IET Radar, Sonar & Navigation

Review Article

Development of frequency diverse array radar ISSN 1751-8784

Received on 15th May 2017
Revised 12th October 2017
technology: a review Accepted on 28th October 2017
E-First on 30th November 2017
doi: 10.1049/iet-rsn.2017.0207
www.ietdl.org

Abdul Basit1,2 , Wasim Khan1, Shafqatullah Khan3, Ijaz Mansoor Qureshi4

1School of Communication and Information Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, People's Republic

of China
2Department of Electrical Engineering, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan
3Advanced RF & Microwave Research Group, Department of Communication Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

4Department of Electrical Engineering, Air University, Islamabad, Pakistan

E-mail: abdulbasit@iiu.edu.pk

Abstract: Electronic beam steering with greater efficiency is a vibrant feature of a phased array antenna, but for all the range
cells, it is fixed at a specific angle. To mitigate this problem, frequency diverse array (FDA) antenna was proposed. This study
presents a review on the development of FDA technology in radar and navigation applications. FDA is different from a
conventional phased array antenna radar in a sense that it uses a small frequency offset across the array, which helps to
generate a range, angle and time-dependent beam pattern. This pattern assures the energy transmission towards the desired
angle and range cell. In addition, this study also focuses the research on getting range-angle uncoupled beam patterns along
with diverse hybrid cognitive FDA design, available in the literature, for improved radar performance.

1 Introduction 22]. Furthermore, unequal inter-element spacing may increase the

Phased array is a most common arrangement of arrays with
multiple transmit antennas. It has been used initially in late 1930s
[1]. Nevertheless, the researchers are still investigating towards
improvements in phased array technology [2–4]. Phased array
antennas consist of a group of antennas, which are combined in
such a manner that the relative phase among the elements is varied
in a specific pattern to achieve a constructive and destructive
interference at desired locations. This is meant to achieve a beam
pattern having high directivity in the desired direction, while
generating side lobes in undesired directions [5]. The high gain
offered by phased arrays facilitates in detecting and tracking weak
targets with small cross section, while suppressing strong
interferences from other directions [6]. The relative phased
between the elements is varied using electronic phase shifters. In
order to control the side lobe levels (SLLs), an appropriate
amplitude distribution is applied across a phased array [7].
The phased array radars (PARs) having the properties of
electronic steering, high gain and low side lobes, narrow beam
width, multiple beams, variable scan rates and interference
cancellation etc. have benefitted variety of radar and satellite
applications [8]. These antennas have much more flexibility and
advantages compared to a conventional reflector antenna.
However, the high cost of phase shifters is one of the limiting
factors [9].
Phased array antennas allow electronic beam steering, multi-
function radar operations [10], computation of complex weights to
form a transmit-receive beam pattern for suppression of multiple
interferences [11, 12], detection a moving target in the presence of
a clutter using space–time adaptive processing (STAP) [13], easy
estimation of direction of arrivals using multiple signal
classification (MUSIC) algorithm [14, 15] and estimation of signal
parameters by rotational invariance techniques algorithm [16]
along with the computation of target ranges exploiting time delay
between the transmitted and received signal peaks [17]. Moreover,
PARs exhibit flexibility to select narrow and wide band array
structure with the choice of amplitude taper in transmit/receive
modules [18, 19] to get better null depths and thus improved
signal-to-interference and noise ratio (SINR) at the receiver [20–
aperture of array without increasing the employed number of
antenna elements, this helps in thinning or broadening of beam-
width and reduces SLL with a reduced number of elements [23]. A
variety of algorithms have been applied in literatures to suppress
interferences using unequally spaced phased arrays [24, 25].
Although phased arrays have many advantages, but some of its
drawbacks in many applications are listed here. One of the major
disadvantage is their high manufacturing cost. A more directed
beam requires a greater number of antenna elements and electronic
phase shifters, which are quite expensive [26]. Another
disadvantage is that in phased arrays, exceeding inter-element
distance beyond half wavelength results in the appearance of
grating lobes in the visible regions that deteriorates the radar
tracking performance [27]. Another disadvantage is that a phased
array antenna produces a power maximum at a fixed angle for all
ranges. Therefore, it is very difficult to suppress range-dependent
clutter and to localise multiple targets having same direction but
different ranges using phased arrays. Although many techniques
exist that can suppress a range-dependent interference such as
STAP techniques [28, 29] but they increase the computational cost
and complexity. Therefore, the desire for more advanced array
antennas such as multitask radar [30] to radio astronomy [31] and
pursuit to localise and track multiple targets in more than one
dimension has come up with a novel beam steering technique
exploiting frequency diverse array (FDA) [32].
The frequency diversity was originally exploited to get
independent measurements of radar cross section (RCS) [33]. In
order to do so, a single antenna was used to transmit frequency
diverse pulses sequentially. In contrast, an FDA radar is multiple
element radar like PAR. However, it is different from a
conventional phased array antenna radar in a sense that it uses a
linearly increasing frequency offset across the array, which helps to
generate a range, angle and time-dependent transmit/ receive beam
pattern [34].
The FDA is quite different from multiple input multiple output
(MIMO) [35] radar as it transmits overlapped signals closely
spaced in frequencies, while MIMO, in some cases, employs
orthogonal signals from widely separated antennas (i.e. widely
spaced MIMO) over multiple independent paths to provide spatial

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 2 Phased array radar
A uniform linear phased array architecture [45] is shown in Fig. 1.
An array of N elements is organised in a straight line with a
uniform inter-element spacing d, where w. is the respective weights
of each element, while θ is the direction of target. An N element
array transmits single waveform towards a point target from its
antennas scaled by complex weights w0, w1, …, wN − 1 as shown in
Fig. 1. The PAR array factor is given as [46]
N−1
AF θ = ∑ wn e jn νdsinθ
∗
(1)
n=0

where ν = 2π/λ represents the wave number, while λ denotes the

Fig. 1  Uniform linear phased array with N elements wavelength, d is inter-element distance and θ is desired direction.
The vector form of this array is given as

AF θ = wHa θ (2)

here . H denotes the conjugate transpose of a vector, w is the

weight vector and a θ is the array steering vector which are given
as [47]
T
w = w0, w1, …, wN − 1 (3)

T
aθ = 1 e jvdsinθ e j2vdsinθ … e j N − 1 vdsinθ (4)

here . T represents the transpose of a vector. With uniform

weights, i.e. wn = 1, the array factor may be expressed as [48]

sin (N /2)vdsin θ
AF θ = (5)
Nsin (1/2)vdsin θ

Fig. 2  Synthesised beam pattern using a conventional beam former
N = 15, θ0 = 40∘, νd = π
diversity [36] and, in some cases, uses multiple waveforms to
provide waveform diversity from closely located antennas (i.e.
collocated MIMO) [37]. Likewise, it is also different from
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) [38] as on
contrary to an FDA, an OFDM technique uses orthogonal sub-
carriers [39]. Moreover, an FDA is also different from the
conventional frequency scanning arrays [40], where each element
uses the same frequency at a given time [41].
Different from phased arrays, the FDA beam pattern provides a
global maximum, as well as, a number of local maxima at diverse
angle and ranges values [42]. This ability can be utilised for
detecting multiple targets having same directions, but different
range values. Moreover, the apparent scan angle of an FDA beam
pattern is different from the nominal scan angle [32] and its
transmit/receive array factor is dependent upon on both the range
and angle [43]. Therefore, precise beam steering alike phased
arrays is not sufficient. Moreover, its apparent scan angle can be
outside of the real beam space that provides additional degrees of
freedom to perform multiple operations simultaneously [44].
In this paper, we give a review on the development of FDA
radar technology i.e. from PAR to FDA and till now. We also
highlight the potential research areas, in which the research is
going on. Moreover, we present technical challenges and future
The beam pattern is generally used to represent the radiation
pattern of an array, which shows the space distribution of
transmitted power. The beam pattern for the PAR antenna is given
as [45]
2
PPAR θ = AF θ 2
= wHa θ (6)
It is apparent from (6) that a beam pattern towards a desired target
position can be generated by applying a suitable weight vector
known as beam former. It can be either adaptive to compute a
weight vector adaptively for optimal performance or non-adaptive
where weights are fixed to get high directivity in the desired
direction. The two commonly used adaptive beam formers are
minimum variance distortion less response and linear constrained
minimum variance beam formers [20]. On the other hand, non-
adaptive beam formers compute weights with uniform or non-
uniform amplitude distribution [49–51]. The non-uniform
distribution includes binomial, triangular and Dolph–Chebyshev
distributions while uniform weight distribution is known as
conventional beam former [48].
These conventional weights are generally computed as
w = a θ0 , where θ0 is the desired direction. Therefore, the beam
pattern of a PAR using conventional beam former is expressed as
[51]
N−1 2

∑ e jn νd sinθ − sinθ0
2
directions. Additionally, we appeal to the antenna and wireless PPAR θ = wHa θ =
propagation research community to contribute in terms of more n=0
(7)
publications on FDA research and development. sin (N /2)νd sin θ − sin θ0 2

The remaining sections are organised as follows: Section 2 =

introduces the basic PAR technology to make its connection with
FDA. Section 3 discusses the basic FDA radar scheme, its
generated beam pattern analysis, present current research on FDA
with non-uniform frequency offset and cognitive FDA research.
Section 4 discusses several future research problems in FDA radar
technology. Finally, the conclusion is made in Section 5.
sin (1/2)νd sin θ − sin θ0
Fig. 2 shows the synthesised beam pattern of a PAR using a
conventional beam former weight vector. The maxima of the beam
pattern is towards θ = θ0 as apparent from (7) and rejects all the
interferences outside the illuminated spatial sector.

166 IET Radar Sonar Navig., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 2, pp. 165-175
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
3 FDA radar 2πΔ f r
i.e. 2πΔ f t − + νdsin θ = 2πm, m = 0,
c
Fig. 3 shows a linear FDA structure having N antenna elements. (15)
An FDA uses a small frequency offset Δ f compared to the ± 1, ± 2, …
fundamental frequency f 0, across the array elements [52]. The
input frequency at nth antenna element is given as [53] where ν = 2π/λ.
Considering (15), there exist enormously many pairs of range
f n = f 0 + nΔ f , n = 0, 1, …, N − 1 (8) and angle values for a fixed time t = t0, which cause multiple peaks
in the range dimension. Similarly, keeping two parameters fixed
where f 0 is a fundamental frequency and Δ f is a frequency offset changes the FDA pattern into a periodic function of the third
value. Each antenna element transmits a signal waveform sn t parameter [54]. Figs. 5a–c show the periodicity of an FDA beam
given as pattern. The fundamental periods of the FDA pattern w.r.t. the
range, time and angle are c/(Δ f ), 1/(Δ f ) and (2π/νd), respectively
sn t = exp( − j2π f nt), n = 0, 1, …, N − 1 (9) [54]. Therefore, the periodicity property of an FDA pattern can be
utilised to generate power maxima at desired range-angle position
The distance between the antenna elements is d = (λ/2), where pairs by controlling Δ f across the array antenna elements.
λ = (c/ f 0). The range-angle-dependent FDA beam pattern allows the radar
The array factor of an FDA has been derived in [54]. Therefore, system to illuminate a desired spatial sector, while suppressing the
adapting from (1) to the notations used in this paper, we can write range-dependent clutter and interferences [42]; thus, resulting in
improved SINR. On the other hand, this range angle coupling may
N−1 degrade the range and angle estimation performance of an FDA,
rn
AF t, Δ f , r, θ = ∑ wn × r1n exp
∗
− j2π f nt −
λn
(10) therefore, in [57] a range-angle-coupled beam pattern for improved
n=0 performance has been explored with frequency diverse chirp
signals. Likewise, an FDA structure, for bi-static radars, has been
where rn = r0 + ndsin(θ) denotes a path difference and λ denotes introduced in [58, 59] for improved estimation performance.
wavelength. Assuming a point target in space, the generated FDA Furthermore, an FDA design, with transmit sub-apertures, has been
beam pattern PFDA with uniform weights, i.e. wn = 1 can be written proposed in [60, 61] for improved range angle estimation of targets
as [54, 55] and improved receive beampattern performance. Similarly, for
improved range-angle localisation, a double pulse FDA radar
N−1 2 system (i.e. pulses with zero and non-zero frequency increments)
r
PFDA t, Δ f , r, θ = ∑ r1n exp − j2π f nt − λnn (11) was proposed in [62], which used PAR for direction detection and
n=0 FDA for target range localisation.
Furthermore, a joint range-angle estimation using MIMO radar
For a far field target, i.e. rn ≃ r0 and considering f 0 ≫ Δ f , the with FDA has been utilised for target localisation in range-
pattern can be approximated as [55] ambiguous scenarios along with getting an improved receive
beampattern [63]. As the transmit/receive FDA pattern is range-
N−1 2 ambiguous and range dependent, a vertical FDA approach has been
exp jγ
PFDA t, Δ f , r, θ ≃
r0 ∑ exp − jnψ (12) proposed to separate range-ambiguous clutter in vertical frequency
n=0 domain and then achieving clutter suppression in each separated
region using STAP methods [64]. Another adaptive receive
where γ = − 2π f 0(t − (r0 /c)) and beamforming for MIMO-FDA has been proposed in [65] to
ψ = 2πΔ f t − ((2πΔ f r)/c) + νdsin θ . suppress the range-dependent interferences for improved target
The beam pattern can also be expressed as (adapting from (5)) localisation. Furthermore, a doubled pulsed MIMO-FDA has been
proposed in [66] for improved target localisation. Another MIMO-
FDA radar transmitter has been designed to solve a Cramer–Rao
PFDA t, Δ f , r, θ lower bound minimisation problem using convex optimisation to
sin (N /2) 2πΔ f t − ((2πΔ f r)/c) + νdsin θ 2 localise targets via beam-spaced-based MUSIC algorithm [67]. An
= (13) MIMO-FDA radar design with a deceptive jamming suppression
sin (1/2) 2πΔ f t − ((2πΔ f r)/c) + νdsin θ
sin (N /2)ψ 2 method has been proposed in [68], where the difference between
= true and false target has been analysed and deceptive jamming
sin (1/2)ψ
suppression has been studied.
The FDA generated beam pattern expression in (13) is not merely a As the FDA beam pattern is time-variant, therefore, a pulsed
function of angle θ but also a function of time t , target range r FDA has been proposed in [69] to generate a quasi-static beam
pattern for enhancing the flexibility of beam scanning and its signal
and frequency offset value Δ f . From (13), the following
processing. For an improved detection performance of an FDA, a
observations can be concluded [56]
nested FDA concept was introduced in [70] to utilise more degrees
of freedom to improve the probability of target detection.
(i) With Δ f = 0, the FDA steering vector is alike a linear phased
Moreover, a nested FDA architecture was utilised in [71] for
array steering vector.
estimating the target direction of arrival with improvement. Due to
(ii) With a constant Δ f , an FDA beam pattern changes as a the coupling in range-angle responses, another sub-array scheme
function of target range. Additionally, with a fixed r, it becomes a where each array has a different frequency offset, has been
function of frequency offset. presented in for improved joint range-angle estimation for FDA
radar target [72]. A random FDA radar has been presented in [73],
Figs. 4a and b show the comparison between phased array and where each sub array has been assigned a random carrier frequency
FDA generated beam patterns. It is noteworthy that several and two different types of signal processing algorithms were
maxima are generated in the range dimension only. Using (13), the proposed, i.e. matched filtering and compressive sensing-based
magnitude of any maxima can be achieved as [42] algorithm for getting uncoupled range-angle FDA beam pattern. A
flattop FDA beam pattern problem has been efficiently solved
ψ = 2πm, m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, … (14) based on second-order cone programming using the inner point
method, where the array is divided into small sub arrays, with a
distinguished frequency offset for each array, to get improved radar
performance [74]. In [75], authors proposed a subarray-based FDA
framework, which obtains a range–angle-decoupled beam pattern

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Fig. 3  Linear FDA structure with N antennas
Fig. 4  Comparison between beam patterns generated by PAR and FDA
(a) PAR generated beam pattern d = λ/2 , N = 15, f 0 = 10 GHz , (b) FDA generated beam pattern d = λ/2, N = 15, f 0 = 10 GHz, Δ f = 450 Hz, t = (1/Δ f ) = 2.2 ms
using multiple non-overlapped subarrays with different frequency
shifts that exist in pairs. They proposed a novel beam pattern
synthesis method based on semidefinite relaxation to merely focus
the transmit energy in a desired range–angle region.
An FDA beam pattern with energy focusing on two-
dimensional section of the surveillance region has been presented
in [76] for improved target localisation performance. Moreover, a
two-dimensional low-side lobe transmit beam pattern synthesis for
FDA radar has been presented in [77] for improved detection
performance. An FDA design for forward looking ground moving
target indication advantages has been analysed in [78], while
multipath characteristics of FDA over a ground plane have been
examined in [79]. The usage of a linear frequency modulated
continuous waveform for FDA and its mathematical design have
been proposed in [80].
The pursuit, to get more improved FDA receive beam pattern,
has resulted in different types of FDA receiver structures, some of
those have been proposed in [81]. In FDA receiver array structures,
erroneous phase shifts and erroneous frequency computation
methods that lead to inaccuracy in direction of arrival and
decreased SINR need a special attention of researchers. In [81], the
author emphasised, firstly, on band limited coherent receiver FDA
architecture that ensures no cross talk at the element levels and,
secondly, full band coherent receiver FDA architecture that ensures
maximum signal from the target location. For improved received
beam pattern performance, an FDA in a multi-mission multi-mode
system has been originally proposed in [44]. Moreover, the concept
of code diversity with an FDA through frequency diverse chirps
was presented in [57] for improved receive beamforming.
Likewise, an improved joint range-angle estimation, using MIMO-
FDA radar, has been presented in [82], while a range-angle
decoupled receive beam pattern with sub-array-based FDA has
been presented in [75]. Moreover, the deceptive jamming
suppression at a receiver using MIMO-FDA has been presented in
[68], while range ambiguous clutter suppression for air borne
FDA-STAP radar has been presented in [83]. The planer FDA
receiver architectures have been proposed in [84]. The FDA
concept has also been applied towards synthetic aperture radar
systems for achieving high-resolution imaging of targets [85, 86].
168
Furthermore, along with linear array and planar array-based
patents [87–89], two FDA patents [90, 91] have been issued
vitalising the range-dependent characteristics of an FDA. In [90],
initially radio frequency signals are applied to a power divider
network. Moreover, an increasing frequency offset is applied
across all spatial channels, which introduces a new beam pattern
that focuses in different directions as a function of range. Similarly,
in [91], radio frequency signals are applied to a transmit/receive
module which have been generated by a plurality of independent
waveform generators to get a range-angle-dependent beam pattern.
The frequency offset plays a vital role to improve the
performance of FDA radar therefore, researchers have shown their
keen interest to investigate different ways for its proper selection.
Consequently, FDA radars with small inter-element frequency
offset [92, 93] have been used to generate range-dependent pattern.
On the contrary, large frequency offset [43, 55, 94] has been
exploited to achieve independent echoes from the target for
improved localisation performance.
Some useful investigations about exploring the ways to apply
the frequency offset across an FDA have been made in [62, 95] for
improved range-angle localisation performance. In [66], a double
pulse MIMO-FDA radar has been presented with a double pulse
technique to manipulate frequency offset to improve range-angle
target localisation performance. Moreover, an FDA with an
adaptive frequency offset selection scheme was proposed in [96] to
improve localisation performance. Likewise, an optimal frequency
offset selection for MIMO-FDA radar was presented in [97], where
the optimal frequency offset was selected by maximising output
SINR in each coherent interval. Similarly, an adaptive computation
of frequency offset at each scan based on the receiver feedback has
been proposed in [98] for improved radar performance. Likewise,
in [99], an FDA with a time-dependent frequency offset was
proposed to get improved beam pattern for a given range and
direction. A null steering technique using suitable frequency offsets
for an FDA radar has been presented in [100] for improved
interference cancellation.
Moreover, the characteristics of an FDA radar beam pattern by
changing frequency offset, inter-element spacing and array
elements, have been investigated in [101] using the finite
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© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
Fig. 5  Periodicity of FDA generated beam-pattern in (a) range dimension (b) time dimension and (c) angle dimension having parameters
d = λ/2, N = 15, f 0 = 10 GHz, Δ f = 10 kHz
(a) t0 and θ0 fixed, (b) ro and θ0 fixed, (c) ro and t0 fixed
difference time-domain method. An FDA radar with time-
dependent transmit weights have been presented in [102] for
getting an improved target localisation and interference
suppression performance. Similarly, a time-invariant beam pattern
synthesis for transmitter side via weight design has been presented
in [103] for improved suppression of range-dependent
interferences. The impacts of frequency offset errors on an FDA
and FDA-MIMO have been investigated in [104, 105], which are
caused due to imperfect electronic devices and thus resulting in
degradation of overall generated FDA beam patterns.
An FDA radar with uniform inter-element frequency offset
generates a range-angle coupled beam pattern, which exhibits
maxima at multiple range and angle values [32]. Certainly, these
multiple maxima property of an FDA beam pattern are undesirable
due to the facts that it allows the interferences located at any of the
maxima to affect the target returns. Moreover, it decreases the
maximum reachable range and does not facilitate to distinguish
between targets that are very close in range. Therefore, researchers
are finding different methods apply non-uniform frequency offset
across an FDA to mitigate these disadvantages.
3.1 FDA radar with non-uniform frequency offset
An FDA generates a range and angle coupled beam pattern due to
synchronous linearly changing frequency offset and element
spacing, which causes problem in parameter estimation. To
generate an uncoupled range-angle beam pattern, this
synchronisation needs to be disturbed by either using (i) non-
uniformly spaced array with uniform frequency offset or (ii)
uniformly spaced array with non-uniform frequency offset [106].
The earlier deals with the physical positions of array sensors, while
the latter merely varies the non-uniform frequency offset across the
array.
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© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
Consequently, the non-uniformly spaced FDA radar was
introduced in [55] for getting range-dependent receive beam
pattern for improved radar performance. Similarly, a non-uniformly
spaced FDA concept was introduced in [55], where an accurate
physical placement of transmitter and receiver was required to
achieve better SINR. To reduce this difficulty, a non-uniformly
spaced FDA with an inter-element spacing proportional to its
wavelength has been proposed in [95], which generates a non-
repeating beam pattern for a range-angle imaging of targets to
improve SINR. The frequency offset and carrier frequency for this
scheme cannot be altered in real time as it requires physical
relocation of antennas. Similarly, in [95] a non-uniform FDA
transmitter has been proposed to generate a range-dependent beam
pattern for achieving an improved range-angle imaging. Therefore,
for generating range-angle uncoupled beam pattern and avoiding
the change in physical sensor positions, researchers put their focus
on the second option, i.e. uniformly spaced FDA with non-uniform
frequency offset.
Fig. 6 shows a uniformly spaced FDA antenna with non-
uniform frequency offsets, having symmetrical elements around the
origin. This symmetry is with respect to frequency offsets. The
inter-element distance is d and total number of elements is
N = 2P + 1, here P is the maximum number of elements on each
side of array from origin, while wn is the transmitter weights.
The frequency input at nth element is given as
f n = f 0 + Δ f n, n = 0, ± 1, …, ± P (16)
here, f 0 is the fundamental frequency, Δ f n is the frequency offset
of nth element with reference to f 0, and is given by
Δ f n = αnΔ f (17)
169
Fig. 6  Frequency diverse array structure with non-uniform frequency offsets

αn is a set of non-uniform frequency offset coefficients. These a r, α = e− j (2π ⋅ α−PΔ f ⋅ r)/ c , …, e− j (2π ⋅ α−1Δ f ⋅ r)/ c , 1,
coefficients are either integers or fractional values, but non- (24)
e j (2π ⋅ α1 ⋅ Δ f ⋅ r)/ c , …, e j (2π ⋅ αPΔ f ⋅ r)/ c
uniform.
It can be noted that these non-uniform frequency offsets only affect
3.2 Non-uniform FDA beamforming
the range steering vector, i.e. a r, α . The FDA beam pattern is a
Consider a far field target in space, the phase of signals transmitted function of angle θ and range (r), therefore, the following
by the middle (reference) and adjacent elements is given by [56] observations are in line [80]:

2π f 0 2π f 1 (i) If we take Δ f = 0 , then it reduces to a conventional PAR

Ψ0 = r and Ψ1 = r (18)
c 0 c 1 pattern.
(ii) If the values of αn are taken uniform, a conventional FDA beam
here, c is the speed of light, while r0 and r1 are the target distances pattern is generated.
from reference and adjacent elements, respectively. The frequency (iii) The non-uniform frequency offset does not affect the angle
f 1 is given as f 1 = f 0 + Δ f 1, while Δ f 1 = α1Δ f and dimension of beam pattern as there is no αn in a θ vector.
r1 = r0 − dsin θ, where θ is the target direction. The phase
difference of these signals is given as ^
If a desired target position is at θ0, r^0 , then the weights for steered
2πdsin θ α Δ f r0 beam pattern to achieve a maximum gain, can be given as
Ψ1 − Ψ0 = − f 0 + α1Δ f − 1 (19)
c dsin θ ^
αnΔ f r^0 ndsin θ0
wT , n = exp − j2π f n + , n = 0, ± 1, …,
Similarly, the phase difference between the reference and Pth c c
element can be written as (25)
±P
2πdsin θ αPΔ f r0
Ψ M − Ψ0 = − f 0P + αPPΔ f − (20)
c dsin θ
where wT , n is a weight of nth transmitter element. The array factor
since f 0 ≫ αPΔ f and r0 ≫ αPdsin θ , hence the term containing
of an FDA system is given by
their product, i.e. ((2παpPΔ f dsin θ)/c) may be neglected. In case
of far filed targets, i.e. rn ≃ r, the steering vector a θ, r, α can be P
2π f 0ndsin θ 2π ⋅ αnΔ f ⋅ r
taken as AF = ∑ wnexp − j
c
−
c
(26)
n= −P

a θ, r, α = The beam pattern towards the desired target can be approximated

as the magnitude squared of the array factor and is given by
e j ((2π f 0Pdsinθ)/ c) − ((2π ⋅ α−PΔ f ⋅ r)/ c) , …, e j ((2π f 0dsinθ)/ c) − ((2π ⋅ α−1Δ f ⋅ r)/ c) ,
j((2π f 0dsinθ)/ c) − ((2π ⋅ α1 ⋅ Δ f ⋅ r)/ c)
1, e− , …, e− j ((2π f 0Pdsinθ)/ c) − ((2π ⋅ αPΔ f ⋅ r)/ c)
PFDA r0, θ0, α
^ 2 (27)
P f 0nd sin θ − sinθ0 αnΔ f r − r^0
(21) ≃ ∑ exp − j2π −
n= −P
c c
It can be represented in vector form, given as
Originally in [55], an FDA with non-uniform frequency offsets has
a θ, r = a θ ⊙ a r, α (22) also been proposed and simulations were carried out to indicate the
modified shape of beam pattern in terms of null depths and
where placements. After that a uniform linear array with logarithmically
increasing inter-element frequency offset has been presented in
a θ = e j (2π f 0Pdsinθ)/ c , …, e j (2π f 0dsinθ)/ c , 1, e− j (2π f 0dsinθ)/ c , …, [107], which generates a single-maximum range-angle uncoupled
(23) beam pattern for an arbitrary value of frequency offset and also
e− j (2π f 0Pdsinθ)/ c suppresses interferences significantly. Similarly, a range-bin-based
MIMO-FDA with logarithmic frequency offset has been presented
and in [108] for detecting multiple targets present in different range
bins. Additionally, the performance analysis of MIMO-FDA with
logarithmic frequency offset in terms of improved SINR, detection
probability and Cramer–Rao lower bounds (CRLB) on range-angle

170 IET Radar Sonar Navig., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 2, pp. 165-175
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
Fig. 7  Comparison of the beam pattern generated by
(a) Conventional FDA [32], (b) Log-FDA [107], (c) Multilog-FDA [113] d = λ/2, N = 15, f 0 = 10 GHz, Δ f = 4000 Hz, θ0 = 20∘, r0 = 2 and 5 m
estimation has been presented in [109]. Moreover, transmit-receive
beamforming for MIMO log-FDA was presented in [110], it avoids
the periodicity of conventional FDA using non-uniform frequency
offsets and thus achieves improved uncoupled beam pattern.
Similarly, an MIMO-FDA radar design with non-uniform
frequency offset have been presented in [111] for generating a
pencil beam or flat-top beam, according to the situation, to detect
and track multiple targets. In [112], the values of frequency offset
as well as sensor positions were optimally computed using particle
swarm optimisation algorithm to generate a pencil beam with low-
side lobes using an FDA.
Moreover, a convex-multi-log FDA has been proposed in [113]
to generate a dot-shaped FDA beam pattern. Despite the increase in
computational complexity due to multi-log structure, it showed
improved performance in terms of transmit energy focusing, side
lobe suppression and array resolution. In [114], non-uniform
frequency offset has been used for optimising the FDA transmit
beam pattern using genetic algorithm. This technique also
generated a dot-shaped beam pattern to get improved range-angle
target localisation performance. Moreover, genetic algorithm-based
non-uniform frequency offsets have been exploited in [115] to
detect and localise multiple targets with same direction but
different ranges. An FDA radar with non-uniform frequency offset
based on mu-law formulae have been presented in [116], which
generated improved uncoupled beam pattern and showed improved
radar performance in terms of SINR, probability of detection and
CRLB estimation performance.
An FDA with non-uniformly increasing integer frequency
offsets has been utilised in [117] to achieve shaper beam pattern for
improved energy focusing towards the target. Similarly, square
increasing and cubic increasing non-uniform frequency offsets for
an FDA have been utilised in [118] to show improved performance
in both focusing transmit energy and target localisation
performance, especially in the range dimension. Similarly, in [119,
IET Radar Sonar Navig., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 2, pp. 165-175
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
120] frequency diverse coprime array radars with coprime
frequency offset have been proposed for multi target localisation,
which showed its superiority in terms of DOA-range resolution,
localisation accuracy, and the number of resolvable targets.
Similarly, these coprime arrays have been utilised in MIMO-FDA
radars for improving the number of resolvable targets and
improved localisation performance [121]. In [106], a Costas-
sequence modulated frequency offset have been utilised to produce
random-like energy distribution in the transmit beam pattern and
thumbtack transmit-receive beam pattern. It helps in improving the
range-angle estimation of target and can be used for low
probability of intercept (LPI) radar applications. Fig. 7 shows the
comparison of FDA generated beam patterns using conventional
frequency offset, logarithmically increasing frequency offset and
multilog frequency offset. The non-uniform frequency offsets help
to generate a range-angle uncoupled beam pattern when compared
with conventional FDA radar.
Additionally, different types of geometries have been
investigated for FDA radars. The beam pattern analysis of planer
FDA design has been presented in [122], where it was shown that
planer FDA provides better directionality and higher gain when
compared with conventional FDA radar. Moreover, the circular
FDA geometries were deeply studied in [123], where theory, basic
analysis and beam steering for uniform circular FDA was presented
to get the advantages of better spatial resolutions. Moreover, non-
uniform frequency offsets based on tangent hyperbolic function
were applied to this uniform circular FDA, where beam patterns of
three different configurations of an FDA can be generated, just by
adjusting a single function parameter of the tangent hyperbolic
function in order to get enhanced system detection capability and
signal-to-interference plus noise ratio [124]. Likewise, elliptical
geometry for an FDA, i.e. elliptical FDA radars with uniform and
non-uniform frequency offsets have been investigated in [125] for
getting range selective beam patterns with decreased average SLL.
171
Fig. 8  Generic information flow of a cognitive FDA radar
The non-uniform frequency offsets were obtained using tangent
hyperbolic functions.
Since, the current FDA radar designs are often confined to
adaptive receivers, they are unable to sense the environment
through transmitters. Therefore, researchers’ pursuit to develop
some intelligent radar system, adaptive in both the receiver and the
transmitter, paved a way for an intelligent radar system known as
hybrid cognitive FDA radars.
3.3 Hybrid cognitive FDA radar
The research towards an intelligent radar, which can adapt itself to
the statistical changes of environment and unknown time varying
scenarios, has been one of the dynamic research areas since last
decade [126]. To address this issue, modern radar design
technologies have been dominated not only by signal processing
and control techniques alone, but also with the hybridisation of
both to meet numerous milestones [127]. These advancements in
the field of radar design have addressed diverse radar problems,
such as range estimation, RCS measurement, speed estimation, and
direction estimation [128, 129] quite effectively to enhance the
radar detection and tracking performance. Likewise, an intelligent
dynamic system like a human brain that can have the properties of
problem solving, decision making, memory, learning and
perception may outperform all the conventional systems.
Therefore, the idea of cognitive radar (CR) was firstly coined by
Haykin [130], which had four essential points of CR, i.e. Bayesian
filtering or Kalman filters and its variants [131–134] in the receiver
for target tracking [135–137], dynamic programming at the
transmitter, memory and global feedback, which acts a facilitator
of intelligence.
The receiver senses the radar environment by continuously
interacting with it to get the necessary information regarding
targets/interceptors. This information is sent as a feedback from the
receiver to the transmitter. The transmitter of cognitive radar
contains the intelligent signal processing block which allows to
change its properties for transmitting an appropriate beam pattern
in accordance with the statistical variations in the environment.
This cycle is known as perception-action cycle and keeps on
repeating itself for improved performance [138–141]. A generic
information flow of a cognitive FDA radar is given in Fig. 8, which
consists of signal processing blocks on both transmitter and
receiver side to enhance the radar performance even more.
Moreover, an FDA transmitter senses the environment using the
172
FDA receiver and feedback link is used for improved radar
performance.
Taking the essence from adaptive CRs [142, 143], a hybrid
cognitive PAR [144] was presented to enhance the overall radar
performance in terms of LPI beam forming. Stepping forward
towards the FDA radar technology, an FDA radar for selecting the
frequency offset, cognitively, was presented in [96]. Moreover, a
frequency offset calculation method based on the receiver feedback
was proposed in [98] to improve the transmit energy focusing
performance in the target position. Moreover, cognitive null
steering using a cognitive FDA was proposed in [100], to improve
the interference suppression performance. A symmetric cognitive
FDA radar design with non-uniform frequency offsets along the
array was proposed in [116], to generate a signal maximum sharp
and wide beam pattern according to the requirement, received as
feedback from receiver, for enhanced target detection, SINR and
CRLB-based estimation performance. Similarly, a cognitive FDA
beam pattern synthesis for detecting multiple targets with same
direction but different ranges was presented in [115], which used
genetic algorithm to compute the non-uniform frequency offset for
employed FDA radar based on the receiver feedback.
Improved moving target tracking performance using a cognitive
FDA stealth radar was presented in [145, 146], which not only
improved the radar tracking and localisation performance but also
enhanced the radar LPI beamforming performance. A robust
adaptive beamforming for fast moving target detection using an
FDA-STAP radar was presented in [147]. Moreover, a cognitive
FDA radar design to achieve increased SINR for improved target
tracking was presented in [148]. A range-angle-dependent
cognitive beamforming using an FDA was presented in [149],
which used the receiver feedback to control the overall beam
generation towards the target predicted position. Moreover, a
cognitive MIMO-FDA for improved LPI performance was
presented in [150], to achieve the advantages of MIMO radar and
CR. A cognitive FDA with situational awareness was presented in
[151] to utilise the combined advantages of CR due to its feedback
control loop and FDA range-angle-dependent beam forming.
Table 1 shows a comparison of three types of FDA radars
discussed in this paper.
Although a lot of research is going on in the field of FDA radar,
yet there is a lot of room for new methods to be researched for
improved radar performance. Below are given some future
directions for FDA radar.
IET Radar Sonar Navig., 2018, Vol. 12 Iss. 2, pp. 165-175
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017
Table 1 Comparison among three types of FDA radar systems
Range–angle Computation Interference Detection Tracking On-the-fly
coupled/decoupled complexity suppression performance performance decision making
beam pattern (intelligence)
conventional FDA range–angle coupled reasonable good good good no
beam pattern
FDA radar with non- range–angle decoupled less improved improved improved no
uniform frequency beam pattern
offset
hybrid cognitive FDA Both more very improved very improved very improved yes
radar

4 Future work
Although FDA radar technology has many promising advantages
and it has turned a new leaf in the radar technology, but still there
are several FDA radar problems which need to be addressed.
i. Along with a linear array geometry, different types of other
geometries (some have been reported in this paper) for an FDA
radar can be used to get the full advantage of an FDA radar in
terms of spatial, spectral and temporal aspects of the FDA.
Optimal geometry for FDA radar needs to be investigated.
ii. Non-uniform frequency offsets applied along the FDA radar
have many advantages, as reported in this paper, but there is a
need for getting some closed form expressions to get optimised
non-uniform frequency offset to be applied along the FDA for
improved radar performance.
iii. Waveform optimisation for an FDA radar needs to be further
investigated for improved FDA radar performance. The
optimised waveform needs to be designed keeping in mind the
constraints of total bandwidth, number of transmit and receive
FDA elements, transmit signal peak amplitude and minimum
SLLs. This constrained optimisation problem should be further
investigated.
iv. Cognitive radar properties hybridised with FDA radar have
some great advantages (as reported in this paper), yet there is
of a need a full investigation of hybrid cognitive FDA designs
for improved performance. May be more use of neural
networks and deep learning algorithms can be used to sense the
radar environment more precisely for improved cognitive FDA
radar performance. The memory, a CR property, which keeps
the information about the terrain and the radar environment,
may be used in a more efficient way for improved radar
performance. These cognitive properties combined with FDA
radar with non-uniform frequency offset can further improve
FDA radar performance and needs to be investigated
thoroughly.
v. The optimal array processing algorithms and techniques, which
are not only confined in receiver now (due to CR properties),
need to be investigated even more. The CR properties, the non-
uniform frequency offsets, learning about and sensing the radar
environment has extensively increased the computational
complexities not only on the receiver side but also on the
transmitter side, therefore optimal array signal processing
algorithms are to be investigated.
5 Conclusion
PAR has been already in its mature form, while research
community is focusing towards FDA and CRs. Moreover, hybrid
designs of CR with PAR and FDA radars have promised significant
performance improvement when compared with stand-alone PAR
and FDAs. Additionally, FDA radar with non-uniform frequency
offset is also a new field to achieve and a control a range-angle
uncoupled FDA beam pattern for improved performance. The
performance improvement of FDA radar designs has been shown
in terms of enhanced SINR, improved detection probability, better
range and angle resolution, enhanced transmit energy focusing,
better energy efficiency, improved tracking performance and
improved CRLB on range and angle estimates. Although, there are
many advantages of FDA radar technology, yet the room for
improvement is always there.
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