal travel, a “soft” or “hard”
pedal can be indicators of serious problems, including a leak in the hydraulic
system, low fluid levels, or unevenly worn shoes or pads.
 MASTER CYLINDER

Only tandem master cylinders are used, because the law requires that two
separate brake circuits are used. This cylinder is operated by the brake pedal
via the brake booster.

Figure: Brake master cylinder

 The tasks of master cylinder
 To achieve a rapid pressure build-up in each brake circuit
 To achieve a rapid reduction so that the brakes are rapidly released
 To balance the volume of the brake fluid during a temperature change
and when the clearance is increased because the brake pad is worn.

 Structure
The tandem master cylinder contains two plungers arranged one behind the
other the push-rod plunger and the intermediate plunger, which is stored in
fluid. The plungers form two separate pressure chambers in one housing Both
plungers are designed as double plungers, meaning that there is ring-shaped
castor chamber between the front and rear sealing section of each plunger.
This chamber is always filled with brake fluid via the snifter bore. The
primary cup seal is located at the front of each plunger and seal the pressure
chamber.
The push-rod plunger is sealed at the secondary cup seal. The separating cup
seals the intermediate plunger against the push rod circuit. The intermediate
plunger has a slot into which a central bore hole. A stop pin which leads goes
through the slot on the intermediate plunger keeps the plunger in the cylinder
and forms the front and rear stop.
 Operating principle

 Reset position

The plunger springs press the plungers against their stop. The primary
cup seal on the push-rod plunger releases the balancing port and the
intermediate plunger is placed at the front of the stop pin. This means
that the central valve) is opened by the valve pin which fits into it and
assumes the function of the balancing port. Both pressure chambers are
now linked to the expansion tank. The volume of the brake fluid can be
balanced during a temperature change, for example. If the balancing
port is closed because the push-rod plunger is in the wrong rest position
or due to contamination, it will not be possible to balance the brake
fluid. The fluid expands due to heat, which then increases or
automatically triggers the braking action.

Figure: Rest position

 Brake actuation
When the vehicle is braked, the primary cup seal on the push-rod plunger
travels over the balancing port and seals the pressure chamber. The filler
shim thus prevents the balancing port from pressing in to the filler bores and
from becoming damaged. The valve pin and the central valve is closed.
Pressure builds up in both brake circuits.

Advantage of the central valve

.The primary cup seal has a longer service life because the sealing lip cannot
be damaged by the balancing port.

.In ABS systems, the primary cup seal would be pressed into the balancing
port by pressure-peak reverse movements in an ABS control system and
would thus be damaged.

Figure: brake actuation

 Releasing the brake
The plunger is pushed back up by the fluid pressure and the plunger springs.
The primary cup seal on the push-rod plunger folds down, the filler shim lifts
up and the brake fluid flows from the castor chamber through the filler bores
into the expanding pressure chamber. The intermediate plunger returns to its
original position .The pressure chambers are linked to the expansion tank by
the central valve and the balancing port. The pressure falls and the brakes are
released.

Figure: Releasing position

 Brake Pipes.
These are steel pipes which form part of the fluid circuit between the
master-cylinder and the wheel-cylinders. These pipes transfer the fluid
along the body structure and rigid axle members. Flexible hoses connect
the sprung body pipes to the unsprung axle wheel-brake units, to allow
for movement.

 Wheel brake cylinder

In the double acting wheel brake cylinder the pressure generated in the master
cylinder acts on the plunger are sealed by rubbed sleeves dist. caps prevent
dirt from entering on the back of the wheel brake cylinder are threaded bore
horse which fasten to the brake plate and the brake line connection a bleeder
valve is screwed in at the highest point.

Figure: Wheel brake cylinder

 Operating Principle
The principle of braking in road vehicles involves the conversion of
kinetic energy into thermal energy (heat). When stepping on the brakes,
the driver commands a stopping force several times as powerful as the
force that puts the car in motion and dissipates the associated kinetic
energy as heat. Brakes must be able to arrest the speed of a vehicle in
short periods of time regardless how fast the speed is. As a result, the
brakes are required to have the ability to generating high torque and
absorbing energy at extremely high rates for short periods of time.
Brakes may be applied for a prolonged periods of time in some
applications such as a heavy vehicle descending a long gradient at high
speed. Brakes have to have the mechanism to keep the heat absorption
capability for prolonged periods of time.
The brake system is divided into a primary and secondary circuit. The
primary circuit comprises the left front and right rear wheel brakes
while the secondary circuit comprises the right front and left rear wheel
brakes. At the wheel brakes, the brake pistons are pressed out and push
the brake pads against the brake discs. If a brake circuit should fail due
to leakage, for instance, braking power will still be available in the
circuit.

 Types of braking system

There are two kinds of service brakes, or the brakes that stop your
vehicle while driving: disc and drum brakes. Additionally, almost all
vehicles come with emergency brakes and anti-lock brakes.

 DISC BRAKE
Description of disc brake
Disc brakes are designed as a fixed calipers or floating caliper brake.
The brake plungers are located in brake calliper. They press the pads
against the brake disc when the vehicle is braked. Disc brakes resemble
the brakes on a bicycle. The friction elements are in the form of pads,
which are squeezed or clamped about the edge of a rotating wheel.

The main elements of a disc brake include brake pads, rotor, caliper,
and caliper support. Cast iron is used in the making of the brake disc;
the new modern brake discs can be made of other composites like
reinforced carbon or ceramic.
Figure: Disc brake

Advantages and Disadvantages of Disc Brakes

 Advantages
 Disc brakes can generate and transfer greater amounts of heat to
the atmosphere; because most of the friction area of a rotor is exposed
to air, cooling is far more rapid than for a drum brake. This faster
cooling makes them better suited for high-performance driving or
heavy-duty vehicles and reduces the likelihood of brake fade.
 Due to their design, disc brakes are self-adjusting and do not need
periodic maintenance or rely on a self-adjusting mechanism that is
prone to sticking.
 Disc brakes are also easier to service than drum brakes.

 Disadvantages
 More prone to noise.
 Their design tends to create squeals and squeaks,
 The rotors warp easier than in drum brake systems.
 Brake pedal pulsations, requiring resurfacing or replacement.
 It needs higher clamping forces, which requires a power booster.
 It is harder to use them as effective parking brakes.

Features of disc brake

 No self –reinforcement
 Good metering of the braking force
 Efficiency cooling
 Low tendency towards fading
 Higher brake-pad wear due to the high down forces
 Easy maintenance and pad replacement
 Automatic adjustment of clearance.
 More heat generated by the brake fluid, because the pads fit tightly
on the brake plungers. Danger of vapor bubbles.
 Good automatic cleaning due to centrifugal force.
 The parking brake requires great effort.

 Disc Brakes Working

Most modern cars have disc brakes on the front wheels, and some
have disc brakes on all four wheels. This is the part of the brake
system that does the actual work of stopping the car. The most
common type of disc brake on modern cars is the single-piston floating
caliper
Figure: single-piston floating calliper
 The main components of a disc brake are:
 The brake pads;
 The caliper, which contains a piston
 The rotor, which is mounted to the hub.
Figure: components of disc brake
The disc brake is a lot like the brakes on a bicycle. Bicycle brakes have
a caliper, which squeezes the brake pads against the wheel. In a disc
brake, the brake pads squeeze the rotor instead of the wheel, and the
force is transmitted hydraulically instead of through a cable. Friction
between the pads and the disc slows the disc down. A moving car has a
certain amount of kinetic energy, and the brakes have to remove this
energy from the car in order to stop it. How do the brakes do this?
Each time you stop your car, your brakes convert the kinetic energy to
heat generated by the friction between the pads and the disc. Most car
disc brakes are vented.

Figure: brake disc with brake caliper

 Disc brake designs

 FIXED CALIPER DISC BRAKE

In this design, two and four-cylinder fixed caliper disc brakes are
normally used.
Figure: Two-cylinder fixed calliper disc brake

Fixed caliper disc brakes have a caliper assembly that is bolted in a

fixed position and does not move when the brakes are applied.

The pistons in both sides of the caliper come inward to force the pads
against the rotor.
Figure: Four-cylinder fixed calliper disc brake
The fixed brake-cylinder back plate (fixed caliper) is bolted onto the
wheel suspension. This back plate grips the brake disc like plies. It
consists of one two-piece housing. Each housing section contains brake
cylinders which are situated opposite each other in pairs.

They contain the brake plungers with sealing ring, protective cap and
clamping ring. The brake cylinders are linked by channels. The bleeder
valve sits on top of the housing. When the vehicle is braked , the brake
cylinder plunger press against the brake pads. The brake pads are then
pushed against the brake disc on both sides.

 Expander spring: Its fits the brake pads onto the plungers and thus
prevents the pads from knocking and chattering.
 FLOATING-CALIPER DISC BRAKE
A typical floating caliper disc brake is a one-piece casting that has one
hydraulic cylinder and a single piston. The caliper is attached to the
spindle anchor plate with two threaded locating pins. Teflon sleeve
separates the caliper housing from each pin and the caliper slides back
and forth on the pins as the brakes are actuated.

When the brakes are applied, hydraulic pressure builds in the cylinder
behind the piston and seal. Because hydraulic pressure exerts equal
force in all directions, the piston moves evenly out of its bore.

The piston presses the inboard pad against the rotor. As the pad contacts
the revolving rotor, greater resistance to outward movement is
increased, forcing pressure to push the caliper away from the piston.

This action forces the outboard pad against the rotor. However, both
pads are applied with equal pressure.
Figure: Floating-caliper disc brake with guide teeth
This consists of two main components, the bracket and the housing or
floating caliper and has the following features:

Low weight
Small size
Good heat dissipation
Large pad surfaces
Takes up less space
Reduced tendency towards vapor-bubble formation, as only one or
two of the brake cylinders are on the bracket side.
Maintenance-free housing versions, therefore not sensitive to dirt and
corrosion.
 Brake disc
The brake disc is normally disc-shaped and is made of

Cast iron
Malleable cast iron
 Cast steel

Figure: Brake disc

The disc brake rotor has two main parts: the hub and the braking
surface. The hub is where the wheel is mounted and contains the wheel
bearings. The braking surface is the machined surface on both sides of
the rotor. It is carefully machined to provide a friction surface for the
brake pads.

The rotor is protected from water and dirt due to road splash by a
splash shield bolted to the steering knuckle. The outboard side is
shielded by the vehicle’s wheel. The splash shield and wheel also are
important in directing air over the rotor to aid cooling.
 CALIPER ASSEMBLY
A brake caliper converts hydraulic pressure into mechanical force. The
caliper housing is usually a one-piece construction of cast iron or
aluminum and has an inspection hole in the top to allow for lining wear
inspection. The housing contains the cylinder bore(s). In the cylinder
bore is a groove that seats a square-cut seal. This groove is tapered
toward the bottom of the bore to increase the compression on the edge
of the seal that is nearest hydraulic pressure.

The top of the cylinder bore is also grooved as a seat for the dust boot.
A fluid inlet hole is machined into the bottom of the cylinder bore and a
bleeder valve is located near the top of the casting.

A caliper can contain one, two, or four cylinder bores and pistons that
provide uniform pressure distribution against the brake’s friction pads.
The pistons are relatively large in diameter and short in stroke to
provide high pressure on the friction pad assemblies with a minimum of
fluid displacement.

Basically, the hydraulics of disc brakes are the same as for drum brakes,
in that the master cylinder piston forces the brake fluid into the wheel
cylinders and against the wheel pistons.

 Caliper (Cylinder body)

The caliper, also called the cylinder body, houses one to four pistons,
and is mounted to the torque plate and steering knuckle or wheel carrier.
It is found in floating caliper designs or fixed caliper designs.

 Brake Pads
Brake pads are metal plates with the linings either riveted or bonded to
them. Pads are placed at each side of the caliper and straddle the rotor.
The linings are made of semi-metallic or other no-asbestos material.

Different brake design applications require different kinds of friction

materials. Several considerations are weighted in development of brake
pads; the coefficient of friction must remain constant over a wide range
of temperatures, the brake pads must not wear out rapidly nor should
they wear the disc rotors, should withstand the highest temperatures
without fading and it should be able to do all this without any noise.

Therefore, the material should maximize the good points and minimize
the negative points. Materials which make up the brake pad include
friction modifiers, powdered metal, binders, fillers and curing agents.

REQUIREMENT OF THE FRICTION LINING

 Very stable at high temperature, considerable mechanical strength and

long operating life
 Constantly high coefficient of friction even at high temperature and
 sliding speeds
 Not sensitive to water and dirt
 No glazing at high thermal load, good heat conduction
Figure: Brake pads

BRAKE LINING MATERIALS

 Metal such as steel wool and copper powder

 Filler material such as iron oxide, barite, mica powder and aluminium
oxide
 Anti-friction agents such as coke dust, antimony sulphide and
graphite
 Organic substance such as resin filler material, aramid fiber and
binding resin.
 Brake pads have a friction coefficient of approximately 0.4. They are
heat-resistant to approximately 800°C.
 SELF-ADJUSTING BRAKES
The single-piston floating-caliper disc brake is self-centering and self-
adjusting. The caliper is able to slide from side to side so it will move
to the Centre each time the brakes are applied.

Also, since there is no spring to pull the pads away from the disc, the
pads always stay in light contact with the rotor (the rubber piston seal
and any wobble in the rotor may actually pull the pads a small
distance away from the rotor).

This is important because the pistons in the brakes are much larger in
diameter than the ones in the master cylinder. If the brake pistons
retracted into their cylinders, it might take several applications of the
brake pedal to pump enough fluid into the brake cylinder to engage the
brake pads.

Figure: Self-Adjusting Brakes

Older cars had dual or four-piston fixed-caliper designs. A piston (or
two) on each side of the rotor pushed the pad on that side, this design
has been largely eliminated because single-piston designs are cheaper
and more reliable.

 REAR-WHEEL DISC BRAKES

Rear-wheel disc brake calipers may be fixed, floating, or sliding, and all
of these designs work in the same way as when they are used at the
front wheels. The only difference between a front and rear disc brake
caliper is that the rear disc brake caliper needs a parking brake. Four-
wheel disc brake installations must have some way to apply the rear
brakes when the parking brake is set.

 REAR DISC/DRUM (AUXILIARY DRUM) PARKING BRAKE

The rear disc/drum or auxiliary drum parking brake arrangement is
found on some vehicles with fixed or sliding calipers. On these brakes,
the inside of each rear wheel hub and rotor assembly is used as the
parking brake drum.
Figure: Rear disc brake with parking brake

Rear disc brake have rotor with internal drum and brake shoe to serve as
parking brakeThese parking brake shoes operate independently of the
service brakes. They are applied by linkage and cables from the control
pedal or lever. The cable at each wheel operates a lever and strut that
apply the shoes in the same way that rear drum parking brakes work.
The assembly (often called the drum-in-heat system) is a smaller
version of a drum brake and is serviced much like any other drum
brake. However, they do not have self-adjusters. The parking brakes
must be adjusted manually with star wheels that are accessible through
the backing plate or through the outboard surface of the drum.
 DRUM BRAKE

Overview
Brakes are crucial for stopping a vehicle and drive safely on the road.
Use of proper braking system enhances handling of the vehicle to a
greater extent. In modern vehicle the drum brakes are mostly installed
at rear wheels. There are different types of brakes available in the
market. But here I will discuss only about Drum brakes and how it
works.
To understand about this brake in detail first we must have knowledge
about its various parts and their function.

 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DRUM BRAKE

Advantages
 Simple design and parts
 Easy & cheaper to manufacture
 Low maintenance cost
 Comparatively longer life

Disadvantages
 Low braking force compared to Discs
 Gets faded when applied for prolonged time
 The brake shoe lining made of asbestos is harmful to humans
 When wet, the braking grip reduces considerably
  Non-asbestos linings catch moisture, causing Drum brakes to grab
suddenly
 Complicated design, use of several components compared to a disc
brake.
 Requires regular service, especially the brake pads which wear out
quickly and needs to be replaced.

 CONSTRUCTION
The following are main parts of drum brake:

Figure: Main parts of drum brake

The whole assembly of the drum brake is fitted to the back plate of the
wheel. The back plate remains stationary and it does not rotate with the
wheel.

 BRAKE DRUM

It is a round cast iron housing which is used to stop the vehicle with the
help of brake shoe. The drum brake is bolted to the hub of the wheel. It
rotates with the hub.

 Brake Shoe
It is the frictional part of the drum brake, without it the working of the
brake is not possible. The brake shoe has brake lining at its outer curve.
It is the brake lining which makes contact with brake drum during the
stopping of the vehicle. It is of two types
(i) Primary Brake Shoe: The shoe having large lining material is
called as primary shoe.
(ii) Secondary brake shoe: The shoe with small lining material is
called secondary shoe.

 Wheel Cylinder
It is used to force the brake shoe outward to apply the brake. The wheel
cylinder is connected to the master cylinder. It contains piston which
moves outward when brake is applied and forces the brake shoe towards
inner surface of the drum.

 Return or Retracting Spring

It is used to retract the brake shoe after brake is applied. Two return
springs are there in drum brake, one for the primary shoe and other one
is for secondary shoe.

 Self-Adjuster

It maintains the minimum gap between the brake shoe and drum so that
they do not contact each other when pedal is not pressed. In the case if
the brake lining wear out, and gap increases in between the shoe and
drum, it can be adjusted again to maintain the gap between shoe and
drum inner surface. Once it is adjusted it maintains the same gab during
the brake working by itself.

 WORKING PRINCIPLE
As the brake pedal is pressed, it compresses the fluid in the master
cylinder and allows the piston of the wheel cylinder to expand outward
The outward motion of the piston of wheel cylinder forces the brake
shoe outward against the brake drum. As the brake shoe lining touches
the inner surface of the drum, and due to the friction generated in
between the brake shoe and drum, the motion of the wheel reduces and
vehicle stops.
 As the force is removed from the brake pedal, the retracting springs
draws the brake shoe inward and the contact between the friction lining
and drum ended. Now again the brake is ready to apply.
A self-adjusting screw is present at the bottom, which is used to
maintain a minimum gap between the drum and brake shoe. When the
lining of the brake shoe is wear out than the gap between the drum and
brake shoe increases, at that time the adjuster is adjusted again to
maintain the minimum gap.

Figure: Working of drum brakes

 BLEED OF CAR BRAKES

When the brake fluid level drops too low in the master cylinder
reservoir, air bubbles can get caught in the lines, reducing the overall
strength of the brake fluid column.
Getting the air out of the brake fluid column will restore the full
strength of the hydraulic brakes.

 Procedures of bleeding brake system

 Remove the top of the master cylinder reservoir. 

 Draw out the old brake fluid.
  Fill the master cylinder with clean brake fluid. 
 Pump the brake pedal several times (15 or more).
 Loosen the bleeder valves. 
 Hook a tube to the bleeder bolt, using a piece of clear plastic
tubing pushes one end of the tube over the brake bleeder bolt and
Put the other end of the tube into a small, clear bottle with an
inch or two of clean brake fluid in it.
 Keep the master cylinder full during process otherwise air might
get into system.
 Have a helper sit in the driver's seat and slowly depress the brake
pedal with an even force and hold it down. 
 Starting with the rear passenger wheel (back right for left-hand
drive cars), turn the bleeder bolt to the left one quarter-turn. 
 Shout "up" to your helper, who at this point should remove his
or her foot from the pedal, allowing it to move up.
 Repeat this process until new, clear fluid comes from the bleeder
tube. 
 Tighten the bleeder bolt back up.
 Repeat steps 12 to 15 on the left rear wheel.
 Repeat steps 12 to 15 on the right front wheel.
 Repeat steps 12 to 15 on the left front wheel.
 Finished your brakes have been properly bleed Thank your
helper by buying him or her a cream soda.
 Never use brake fluid not fit for a specific car
 TROUBLESHOOTING BRAKE SYSTEMS
1.Excessive pedal travel
Possible Problem Correction
Partial hydraulic system failure Check front and rear system for
with dual hydraulic system. failure and repair. Fill and bleed
system.
Low fluid level in reservoir. Check for leak, repair, fill reservoir.
Bleed system if necessary.
Incorrect master cylinder push Adjust push rod.
rod adjustment.
Air in hydraulic system. Bleed system and refill master
 cylinder.
Rear brake not adjusting Repair self-adjusting system and
properly. adjust brakes.
Bent lining pad. Recondition caliper.
Loose caliper mounting. Replace hardware on single piston
caliper. Torque mounting bolts to
specifications.
Loose wheel bearing. Adjust to specifications.
Excessive lateral run-out of rotor. Check run-out with dial indicator.
Resurface or replace rotor.
Weak or expanding brake hoses. Replace brake hose. Bleed system.
2. Grabbing or uneven braking action

Possible Problem Correction

Front end out of alignment. Check alignment. Replace worn
parts. Realign front end.
Incorrect tire pressure. Inflate tires to recommended
pressures.
Unmatched tires. Tires with approximately the
same amount of tread should be
used on the same axle. Tires
should be of the same type of
construction.
Restriction in hydraulic system. Check hoses and lines for
damage. Replace as necessary.
Loose caliper mounting. Replace hardware on single
piston caliper.
Torque mounting bolts to
specification.
Wrong or damaged lining pad. Recondition caliper.
Malfunctioning metering or Replace metering or
proportioning valve. proportioning valve.
Power brake unit defective. Repair or replace power brake
unit.
Malfunctioning caliper assembly. Recondition caliper.* Flush
hydraulic system with brake fluid
if seals are swollen.
Malfunctioning rear brakes. Check self-adjusting system and
brake springs.
Repair as necessary.

2. Excessive pedal effort

Possible Problem Correction
Power brake malfunction. Check power brake and repair if
necessary.
Partial hydraulic system failure Check front and rear system for
with dual hydraulic system. failure and repair.
Lining worn beyond Recondition calipers.**
specification.
Sticking or frozen pistons in Recondition calipers.*
caliper.
Lining contaminated with grease, Recondition calipers.*
oil or brake fluid.
Brake fade due to poor quality or Replace lining pads on both
incorrect lining. calipers.

4. Rattles or brake squeal

Possible Problem Correction
Loose caliper mounting. Replace hardware on single
piston caliper. Torque mounting
bolts to specifications.
Brake shoe anti-rattle spring Replace anti-rattle springs.
weak or missing.
Excessive shoe to caliper or shoe Recondition calipers.*
to piston clearance.
Poor quality lining. Replace pads- use insulator type.
Rust. Clean caliper- lube with high
temp. grease.
Worn hardware. Recondition calipers.*

5. Brake chatter, roughness or pulsation

Possible Problem Correction
Loose wheel bearings. Adjust wheel bearings to
specifications.
Front end out of alignment. Check alignment. Replace worn
parts. Realign front end.
Rear drums out of round. Resurface or replace rear drums.
Lining contaminated with grease, Recondition calipers.*
oil or brake fluid.
Excessive lateral run-out of rotor. Check run-out with dial
indicator. Resurface or replace
rotor.
Rotor excessively out of parallel. Check rotor and resurface or
replace.

6. Scraping
Possible problem Correction
Loose wheel bearings. Adjust to specifications.
Rotor rubbing caliper housing or Check for rust or mud build-up
splash shield. on caliper or
splash shield next to rotor. Check
 for bent splash shield.
Loose caliper mounting. Replace hardware on single
piston caliper.
Torque mounting bolts to
specifications.
Broken return springs on drum Replace return springs in axle
brakes. set.

7. Excessively hot brakes and failure to release

Possible Problem Correction
Broken brake return springs on Replace return springs in axle
drum brakes. sets.
Frozen or sticking caliper Recondition calipers.**
pistons.
Driver’s foot riding brake pedal. Instruct driver not to rest foot on
pedal.
Master cylinder or power brake Repair or replace master cylinder
malfunction. or power brake unit.
Sticking or binding pedal Free up and lubricate linkage.
linkage.

1.Brake pedal can be depressed without braking effect

Possible Problem Correction
No fluid in master cylinder Check for leak and correct. Fill
reservoir. master cylinder and bleed
system.
Air in hydraulic system. Bleed system and fill master
cylinder.
Rear brakes out of alignment. Check and repair self-adjusting
system. Adjust rear brakes.
Leaking wheel cylinders. Recondition or replace wheel
cylinder.
Internal leak in master cylinder. Recondition or replace master
cylinder.
Leaking caliper seals. Recondition calipers*.*

2.Brake system warning light does not turn on

Possible Problem Correction
Bulb burned out. Replace bulb.
Warning switch has open circuit. Check circuit and repair.
Damaged warning light switch. Replace switch.

3.Brake system warning light does not turn off

Possible Problem Correction
One section dual brake system Check for leaks and repair.
inoperative.
Differential pressure valve not Center valve.
centered.
Grounded wire to warning light Correct grounded wire.
switch.
Damaged warning light switch. Replace switch.
 STEERING SYSTEM
 STEERING SYSTEM
The steering system is a group of parts that transmit the movement of
the steering wheel to the front, and sometimes the rear, wheels. The
primary purpose of the steering system is to allow the driver to guide
the vehicle. When a vehicle is being driven straight ahead, the steering
system must keep it from wandering without requiring the driver to
make constant corrections.
Function Of Steering System
 Turning(swiveling)the front wheels
 Enabling different steering angle
 Strengthening (gearing up) the torque generated manually at the
steering wheel.
Basic principle components
The main steering components in the motor vehicle are
 Steering wheel
 Steering gear
 Tie-rod arm
 Steering spindle
 Tie rod
Figure: main steering component

 DESIGNS OF STEERING SYSTEM

 Swinging beam steering
 Ackermann steering
 Swinging beam steering
When the wheel of the steering axle are turned, they are pivoted about a
common relational axis (steering axis)the tendency to tilt increases due
to the reduction in the size of the standing area swinging beam steering
is used on twin-axle trailers it offers good maneuverability.
 Figure: swinging beam steering
 Ackermann steering
Each wheel is pivoted about its own axis, the steering axis. It is formed
by the connection of the upper and lower mounting point of the wheel
suspension or by the longitudinal connection of the king pins.
Ackermann steering is used on all duel track motor vehicles. When the
wheels are turned about the steering axis. The standing area remains
almost the same size.

Figure:
Ackermann
steering
 Rolling motion of the wheels when cornering

In order for wheels to be able to roll faultlessly when cornering. Each

steered wheel must be turned to an angle appropriate to the radius of
bend. A greater when angle is required for a small radius bends than for
a larger one. Since on dual- track vehicle, the wheels on the inside of a
curve follow a smaller radius of bend than those on the outside of a
curve, they must be turned to a greater angle than the wheels on the
outside of a curve. The different steering locks are achieved by the
steering trapezoid.
 Ackermann principle
The wheels must be turned such that the projected centre lines of the
steering knuckle of the wheels on the inside and the outside of the bend
meet the projected centre line of the real axle. The circular trajectories
covered by the front and rear wheels then have a common center point.
 Figure: Ackermann steering, toe-difference angle

 Steering trapezoid

This is formed by the tie rod, the two tie rod arms and the line through
the two steering axle (fig 4) when the front wheels are set to the
straight-ahead position. The steering trapezoid allows the front wheels
to turn at different angle, the inside wheel being turned further than the
outside wheel.
 Figure: steering trapezoid

 STEERING LINKAGE
Functions of steering linkage
 Transfer of the steering movement produced by the steering gear to
the front wheels
 Guidance of the wheels in a particular toe-in angle
 MAIN COMPONENTS
Tie rod(s), tie-rod joints, tie-rod arms, possibly intermediate level and
steering rod.
 Rigid front axle
Recirculating-ball steering gear is usually used as the steering gear on
commercial vehicle. The movement is transferred by the steering gear
pitman arm via the steering rod to the intermediate level and track arms
(tie rod arm) the latter is connected to the one-piece-tie rod and the
track arm of the other side of the axle by a tie rod linkage.

Figure: Rigid axle with single-piece tie rod

 STEERING GEAR
When the steering wheel is turned, the tubular steering column trans-
mits this movement to the steering spindle and the steering box . The
reduction ratio provided in the steering box slows down the turning
movement and converts it into a pivoting movement of the steering drop
arm, which is connected to the front wheels by the steering linkage
(track rods, track rod arms). The reduction ratio also ensures minimum
driver effort at the steering wheel. Passenger cars usually have a
steering reduction ratio of between 10 and 20 to 1; on trucks, the figure
is in excess of 20 to 1. Heavy cars and trucks are frequently equipped
with power-assisted steering.

 Function of steering gear

 Conversion of the rotary motion of the steering wheel into
displacement of the rock and or moving the pitman arm.
 Amplification (gearing up) of the torque generated by hand at the
steering wheel. The transmission ratio in the steering gear must be
designed such that the maximum force at the steering wheel, e. g:
200N for vehicle category M3, is not exceeded. The transmission ratio
is up to i=19 on passenger cars, up to around i=36 on commercial
vehicle nowadays, rack-and-pinion steering gear is used on almost all
passenger cars, where commercial vehicle generally use recirculation ball
steering gear.

 Rack-and-pinion steering gear (mechanical)

Structure
A pinion flitted in the steering-gear housing sits on the steering spindle
and engages with the rack by way of helical teeth. The rack is guilder in
bushes and continuously pressed against the pinion by a thrust member
and disc spring to eliminate play
Figure: mechanical rack-and-pinion steering gear

 OPERATING PRINCIPLE

When the steering wheel is turned, the rack is displaced axially by the
rotary motion of the pinion and pivots the wheel via the tie-rod, tie rod
arms and steering knuckles. Rack-and-pinion steering gear features
direct transmission ratio, easy return and flat design.
Constant transmission ratio
The tooth pitch is the same over the whole rack
Variable transmission ratio
On mechanical steering gear without hydraulic assistance, the
transmission ratio is designed such that the steering in the range of
small deflection (central range) has a more direct effect than with larger
deflections in outer range

 Advantages of the variable transmission ratio

 More direct steering for fast straight-ahead driving
 Low amount of effort required for large steering angle, e. g when
maneuvering into a parking space
 Distinction between steering gear
A distinction is dawn between steering gear with:
 Hydraulic assistance, e. g. rack-and-pinion steering and re circulating
 Electro-hydraulic assistance (servo effect).e.g. servotronic and active
steering
 Electrical assistance, e.g. servolectric and active steering.
Hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering
Structure of Hydraulic rock-and-pinion steering
This consists of:
 Mechanical rack-and-pinion steering
 Hydraulic working cylinders with working plunger
 Rotary slide as control valve
 Oil pump, pressure- limiting valve, oil reservoir
The rack is driven by pinion the drive applied to the tie-rods is designed
on both end as side output. The housing for the rack constitutes the
working cylinder, which is divided into two working chamber by a
plunger. Rotary slide valves or rotating plunger valves are used as
control valves. The torsion bar is connected by 2pins on one end with
the control bushing and the drive pinion at the other end it has a rigid
connection to the steering spindle and the rotary slide valve.
The rotary slide valve is composed of the rotating slide and control
bushing. They have control grooves on their lateral surfaces the grooves
on the control bushing open into housing flutter which lead to the two
ram chambers to the vane pump and to the oil reservoir

Figure: hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering with rotary slide valve

steering right
Operating principle
When the steering wheel is turned, the steering force applied manual is
transferred via the torsion bar to the drive pinion at the same time the
torsion bar is stressed in proportion to the counterforce and twisted
slightly this cause’s rotary slide to turn in relation the control bushing
surrounding it. This changer the position of the control grooves in
relation to one another. The inlet slots for the pressure oil supply are
opened. The pressure oil coming from the oil pump flows through the
inlet slots into the low radial groove of the control bushing and is
channeled into the relevant ram chamber.
The fluid pressure acts on either the right-hand or elates the hydraulic
assisting force here it acts in addition to the steering force transferred
mechanically from the pinion to the rack. If the steering wheel is not
turned any further. The torsion bar and rotary slide valve return to the
neutral position the ports to the ram. Chambers are closed the ports for
the return flow are opened. The oil flows from the oil pump via the
control valve back to the supply reservoir

 Electro-hydraulic power steering

servotronic
Servotronic is on electronically controlled rack-and-pinion steering
system in which the hydraulic assisting forces are influenced by the
driving speed. At low driving speeds, the full assisting forces of the
hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering take effect the hydraulic assisting
force is reduced as driving speed increases

Structure of electro-hydraulic power steering servotronic

Servotronic consists of:
 Electronic speedometer
 Hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering
 Electro-hydraulic converter
 ECU
 Oil reservoir
 Oil pump
Figure: servotronic with hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering

 Operating principle

At speeds below 20km/h the solenoid valve controlled by the ECU

remain closed.
As the speed increases, the solenoid valve is gradually opened
Steering right at low speed
If the steering spindle is turned clockwise, right valve plunger (6) is
pushed down by the torsion bar and the lever fitted to it. The pressure
oil flows into ram chamber (12), acts on the working plunger, thereby
assisting the steering force. At the same time, the oil flows through
open non-return valve (8) into chambers (4) and (5)
Steering right at high speed
The solenoid valve is fully open. The pressure oil flows from ram
chamber (12) via open non-return valve (8), throttle (10) and the open
solenoid valve to the return flow. As the result of the oil flowing in
through non-return valve (8) and the throttle effect of throttle (10), the
pressure in chamber (4) is greater than in the chamber (5). This pushes
the lever of plunger (6) upwards and produces a reaction torque on the
torsion bar and steering spindle. The steering power assistance thus
decreases, the driver must apply more steering force to the steering
wheel, and the steering is more direct.

 Electric power steering servolectric

With servolectric the assisting force is generated by an electronically
controlled electric motor is only switched on when required.
Operating principle
The steering torque applied by the driver is measured via a torsion rod
with a torque sensor and in addition the speed is measured via a speed
sensor. The two signals are fed to the ECU. The ECU calculates the
torque required and force-transfer direction using stored program maps
and sends the relevant output signals to the electric motor. The latter
generates an assisting torque which is transformed by a worm-gear pair
and transmitted via the steering spindle to the rack-and-pinion steering
gear.

Figure: electric power steering servolectric

 Active steering
Active steering allows a steering movement to be made without any
driver input.
This system primarily consists of:
 Hydraulic rack-and-pinion steering
 Electric motor
 ECU
 Planetary gearbox
 Sensor

 WHEEL ADJUSTMENT
Wheel base
The wheelbase is the distance between the centre of the front wheels
and the Centre of the rear wheels

Figure: wheel base

Track width
The track width is the distance between the wheels on one axle from the
centre of one tyre, to the centre of the other, measured on stand plane.
Wheelbase time track width gives the wheel contact area.
 Figure: Track width

Toe-in
The toe is the difference in length l2 –l1 between the font of the two
wheels and the rear of the two wheels when set straight ahead. The toe-
in is measured at the hub height from rim flange to rim flange and may
be given as the toe-in angle (for both wheels) either in millimeters or in
degrees (0)
A distinction is drawn between:
 Toe-in
 Zero toe
 Toe-out
Toe-in (L2 –L1)>0
This is used with rear wheel drive and positive kingpin offset the
wheels are pivoted outwards by the rolling resistance at the front. Zero
toe (l2 –l1) =0
Toe-out
Toe-out (l2-l1) <0
This is used with front wheel drive and positive kingpin offset. The
wheels are turned inwards by the motive force acting on the tyre contact
patch
Toe camber, kingpin inclination, kingpin offset and castor are
determined such that the following objectives are attained:
 Small and favorable self-steering effect
 Good straight-running stability.
 Low tyre wear
 Compensation for play in the wheel location
 Little or no tendency of the wheels to wobble

Camber
Comber is the angle of the wheel plane in relation to a vertical line at
the wheel contact point at right angle to the vehicle longitudinal axis
Camber angle y is given in degrees and minutes. A distinction con be
made between:
 Positive camber
 Negative camber
Positive camber
The wheel plane tilts outward at the top. Positive camber produces a
cone effect. The wheel thereby tends to turn (pivot) outward. the greater
the positive camber, the lower the lateral force when cornering.
Negative camber
The wheel plan is tilted inward at the top. The cone effect causes the
wheel to tend to turn in words. Negative word improves the lateral
guidance when cornering; however it produced increased tyre wear on
inside of the tread. Most vehicles have a camber of -60’ to +30’ at the
steered front wheel when the wheels are in the straight- ahead position
deviation of±30 are permitted. Generally, a negative camber of -30 to
-20 is used at the rear wheels
 Castor
Is the forward or rearward tilt of the steering axis in
reference to a vertical line as viewed from the side of the
vehicle the steering axis is defined as the line drawn
through the upper and lower steering pivot points.
  Positive (+) castor is present when the upper suspension pivot point
is behind the lower pivot point (ball joint) as viewed from the side.
 Negative (-) castor is present when the upper suspension pivot point
is ahead of the lower pivot point (ball joint) as viewed from the side.
 Zero castor: means that the steering axis is straight up and down,
also called 0 degrees or perfectly vertical.

 Computerized wheel alignment

For computer axle alignment the wheel position dimension of the motor
vehicle are electronically detected and processed by a computer using
measurement software.

 Computerized wheel alignment process

- Position the vehicle on a horizontal surface, e.g. a measuring platform
- Check the tire wear profile, tire and rim size, tire pressure, condition of
the tie-rod joints, wheel bearings and steering pins
- Position the front wheels on rotation under plates, the rear wheel on
sliding under plates
- Compress the vehicle springs
- Secure the angle sensor to the wheels using clamping fixtures
- Establish communication between the angle sensor and the computer
- Enter the vehicle data into the computer
- Run rim run-out compensation, if necessary, by turning the angle sensor
- After adjustment work, perform a reference dimension check
- Print out the result report.
Figure: Computerized wheel alignment
 TROUBLESHOOTING OF STEERING SYSTEM

Excessive Steering-Wheel Play

 Loose, worn, or damaged steering linkages or tie-rod ends

 Worn ball joints
 Loose, worn, or damaged steering column U-joints
 Loose, worn, or damaged steering column bearings
 Damaged or worn steering gear
 Aerated fluid
 Loose steering gear bolts
 Faulty strut bearing or plate

Car pulls to one side

POSSIBLE CAUSE CORRECTION

Uneven tyre pressure Inflate the same pressure
Improper toe-in Adjust correct toe-in
Uneven castor Adjust correct castor
Incorrect camber Adjust correct camber
Improper rear wheel tracking Align rear axle assembly
Tires not assembly In sale same size
Bent spindle assembly Replace spindle
Dragging brakes Adjust brakes
Worn wheel bearing Replace bearing

Car wonders from side to side

POSSIBLE CAUSE CORRECTION

Low tire pressure Inflate tire pressure
Toe-in incorrect Adjust toe-in
Improper caster Adjust caster
Improper camber Adjust camber
Bent spindle assembly Replace spindle
Vehicle over loaded Regarding load limit
Worn wheel bearing Replace wheel bearing

Hard steering

Possible causes Remedies

A faulty power-steering pump Replace
Damaged or faulty steering Replace
column bearings
Seized steering column U-joints Replace
Steering gear set too tight or is Adjust correctly
binding
Faulty suspension components Replace
Stuck flow control valve Adjust correct or replace
Inadequately inflated tires Inflate tire at correct pressure
Restricted power-steering lines or Replace
hoses
Rack and pinion gear damaged Replace
Low power steering fluid Add power steering fluid

Steering pump noise

POSSIBLE CAUSE CORRECTION
Air in system Bleed
Lock pump pulley Tighten pulley
Loose belt Tension belt correctly
Glazed belt Replace belt
Low fluid level Add fluid
Clogged hose Replace hose
Dirt fluid Refill or drain
Loose pump Tighten pump
Reservoir vent plugged Clean vent
Pump bearing worn Over haul as needed
Defective flow control Replace valve
Vane installed wrong Install correctly
Vanes sticking in rotor Clean

Shimmy: When the wheels shimmy, the driver will feel large,
consistent, rotational oscillations at the steering wheel. These motions
are caused by the lateral movement of the tires.
 Causes
 Loose, worn, or damaged steering linkages or tie-rod ends
 Loose, worn or damaged suspension parts
 Out-of-balance tires
 Excessive wheel run out
 A bad tire
 Loose wheel bearings
Sticking Steering or Poor Return: Poor returnability and sticky
steering describes the steering wheel’s resistance to return to center
after a turn.
 This problem can be caused by the following:
 Binding steering column U-joints
 Loose, worn, or damaged steering linkages or tie-rod ends
 Steering gear set too tight or is binding
 Loose, damaged, or worn suspension parts
 Poor wheel alignment
 Binding steering column bearings
 Wandering: When a vehicle wanders, the driver must constantly turn the steering
wheel to the left and right to keep the vehicle going straight on a level road.
 This problem can be caused by the following:
 Loose or worn suspension components
 Poor wheel alignment
 Unevenly loaded or overloaded vehicle
 Loose or damaged steering gear bolts
 Loose steering column U-joint bolts
 Loose, worn, or binding steering linkages or tie-rod ends
 Improper steering gear preload adjustment
 Leaking rack pistons

 MAINTENANCE OF STEERING SYSTEM

 Power Steering Fluid bleeding Procedure

Always follow the vehicle manufacturer s recommended flushing

procedure. Two people are needed to flush the system. Use the
following steps:

 STEP 1 Raise the front wheels off the ground.

 STEP 2 Remove the low-pressure return hose from the pump and
plug the line fitting on the pump.
 STEP 3 Place the low-pressure return hose into an empty container.
 STEP 4 Fill the pump reservoir with fresh fluid and start the engine.
 STEP 5 As the old and dirty power steering fluid is being pumped
into the container, keep the reservoir full of clean fluid while the
assistant turns the steering wheel full lock one way to full lock the
other way.
 CAUTION: Never allow the pump reservoir to run dry of power
steering fluid. Severe internal pump damage can result.
 STEP 6 when the fluid runs clean, stop the engine and reattach the
low-pressure return hose to the pump reservoir.
 STEP 7 Restart the engine and fill the reservoir to the full mark.
 STEP 8 Turn the steering wheel back and forth, avoiding the stops
one or two times to bleed any trapped air in the system.