Director Doc. Rer. Nat., P.Doc. Pedro Calixto Patarroyo Gama

____________________________
Director
Doc. Rer. Nat., P.Doc. Pedro Calixto Patarroyo Gama
____________________________
Codirector
Ph.D. José María Jaramillo Mejía
II Stratigraphy of the Ordovician La Cristalina Formation, Puerto Berrío (Colombia)
Stratigraphy of the Ordovician La

Cristalina Formation, Puerto Berrío
(Colombia)
María Fernanda Almanza Meléndez

Geologist, Universidad Nacional de Colombia Sede Bogotá
Universidad Nacional de Colombia
Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Geociencias
Bogotá D. C., Colombia
2017
Stratigraphy of the Ordovician La
Cristalina Formation, Puerto Berrío
(Colombia)
María Fernanda Almanza Meléndez

Geologist, Universidad Nacional de Colombia-Sede Bogotá
Thesis presented as partial requisite to get the title of:

Mágister en Ciencias-Geología
Director:
Doc. Rer. Nat., P.Doc. Pedro Calixto Patarroyo Gama
Co-Director:
Ph.D. José María Jaramillo Mejía
Research field:
Stratigraphy
Universidad Nacional de Colombia

Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Geociencias
Bogotá D. C., Colombia
2017
To those who enjoy each piece of the cake,
who love researching and never forget to be a good
human being. To my beloved father, mother and
brother
Acknowledgments
The main reason to do this master theses was the curiosity I had for some poorly-known
old rocks. So, I feel deeply grateful with those Ordovician complicated rocks for allowing
me discover something new.
I am grateful with my advisor Pedro Patarroyo for accompanings me during field work,
and with my co-advisor professor José María Jaramillo, firstly, for the enlightining
discussions during the best researching-breakfasts, secondly for guiding me to unlock
dreams and build this master theses and its related peer-reviewed publications, lastly for
introducing me to such metamorphic rocks and to encourage me to study them. I am also
grateful with Francisco Javier Muñoz, Master candidate at Genève University, for their
valuable assistance during field work. Thanks to my friends, fellow geologists, professors
and my family for listening to my changing geological models.
Thanks to the Academic Vice-Rectory of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia (UN) for
the Honours Degree Scholarship, the Welfare Science Faculty of the UN for supportting
part of the academic exchange to Johannes Gutenberg Universität, the Geosciences
Department of the UN for supportting geochemical analyses, the Spanish Mineco (CGL
2012- 39471) of the CSIC (Spain) for financing a research trip, and GmasLab (Bogotá) for
supportting laboratory measurements.
Finally, many thanks in advance to those who will be next to me not only in the process of
improving the geological model here proposed, but also for continuing publishing the
information relevant to La Cristalina Formation. As Philippe ROSSI (President of the
Commission for the Geological Map of the World) reflected about maps but here applied
to the geological model of La Cristalina Formation:
“(…) never achieved just abandoned”
Paul Valery
Resumen y Abstract IX
Abstract
La Cristalina Formation is a low-grade polimetamorphic sedimentary unit that crops out in
the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, mainly to the south of La Cristalina Railway
Station from which its the name was coined, and corresponds to the northwesternmost
Ordovician sedimentary unit of Colombia. La Cristalina has not been defined according to
the international procedure, despite “La Cristalina” term has been used for more than 87
years, when was published the first Ordovician sedimentary rocks of Colombia. Here 109
samples were handed, there were made 6 field trips, 8 creeks-sections, 5 cross-sections,
4 general composed stratigraphic columns, photo-geology, 64 thin sections, 39
geochemical and 2 geochronological analyses in order to correctly define the unit,
following the international procedure of the International Commission on Stratigraphy.
The unit was studied from the stratigraphic point of view, but as during the research
fossils were found and igneous rocks analized, special studies were carried out. La
Cristalina Formation is a very useful stratigraphic unit if considering the paleography of
Gondwana and the tectonic location and its deformation meaning for the understanding of
the tectonic processes that have occurred since Ordovician times. Here is suggested to
continue using the name “La Cristalina” as a lithostratigraphic unit with a “Formation”
rank. La Cristalina is defined here as all the strata concordant with Ordovician graptolitic
metamudstones, composed of at least 4 facies and facies associations: metamudstones,
siliciclastic intercalations, metamicrites and calcareous intercalations, those suggest an
off shore and shoreface epicontinental marine sequence. Fossils occurrences reported
here correspond to an assemblage of graptolites determined as Didymograptus cf.
murchisoni (Beck), Pseudamplexograptus latus (Bulman) and Glossograptus hincksii
(Hopkinson), together with phyllocarids and the first occurrences of Colombian
foraminifera identified as Astrorhiza? sp. of international interest. La Cristalina overlies,
with a faulted contact and an unconformity some Precambrian paragneisses, and
underlies the Middle Jurassic rhyolites and andesites with a fault or an unconformity;
besides with an unconformity underlies some Lower Cretaceous marine rocks (Fuquen et
al., 2009) and Cenozoic alluvial deposits. Importantly, La Cristalina has an overspread
low grade metamorphism that reached biotite isograde. It was intruded by 3 different
igneous rocks: granodioritc to dioritic rocks (likely, related with the Middle to Upper
Jurassic Segovia Batholith), rhyodacitic porphyries and granitoids with s-type affinities.
These igneous rocks allow constraining the relative age of the metamorphism of La
X Stratigraphy of the Ordovician La Cristalina Formation, Puerto Berrío (Colombia)
Cristalina as pre-Jurassic and are the responsible of the La Cirstalina contact

metamorphism. Structural complications and lacking of fossils makes complicated to
unequivocally identify the sequence and calculate the total thickness. Lastly,
metamudstones of La Cristalina can be correlated with the mudstones of El Hígado
Formation. According to all the above, the Chapter 1 of this theses corresponds to the
proposal to formally define the unit.
Contenido XI
Resumen
La Formación La Cristalina es una unidad metasedimentaria polimetamórfica de bajo
grado, que aflora en el flanco oriental de la cordillera Central, principalmente al sur de la
Estación La Cristalina del Ferrocarril de Antioquia del cual proviene su nombre, además
corresponde a la unidad ordovícica sedimentaria más noroccidental de Colombia. La
Cristalina no había sido definida formalmente de acuerdo al procedimiento internacional
recomendado, a pesar de que el término “La Cristalina” ha sido usado por más de 87
años, cuando fueron publicadas las primeras rocas ordovícicas de Colombia. Para este
estudio se colectaron 109 muestras de mano y se hicieron 6 salidas de campo, 8
secciones por quebrada, 5 cortes geológicos, 4 columnas estratigráficas generalizadas,
64 secciones delgadas, 39 medidas geoquímicas y 2 geocronológicas. Lo anterior con el
objetivo de definir formalmente la unidad estratigráfica, de acuerdo al procedimiento
internacional recomendado por la Comisión Internacional Estratigráfica. A pesar de que
el principal objetivo fue estudiar la unidad desde el punto de vista estratigráfico, durante
el trabajo de investigación fueron encontrados fósiles y se analizaron rocas ígneas, por lo
que se hicieron estudios adicionales. La Formación La Cristalina es una unidad
estratigráfica muy útil si se consideran las reconstrucciones paleogeográficas de
Gondwana y el significado que tiene su posición tectónica y su deformación en el
entendimiento de los procesos tectónicos que han ocurrido desde el Ordovícico en la
esquina noroccidental de Suramérica. Aquí se propone seguir usando el témino “La
Cristalina” como una unidad litoestratigráfica con un rango de “Formación”. La Cristalina
se define como todos los estratos concordantes con metalodolitas graptolíticas, que
incluyen al menos 4 facies y asociaciones de facies: metalodolitas, intercalaciones
siliciclásticas, metamicritas e intercalaciones calcáreas. Estas facies representan una
secuencia epicontinental marina de costa afuera y de frente de playa. Las ocurrencias de
fósiles reportadas aquí corresponden a una asociación de graptolitos determinados como
Didymograptus cf. murchisoni (Beck), Pseudamplexograptus latus (Bulman) y
Glossograptus hincksii (Hopkinson) con filocáridos, además de las primeras ocurrencias
de foraminíferos en Colombia, Astrorhiza? sp., de interés internacional. La Cristalina
suprayace con un contacto fallado e inconforme a unos paraneises precámbricos, e
infrayace a riolitas y andesitas del Jurásico Medio con posiblemente un contacto fallado o
una inconformidad, además infrayace con un contacto inconforme a unas rocas marinas
del Cretácico inferior (Fuquen et al., 2009) y a depósitos aluviales del Cenozoico. De
XII Stratigraphy of the Ordovician La Cristalina Formation, Puerto Berrío (Colombia)
forma escencial, La Cristalina tiene metamorfismo de bajo grado en toda la secuencia

que incluso alcanza la isógrada de la biotita. La unidad fue intruída por al menos 3
unidades ígneas: rocas granodioriticas a dioriticas (probablemente, relacionadas con el
Batolito de Segovia del Jurásico Medio a Superior), pórfidos riodacíticos de edad
desconocida y granitos tipo-S del Paleoceno, estas rocas ígneas permiten inferir que el
metamorfismo de La Cristalina es pre-Jurásico y son las responsables del metamorfismo
de contacto que tiene la unidad ordovícica. Complicaciones estructurales y la carencia de
fósiles hacen difícil conocer inequívocamente la totalidad de la sucesión y el espesor de
la unidad. Metalodolitas con graptolitos de La Cristalina se correlacionan
litoestratigráficamente por posición y litología con las lodolitas graptolíticas de la
Formación El Hígado. Finalmente, el Capítulo 1 de esta tesis corresponde a la propuesta
de definición de la unidad.
Contenido XIII
Content
Pág.
Resumen ..............................................................................................................................XI
Figures .............................................................................................................................. XVI
Tables ............................................................................................................................... XVII
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 19
1. Stratigraphic definition of the Lower to Middle Ordovician La Cristalina

Formation, Puerto Berrío (Colombia) .............................................................................. 28
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 30
1.1.1 Location and access ............................................................................ 30
1.1.2 Generalities of La Cristalina Formation ............................................... 32
1.1.3 Tectonic importance of La Cristalina Formation: Why it is a very useful
stratigraphic unit .................................................................................................... 35
1.2 Methodology ...................................................................................................... 37
1.3 Results ............................................................................................................... 38
1.3.1 Geomorphologic expression................................................................... 38
1.3.2 Stratotype ............................................................................................... 39
1.3.3 Facies description ................................................................................... 43
1.4 Discussion ......................................................................................................... 65
1.4.1 Invalid definitions .................................................................................... 65
1.4.2 Composed type locality .......................................................................... 65
1.4.3 Stratigraphic relations ............................................................................. 65
1.4.4 Age.......................................................................................................... 70
1.4.5 Rocks description and petrogenesis ...................................................... 70
1.4.6 Lithocorrelation ....................................................................................... 73
1.4.7 Stratigraphic classification: Rank ........................................................... 74
1.4.8 Name ...................................................................................................... 74
1.4.9 Formalization .......................................................................................... 76
1.5 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 76
1.6 References ........................................................................................................ 78
2. New graptolite fossil localities of La Cristalina Formation ................................... 83

2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 83
2.1.1 General approaches of La Cristalina Formation .................................... 83
2.1.2 Ordovician sedimentary/low grade metasedimentary rocks in Colombia86
2.1.3 La Cristalina Formation in the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera... 87
2.1.4 Ordovician transgression in Colombia ................................................... 88
2.1.5 La Cristalina biostratigraphy and age .................................................... 89
XIV Título de la tesis o trabajo de investigación
2.2 Methodology ...................................................................................................... 89

2.3 Results ............................................................................................................... 89
2.3.1 Metasedimentary succession bearing graptolites .................................. 89
2.3.2 Graptolites occurrences ......................................................................... 92
2.4 Discussion ......................................................................................................... 95
2.4.1 Age of La Cristalina Formation ............................................................... 95
2.4.2 Implications of La Cristalina graptolite occurrences in Colombia .......... 96
2.4.3 Paleogeographical implications in South America ................................. 97
2.4.4 Colombian tectonic scenario .................................................................. 99
2.5 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 100
2.6 References ...................................................................................................... 100
3. Colombian first ocurrences of Ordovician foraminifera: La Cristalina Formation105

3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 105
3.1.1 Ordovician foraminifera ........................................................................ 105
3.1.2 La Cristalina Formation ........................................................................ 107
3.1.3 La Cristalina biostratigraphy ................................................................. 109
3.2 Methodology .................................................................................................... 110
3.3 Results ............................................................................................................. 110
3.4 Discussion ....................................................................................................... 117
3.4.1 Why foraminifera should be considered Ordovician ............................ 117
3.4.2 Paleontological and paleogeographical issues .................................... 117
3.4.3 Lithologic facies, sedimentary setting and metamorphism .................. 119
3.5 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 119
3.6 References ...................................................................................................... 120
4. Rhyolitic to andesitic rocks, granodioritic to dioritic rocks, rhyodacitic

porphyries and Paleocene S-type granitoids intruded La Cristalina Formation:
Petrological approach and stratigraphic discussion .................................................. 123
4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 123
4.2 Methods ........................................................................................................... 130
4.3 Results ............................................................................................................. 131
4.3.1 Rock descriptions at outcrop, hand-sample and thin-section scale .... 131
4.3.2 Geochemical analyses ......................................................................... 143
4.3.3 Pb dating ............................................................................................... 149
4.4 Discussion ....................................................................................................... 150
4.4.1 Petrological approaches ....................................................................... 151
4.4.2 Stratigraphic nomenclature .................................................................. 155
4.4.3 Critical aspects in relation with La Cristalina Formation ...................... 158
4.5 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 159
4.6 References ...................................................................................................... 160
5. Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 163
6. Future researching opportunities........................................................................... 166
A. Supplemental Material 1: Stops, hand-samples and lineaments maps ............. 167
B. Supplemental Material 2: Petrography .................................................................. 170
C. Supplemental Material 3: X Ray Difraction ............................................................ 175

Contenido XV
D. Supplemental Material 4: Precambrian paragneisses ......................................... 179
E. Supplemental Material 5: Bentonites ..................................................................... 180
F. Supplemental Material 6: Gechrological data ....................................................... 181
References ........................................................................................................................ 183

Contenido XVI
Figures
Figure 1-1 Geological map of the studied area (…)............................................................... 32
Figure 1-2. Geological Map of La Cristalina Formation (…). ................................................. 40
Figure 1-3 Creek-sections in Las Iglesias and La Miquera creeks (…). ................................. 41
Figure 1-4 Cross-sections in Las Iglesias and La Miquera creeks (…). ................................. 42
Figure 1-5 Composed generalized columns of La Cristalina Formation (…). ......................... 43
Figure 1-6 Outcrops and hand-samples of metamudstones facies (…). ................................ 47
Figure 1-7 Thin-section pictures of dark metamudstones facies (…) ..................................... 48
Figure 1-8 Outcrop and hand-sample pictures of silicilastic intercalations facies (…). ........... 53
Figure 1-9 Thin-section pictures of siliciclastic intercalations facies (…) ................................ 55
Figure 1-10 Outcrop and hand-sample pictures of metamicrites facies (…). ......................... 57
Figure 1-11 Thin-section pictures of metamicrites facies (…). ............................................... 58
Figure 1-12 Outcrop and hand-sample pictures of calcareous intercalations facies (…). ....... 62
Figure 1-13 Thin-section pictures of calcareous intercalations facies association (…). .......... 64
Figure 1-14 Stratigraphic relations (nature of contacts) of La Cristalina Formation (…). ........ 68
Figure 2-1. Ordovician sedimentary and low-grade metasedimentary (…). ........................... 84
Figure 2-2. Geological Map of La Cristalina Formation (…)................................................. 85
Figure 2-3 Outcrops, hand-sample and thin-section pictures of La Cristalina (…) ................. 91
Figure 2-4 Composed generalized columns of La Cristalina Formation (…). ......................... 92
Figure 2-5 New graptolite assemblage of La Cristalina Formation (…). ................................. 94
Figure 3-1 Geological Map of the Ordovician La Cristalina Formation (…). ......................... 108
Figure 3-2. Outcrop and hand-samples pictures of metamudstones (…)............................. 111
Figure 3-3 Polished 3D hand-sample (…). .......................................................................... 112
Figure 3-4 Thin-section pictures of samples where foraminifera were found (…). ............... 114
Figure 3-5 Benthic agglutinated foraminifera in thin-section (…). ........................................ 116
Figure 4-1 Geological map of the studied area (…)............................................................. 126
Figure 4-2 Geological Map of the studied area (…)............................................................. 126
Figure 4-3 Outcrops and hand-samples of granitoids (…). .................................................. 134
Figure 4-4 FLC-02 granitoid thin-section photographs (…). ................................................ 135
Figure 4-5 FLC-02 granitoid thin-section photographs (…). ................................................ 136
Figure 4-6 FLC-16 granitoid thin section photographs (…). ................................................. 137
Figure 4-7 Thin-section pictures of granodioritic to dioritic rocks (…). ................................. 142
Figure 4-8 Rhyodacitic porphyries (CLC-18) at outcrop and hand-sample (…).................... 142
Figure 4-9 Minor and major elements diagrams for granitoids (…). ..................................... 147
Figure 4-10 Spider and REE diagrams for granitoids (…). .................................................. 148
Figure 4-11 Harker diagrams of granitoids (…). .................................................................. 149
Figure 4-12 Concordia diagrams and frequencies histogram of granitoids (…). .................. 150
Figure 4-13 Contact metamorphism of La Cristalina Formation (…). ....................................159
Contenido XVII
Tables
Table 1-1 Main published contributions to La Cristalina Formation knowledge ................ 33
Table 1-2 Main published contributions to La Cristalina Formation biostratigraphic (…).. 34
Table 1-3 Selected thin-section descriptions of both of metamudstones facies (…). ....... 49
Table 1-4 Selected thin-section descriptions of metamicrites facies and (…) ................... 59
Table 1-5 Stratigraphic relations (nature of contacts) of La Cristalina Formation (…) ...... 66
Table 1-6 Names used to refer to La Cristalina Formation since 1911 up to now. ........... 76
Table 2-1 Main published contributions to La Cristalina Formation biostratigraphical(…) 88
Table 2-2 Fossil localities, identification of graptolite assemblages and age (…) ............. 96
Table 3-1 Main published contributions to the biostratigraphic knowledge (…). ............. 109
Table 3-2. Petrographic description of selected samples (…). ........................................ 114
Table 4-1. Selected petrographic description of granitoids (…). ..................................... 137
Table 4-2 Major, minor and trace elements measurements by XRF of granitoids (…). .. 144
Introduction
Preliminary information
This theses is structured in 4 chapters: the 1) “Stratigraphic definition of the Lower to
Middle Ordovician La Cristalina Formation, Puerto Berrío (Colombia)”, 2) “New graptolite
fossil localities of La Cristalina Formation”, 3) “Colombian first ocurrences of Ordovician
foraminifera: La Cristalina Formation” and 4) “Rhyolitic to andesitic rocks, granodioritic to
dioritic rocks, rhyodacitic porphyries and Paleocene granitoids intruded La Cristalina
Formation: Petrological approach and stratigraphic discussion”.
Chapters have a research-paper structure, therefore each one has an abstract,

introduction, results, discussion, conclusion and acknowledgements, in such way each
chapter has its own contextualization information in a highly condensed way. The
dissertation aim is to publish chapters in peer-reviewed journals and is the reason by
which it was written in English. Extracts of chapter 2 were submmited to an international
peer-review journal, and extracts of chapter 2 and 3 were presented at the 34th
International Geological Congress in Cape Town (South Africa) in August, 2016 (Almanza
et al., 2016).
Research issues
La Cristalina Formation was the first Ordovician sedimentary succession published in
Colombia (87 years ago, Harrison, 1930) and one of the first in South America (Trumpy,
1943; Aceñolaza, 1980). Few cartographical works had been done in the region where La
Cristalina Formation crops out (Harrison, 1930; Botero, 1940; Feininger et al., 1972; GRP,
2008; UPTC, 2012; Fuquen et al., 2009; Fonseca et al., 2011).
La Cristalina Formation is critical because its location to the east of the Otú-Pericos Fault
in the Central Cordillera, that have been long proposed as a terrane boarder, to the west
20 Stratigraphy of the Ordovician La Cristalina Formation, Puerto Berrío (Colombia)
the Tahamí Terrane and to the east Chibcha Terrane (e.g. Toussaint & Restrepo 1989,
and subsequent changes cf. Restrepo et al., 2011) (Figure 1).
Unfortunately, little research has been done focused specifically on the Ordovician unit
(e.g. Almanza et al., 2013). Missing studies make difficult to know with precision features
such as age (sedimentary and metamorphic), sedimentary petrogenesis, metamorphic
characteristics and detailed spatial relationships with the adjacent units. Those
characteristics are part of the basic stratigraphic knowledge we should have of the
Colombian geological units. As a consequence, the stratigraphic unit has not been
formally defined yet according to the International Comission on Stratigraphy (ICS)
recommendations (Salvador, 2013), despite the term La Cristalina Formation has been
used in some published texts (e. g. Mojica & Villarroel, 1990, Borrero et al., 2006) without
following the international recommended procedure.
Research importance
The basic stratigraphic questions of La Cristalina Formation have not been solved yet.
According to the International Stratigraphic Guide (Salvador, 2013), these questions
include the understanding of the stratigraphic relations (spatial-relation with adjacent rock
bodies: what is below, above, next, etc.), rocks description, as well as correlation and
classification (kind of unit and rank).
Bearing in mind the aforementioned, this proposal obtained a better holistic stratigraphic
model that allowed to define formally the lithostratigraphic unit according to ICS´s
recommendations. Below, there are explained other issues that justified this research:
—Geological maps published (I-9 Quadrangle at scale of 1:100 000, and 133 Puerto
Berrío and 149 Puerto Serviez sheets at the same scale) are not enough detailed, hence
this research made a better map using shaded relief images, aereal photographs and field
work, that included creek-sections at ca. 1:10 000.
—La Cristalina did not have stratigraphic columns in regions with the best outcrops with
the complete succession known and where the Ordovician fossils were found. Besides,
despite there are some field and petrographic descriptions of the rocks, I did the most
1. Stratigraphic definition of the Lower to Middle Ordovician La Cristalina.. 21
complete descriptions, including approaches to the depositional setting, Ordovician

relative sea level changes, and another basic sedimentary knowledge.
—Representative quantitative analysis have not been donde using modern technics such
as X Ray Diffraction and X Ray Fluorescence. Those were performed with the aim of
make a geochemical description of La Cristalina rocks and adjacent rock bodies, in order
to have a better understanding of the petrogenetical processes.
—Depositional age was determined by using graptolites that required an urgent revision
to the light of: 1) the Areginian age graptolites reported, neither updated nor enough age
fine-resolution as can be obtained with graptolites (e.g. stage resolution), 2) the GSSP´s
complete definition in 2009 that includes all the Ordovician stages, 3) review made by J.C.
Gutiérrez-Marco in Borrero et al., (2006) which suggests different species in comparison
with the original paleontological classification, 4) the recent discovery of the first
Ordovician foraminifera in Colombia (Almanza et al., 2013) and 5) fossils occurrences not
previously taken into account. Although bioestratigraphy was not a specific objective of
this research, paleontological occurrences took a part in the basic stratigraphic
description. Paleontological occurrences were determined by experts of corresponding
groups, foraminifera and graptolites.
—From the regional point of view, if we do not have basic stratigraphic studies, we would
not know with certainty the stratigraphic meaning of the Ordovician La Cristalina
Formation to the western of Gondwana.
In addition, the study of La Cristalina is critical because it is located to east and very close
to a long propossed geological terrane boarder (Restrepo et al., 2011), that is why,
indirectly, the understanding of the metamorphic and deformation characteristics can help
us to describe the relation between La Cristalina and the tectonic processes that
happened since Ordovician times up-to-now.
—Although the lithostratigraphic unit has not significant economic interest, it is necessary
to point out that minery of marbles was done by Argos as early as 1940 (Botero, 1940;
Feininger et al. 1972), and so, there is a possibility to have calcareous resources. As well
mineralization ocurrences due to the presence of igneous intrusions into the La Cristalina
Formation could be important.
Considering the energetic resources, many authors have pointed out the increasingly
need to research the Paleozoic units as a possible hydrocarbon source rocks (e. g.
Barrero et al., 2007; Pinilla et al., 2006; Arminio et al., 2013; Petrotech Engineering,
2007). Taking into account that: 1) in the Middle Magdalena Valley (MMV) has been an
increasing petroleum exploration and occurrences of productive wells, and that 2) the
Ordovician unit has stability temperatures higher than the field of oil-window, it is
necessary to know more about the sedimentary and metamorphic characteristics, in that
way we can decipher the roll of the Ordovician unit in the petroliferous systems of the
MMV.
According to the aforementioned, the missing knowledge, the necessity of revision and
the economical roll of La Cristalina Formation justifies this project.
Objectives
General
Following the definition of the International Stratigraphic Guide (Salvador, 2013), the main
objective of this theses was to know the stratigraphic relations of La Cristalina Formation;
describe the succession, and correlate and classify the unit, including giving a formal
name. The above with the main objective of define formally the lithostratigraphic unit,
according to the International Commision on Stratigraphy recommendations. As well, all
the aforementioned helped to propose a better geological model.
Specific
—To know the stratigraphic relations of the Ordovician unit
—To describe La Cristalina Formation succession (as sedimentary and metamorphic

rocks).
—To check the depositional age of La Cristalina Formation and obtain an approach to the
metamorphic age.
—To correlate La Cristalina Formation with other Ordovician units in Colombia.

—To classify La Cristalina Formation as a formal stratigraphic unit.
—To assign the formal name La Cristalina Formation, according with the Internationa
Cammision on Stratigraphy´s procedure.
Methodology
—6 field trips were done, 8 creek-sections, 4 composed schematic stratigraphic columns,
and 5 cross-sections.
—109 samples were handed
—64 thin sections were done. Petrography included microtectonic descriptions.
—Geochemical measurements with X Ray Fluorescence and X Ray Diffraction, a total of

39.
—U-Pb LA-ICP-MS geochronology of the some igneous bodies that intruded the
Ordovician unit. Zircons of 20 samples of La Cristalina Formation, Precambrian
paragneisses, granodioritic to dioritoc rocks and rhyodacitic porphyries are being
measured by means of U-Pb LA-ICP-MS at University of Arizona, but unfortunately
results are not ready by the time for this manuscript had to be delivered. Only 2
measurements are presented.
—An academic exchange at the Johannes Gütenberg Universität Mainz (Germany) was
done in order to take classes (Metamorphic Petrogenesis, Igneous Petrogenesis and
Microtectonics), learn analitic technics and have an assesory with the professor C. W.
Passchier.
The above mentioned methodology allowed to answer effectively the basic stratigraphic
questions of La Cristalina Formation: The point 1 allowed to know the stratigraphic
relations (spatial) of the Ordovician unit; points 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 allowed to describe La
Cristalina succession (petrological characteristics and cross-cut relations). In adittion,
together with the adequate review, the unit was correlated with another equivalent units of
Colombia and South America, as well as classify the lithostratigraphic unit, adjusted to the
international recommended procedure.
Generalities
La Cristalina Formation is located in the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, to the
southeast of Antioquia Department (Figure 1).
Figure 0-1 Geological map of the studied area. The white rectangle shows the studied area in the eastern
flank of the Central Cordillera of Colombia, next to the Middle Magdalena Valley. It should be highlighted the
different basements, to the west of the Otú Fault a Triassic metamorphic complex and to the east some
Neoproterozoic gneisses. At the studied are the critical Otú Fault is displaced by the Palestina Fault System.
Map modified from Gómez et al. (2015) after Feininger et al. (1970). Location map modified from Gómez &
Almanza (2015).
In Figure 2 can be seen the Geological Map of La Cristalina Formation, together with the
structural data obtained in field and digitalized from Feininger et al. (1970). The map was
modified from Gómez et al. (2015) after Feininger et al. (1970). To modify it field work,
photointerpretation and shaded relief images with a resolution of 30 m (USGS, 2004)
were used in a conservative way.
In Table 1 can be observed the procedures followed by each sample. On the other hand,
in the Supplemental Material 1 can be seen the stops, hand-samples and lineaments
maps; in the Supplemental Material 2 and 3, the petrography; in the Supplemental
Material 4, information about paragneisses underlying La Cristalina Formation; in the
Supplemental Material 5 information about possible bentonites including geochemical
measurements, and in the Supplemental Material 6, geochronological data. Rocks were
described as sedimentary, despite de low metamorphism, but when necessary
metamorphic terms were used.
Further and complete information of La Cristalina Formation can be seen in each chapter,
according to each subject.
Figure 0-2 Geological Map of La Cristalina Formation, including the digitalized structural data of Feininger et
al. (1970). Map modified from and Gómez et al. (2015) after Feininger et al. (1970). Legend can be seen in
Figure 0-1.
Table 0-1 Procedures performed with each sample. XRF: X Ray Fluorescense, %TOC: Total Organic Carbon
percentaje, XRD: X Ray Difraction, U-Pb dating by LA-ICP-MS means.
1. Stratigraphic definition of the Lower to

Middle Ordovician La Cristalina Formation,
Puerto Berrío (Colombia)
Abstract
The Floian to early middle Darriwillian La Cristalina Formation is a low-grade

metasedimentary unit that has not been defined according to the international procedure,
despite “La Cristalina” term has been used for more than 88 years and deserves the
stability given by proper formalization. It crops out in the eastern flank of the Central
Cordillera, is located to the southeast of the Antioquia Department and mainly to the south
of La Cristalina Railway Station from which the name was coined. 109 hand-samples
were handed, and 6 field trips, 8 creeks sections, 5 cross-sections, 4 general stratigraphic
columns, photogeology and 64 thin sections were made, as well as 39 geochemical
measurements in order to correctly define the unit, following the international procedure
recommended by the ICS. La Cristalina Formation is a very useful stratigraphic unit when
considering the paleography of Gondwana and the tectonic location and its deformation
meaning for the understanding of the tectonic processes that have occurred since
Ordovician times. Here is suggested to continue using the name “La Cristalina” as a
lithostratigraphic unit, with a “Formation” rank. La Cristalina is defined here as all the
strata concordant with graptolitic metamudstones, composed of at least 4 facies and
facies association with a key overspread low-grade metamorphism: metamudstones,
siliciclastic intercalations, metamicrites and calcareous intercalations. Facies together with
structures and fossils suggest an off-shore to shoreface epicontinental marine sequence.
Critically, La Cristalina Formation has an overspread low grade metamorphism that
reached the biotite isograde as the highest grade. La Cristalina overlies with a faulted
contact some Precambrian paragneisses and underlies the “Volcanic Rocks” (sensu
Feininger et al., 1970) with likely either a fault or an unconformity; also it underlies some
Lower Cretaceous marine rocks (Fuquen et al., 2009) and Cenozoic alluvial deposits with
unconformable contacts. The unit was intruded by 3 different not-deformed igneous rocks
with Middle Jurassic-Paleocene ages, in addition to one not determined. Structural
complications and lacking of fossils makes difficult to unequivocally identify the sequence
and calculate the total thickness. Lastly, the metamudstones of La Cristalina Formation
can be correlated with the mudstones of El Hígado Formation, because lithological and
stratigraphic position.
1.1 Introduction
According to the recommendations of the International Stratigraphic Guide (The
Guide) (Salvador, 2013) of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS),
constituent of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), in order to define
a stratigraphic unit it is necessary to: 1) know stratigraphic relations, 2) describe the
rocks, 4) make a stratigraphic correlation and 5) classify the stratigraphic unit,
including coining a name. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to define La
Cristalina Formation following the international procedure and also taking into
account the North American Stratigraphic Code (the Code) (NASC, 2005) which is
up dated in comparison with the Guide and has the advantage of be armonious and
complementary with the Guide, at least for this intention.
1.1.1 Location and access

La Cristalina Formation crops out around 45 km2, it is located to the southwest and west
of Puerto Berrío Town (Figure 1). The largest outcrops are found to the south of the La
Cristalina Railway Station (LCRS). La Cristalina Formation is the northwesternmost
Ordovician unit in Colombia.
To arrive to LCRS can be taken the motomesa (it goes on the railroad) from Puerto Berrío
Railway Station, but also an unpavement road from the dairy factory called La Quesera in
the motorway Puerto Berrío-Medellín ca. 20 km. Also it can be taken an unpavemented
road to Puerto Serviez and La Sierra from Puerto Berrío. Once in LCRS the most suitable
way to arrive to the outcrops is following narrow unpaved roads to farms (such as La
Gabriela or Los Ángeles). The best exposures can be found in creeks. It should be taken
into account seriously to visit the area during the dry season. Going by pick-ups, food,
riding on motorcycles or on mules could be good options too. In addition and
unfortunately, violence is a long fact habitants have to deal with, as well as geologist,
therefore is recommended to ask respective authorities before get in.
Figure 1-1 Geological map of the studied area. The white rectangle encloses the studied area, to the
southwest of Puerto Berrío. Note the Chibcha and the Tahamí terranes (Restrepo et al., 2011). Map modified
from Feininger et al. (1972) and Gómez et al. (2015). Location map to the lower right modified from Gómez &
Almanza (2015)
1.1.2 Generalities of La Cristalina Formation

La Cristalina was the first Ordovician metasedimentary succession published in
Colombia (Harrison, 1929), and one of the first in South America (Trumpy, 1943;
Aceñolaza, 1980). La Cristalina is widely recognized as a lithostratigraphic unit with
“Formation” rank as early as 1945 (Alvarado et al., 1945), despite La Cristalina has not
been formally defined according to the international stratigraphic procedure. The main
contributions to La Cristalina Formation knowledge can be seen at Table 1.
Table 1-1 Main published contributions to La Cristalina Formation knowledge

Briefly, the first geologist that mentioned Paleozoic rocks in the Central Cordillera was
Ospina (1911), according to stratigraphic field relations and without mentioning any fossil
occurrences. Scheibe et al. (1919) was first who discovered possible fossils in, likely,
Paleozoic slates intruded by granitic rocks very similar to La Cristalina Formation and at
the outcrops between Barbosa and Puerto Berrío Railway Stations. Afterwards, Harrison
(1929) reported the first graptolitic fossil association (4 species) found in 1927 by DÁrcy
Exploration Co. geologists. Since then, other 5 occurrences has been reported until now
(Table 2), being the last that of Almanza et al. (2016) (cf. chapter 2), together with the first
Ordovician foraminifera in Colombia and the second in South America (Nestell et al.,
2011). Importantly, Botero (1940) found fossils and made the first hand-sketch map of the
unit of the northern outcrops, as well as he described for the first time briefly the main
facies of the total succession.
Table 1-2 Main published contributions to La Cristalina Formation biostratigraphic knowledge. Colours
according to the International Stratigraphic Chart (2016).
Cartographical works have contributed the most to the understanding of La Cristalina

Formation. Feininger et al. (1970) prepared the Eastern of Antioquia Quadrangle at scale
of 1:100 000, this is one of the most important works, because, mainly, the excellent field
observations and the proposed geological model of the region. That map almost has not
changed since then. In 2009 and 2011 were made the actualization mapping of the area
(sheets 139 Puerto Berrío and 142 Puerto Serviez) at 1:100 000 by the Servicio
Geológico Colombiano, including the first stratigraphic column of part of the unit including
some thin-sections. Finally, Almanza et al. (2013) did the most complete petrological
study by that time, the first formal research with the objective of studying specifically the
unit, and Almanza et al. (2016) presented the most complete biostratigraphic studio,
including new fossils occurrences and the best age for La Cristalina Formation.
1.1.3 Tectonic importance of La Cristalina Formation: Why it is a

very useful stratigraphic unit
As was shown in Figure 1, La Cristalina Formation location is critical because crops out to
the east of the Otú-Pericos Fault in the Central Cordillera, that has been long proposed as
a terrane boarder, to the west the Tahamí Terrane and to the east Chibcha Terrane (e.g.
Toussaint and Restrepo 1989, and subsequent changes cf. Restrepo et al., 2011). In the
following it will be discussed some critical facts about it.
It should be highlighted that Ospina (1911) and Botero (1940) proposed that La Cristalina
Formation belonged to a metamorphic suite in the axial Central Cordillera, and the former
author used the term Palaeozoic rocks. Other authors such as Nelson (1959) considered
that La Cristalina Formation should be included in the Palaeozoic Cajamarca
metamorphic unit in the Central Cordillera, those Paleozoic metamorphic rocks were
described to the south and at Cajamarca Town latitude. However, after Feininger et al.
(1972) observations it was clear that La Cristalina Formation did not belong to those
metamorphic units at the Central Cordillera. Currently, it was proposed that those
metamorphic units of the Central Cordillera are rather better Triassic metamorphic units,
hence La Cristalina Formation cannot be related in such straight forward way to those
units, because critical faults in between (cf. Restrepo et al. 2011; Gómez et al., 2015).
Many questions remain unanswered, when considering that terrane border, such as why
some Colombian Ordovician sedimentary units outcrop very close to that boarder and to
the east of the Otú Fault are not deformed or have a very low grade of metamorphism
(e.g. La Cristalina succession and El Hígado Formation), whereas others to the east of
the terrane boarder even have reached amphibolite metamorphic facies as in the
Santander Massif e.g. Silgará Formation (sensu Ward et al., 1973 with an Ordovician
protolite age according to Mantilla et al., 2016 that used detrital U-Pb data in the San
Pedro phyllites). To contextualize that question will be discussed some tectonic
proposals.
On one hand, it should be considered the preliminary paleomagnetic approaches of

Bayona et al. (2010), who suggested that Colombian Ordovician units, to the west
Amazonian Craton, may be deposited to the south (probably current Peru or Bolivia
latitude) and then they were tectonically transported to the north, in greater magnitude
during Late Triassic times by oblique subduction. That model is in clear contrast with
Mojica & Villarroel (1990) that suggest a continuous Ordovician deposition between
Orinoquian region and Andes region.
On the second hand, it has been proposed a “Lower” Palaeozoic (Ordovician-Silurian,

named as well as Quetame event, Caperonensis or Famatinian Orogenies) orogeny to
the northwestern of South America (e. g. Restrepo-Pace and Cediel, 2010 and references
there in), although evidences that occurred in the late Silurian are provided by Forero
(1991), and Aleman & Ramos (2000) proposed a Late Ordovician Orogeny in the
northwestern of South America caused by the Gondwana assemblage and collission with
Laurentia. Likely, Feininger et al. (1972) also proposed a deformational event during what
he called as “Lower” Palaeozoic, responsible of La Cristalina and Silgará formations
metamorphism. Thus some key unraveled questions are: what is the age and to which
geological event(s) can be related the metamorphism of La Cristalina, and what is the
relation between not-metamorphic El Hígado Formation and the metamorphic La
Cristalñina Formation with the Silgará amphibolite facies metamorphism.
The Tahamí Terrane has a well-constrained Triassic metamorphism (e.g. Villagómez et

al., 2011; Restrepo et al., 2011) (although some Jurassic ages have been proposed by
e.g. Blanco-Quintero et al., 2014 or Permian by Vinasco et al., 2006) that is, likely, due to
subduction setting to the western of Gondwana (e. g. Restrepo et al. 2011) or less-well
constrained by continent collision with Laurentia (Vinasco et al., 2006). It has also
suggested that a Permian magmatism in the Central Cordillera was associated with a
continental convergent-arc (I-granitoids), followed by extensive anataxis during Triassic
times (S-granitoids) (e.g. Cardona et al., 2011). Similarly, Spikings et al. (2015) considers
a subduction-related magmatism during Permian-Early Triassic, followed by an extensive
rifting, that could account for the Triassic S-granites, in the Central Cordillera (and
subsequent disassemblage of Pangea). The last authors also proposed a Late Triassic-
Jurassic subduction, accretion during Late Cretaceous and current subduction. Accretion
and ongoing subduction drives the early Andean Orogenesis responsible of the Central
Cordillera uplifting from Late Cretaceous-Paleocene (e. g. Villagómez and Spikings, 2013;
Caballero et al., 2013).
Therefore, having a low-grade and undoubtedly Ordovician rocks so close to those

regional and critical faults is tremendously useful to unravel the tectonic process, such as
translation, accretion and orogenic mechanisms discussed above, between others events
that have occurred since Ordovician times to the west of Gondwana. This clearly support
the usefulness of La Cristalina stratigraphical unit.
1.2 Methodology
6 field trips have been done to Puerto Berrío (Antioquia) in the eastern flank of the Central
Cordillera of Colombia. 109 hand-samples were collected and 64 thin-sections were made
at GMAS S.A.S. laboratories and in the Universidad Nacional de Colombia-Bogotá.
Rocks description recorded here according to Fettes & Desmons (2007) and Folk (1980)
and Dunham (1962) in Nichols et al. (2009). Mineral abbreviations, metamorphic concepts
and another terms (e.g. metamorphic grade, P/T relation, isograde, etc.) according to
Fettes & Desmons (2007), with the aim of following the recommendations of International
Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) and associated sub-commissions. Classification of
thin-section samples (cf. Supplemental Material 2) was according to Fettes & Douglas
(2007), following the recommendations of the Subcommission on Nomenclature of
Metamorphic Rocks. Readers can find that roundness, shape descriptions or other
genuine sedimentary descriptions were not done, because the metamorphic re-
crystallization of grains that makes doubtful if those correspond to sedimentary or
metamorphic characteristics. Mineral assemblage and temperature stability conditions
were determined according to Spears (1993) and Vernon and Clarke (2008).
There were done field work following the conventional procedures, sampling according
with the local characteristics. Furthermore specific visits were done to find the
stratigraphic relations with other rock bodies, looking for contacts and different facies.
Cross-sections and composed general columns were prepared by using creek-sections

(visiting each single outcrop) approximately at a scale of 1:10 000 and controlling by using
photogeologic observations and shaded rielief images (USGS, 2002). Nevertheless,
information of the visited localities was plotted at 1:25 000 and, at the map, was plotted at
1:100 000. Columns have to be considered as generalized, because structural
complications made difficult to prepare something meaningful enough at this stage of the
knowledge of La Cristalina. Columns were prepared using all the information available:
firstly creek-sections, hand-samples, thin-sections, fossil occurrences, etc.
X Ray Fluorescense measurements were done at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia-

Bogotá. Samples were measured in a MagixPro PW-2440 Phillips XRF Spectrometer,
with Ro tube, and maximum 4 KW power. The spectrometer has a resolution of 200 ppm
for heavy metallic elements. Powdered samples of <100 µm were heated to 105 °C for 12
hours and mixed with wax (10:1) (MERK Laboratory), then were pressed hydraulically
until 120kN. Those were measured with SEMIQ-2016. Semiquantitative analyses were
done with IQ (11 scannings). H, C, Li, Be, B, N, O and trasuranian elements were not
measured.
X Ray Difraction measurements were done at GMAS S.A.S. using BrukerD8 Advance -
Series I- X-ray diffractometer with the VANTEC-1 PSD detector. 5 g of the sample were
used with a size lesser than 44µm, afterwards on an alluminium disc the sample was
measured and the wt. percentajes of minerals were obtained.
1.3 Results
In the following will be defined La Cristalina Formation fulfiling the recomendations of the
chapters 3-5 of Guide (Salvador, 2013) and the articles 1-3,5-15, 22-24 and 30 of the
Code (NASC, 2005).
1.3.1 Geomorphologic expression

La Cristalina Formation consists of low lands, with less than 500 m of high, with small hills
most of them showing clearly the bed-strike. Calcareous facies (cf. 1.3.3) are the most
prominent layered-bodies that form strong lineations along the strike of beds, as seen in
Figure 2 to the southwest, which makes easy to differentiate the calcareous and
siliciclastic facies. Although the siliciclastic intercalations facies also show easily the
attitude of beds, it does less clearly than calcareous but better than metamudstones
facies and is quite similar to Precambrian paragneisses. Igneous intrusions are very easy
to identify by the rounded geoforms. With respect to paragneisses, those show the softest
expression with a more flattened relief and rounded hills, as can be seen to the north
outcrops of La Cristalina Formation (Figure 2).
1.3.2 Stratotype
Because there is no a single creek-section that include the whole known succession, La
Cristalina Formation stratotype is composed. La Miquera (together with one tributary to
the north which reach the contact with Precambrian paragneisses) and Las Iglesias
creeks are the composed stratotype because 4 main reasons: 1) fossils occurrences are
found there (La Miquera Creek); 2) there crop out the main facies of which is it thought is
composed La Cristalina Formation; 3) accessibility, and 4) fresh rock outcrops.
Figure shows the Geological Map of La Critalina Formation, showing the facies and facies
association distribution at 1:100 000 scale, it also includes structural data, critical faults
and some key lineations; Figure 3 shows the creek sections in La Miquera and Las
Iglesias creeks, at the composed stratotype; Figure 4 shows the cross-section of La
Miquera Creek and tributaries, as well as in Las Iglesias Creek, and Figure 5 shows the
composite stratigraphic columns of the 4 different facies of La Cristalina Formation. Those
figures 2-5 represent the stratigraphic concept of La Cristalina Formation.
Figure 1-2. Geological Map of La Cristalina Formation showing facies and facies association distribution at
1:100 000 scale, including digitalized structural data of Feininger et al. (1970). Geological interpretation using
mainly field work, shaded relief images (USGS, 2004) and photogeology. Map modified from Gómez et al.
(2015) after Feininger et al. (1970).
Figure 1-3 Creek-sections in Las Iglesias and La Miquera creeks and some tributaries of both. Field
information was controlled with photogeology and shaded relief images (cf. Supplemental Material 1).
Figure 1-4 Cross-sections in Las Iglesias and La Miquera creeks and some tributaries of both. For locations
of cross-sections cf. Figure 1-3. a) Cross-section in one tributary of La Miquera Creek, showing a faulted
contact between Precambrian and Ordovician rocks (cf. Supplemental Material 4); b) Cross-section in one
tributary of La Miquera Creek; c) cross-section in La Miquera Creek; d) continuation of the c) cross-section in
La Miquera Creek, and e) cross section in Las Iglesias Creek. The legend can be seen in Figure 1-3.
Figure 1-5 Composed generalized columns of La Cristalina Formation, that represent the stratigraphic
concept of La Cristalina Formation. a) Column using information obtained in La Miquera Creek and some
tributaries; b) column using information from La Miquera Creek; c) column using information from Las Iglesias
Creek, and d) column using information from Las Iglesias Creek and some tributaries.
1.3.3 Facies description

Following the Guide´s recommendations of the ICS (Salvador, 2013), rocks are described
as sedimentary, rather than metamorphic. In the same way, the Code in the Article 22
recommends to consider as lithostratigraphic units metasedimentary rocks in which the
primary (sedimentary) characteristics are recognizable.
La Cristalina Formation facies and facies associations will be described, fulfilling the
recommendations of the chapters 3-5 of the Guide (Salvador, 2013) and the articles 1-
3,5-15, 22-24 and 30 of the Code (NASC, 2005). According to the Guide, rocks are
described as sedimentary, rather than metamorphic (litodemic). Likewise, following the

Article 22 of the Code the succession is described as lithostratigraphic unit composed of
metasedimentary rocks in which the primary (sedimentary) characteristics are
recognizable.
4 facies and facies association were identified (cf. Figure 2), grouped in successions of
siliciclastic and calcareous rocks. It should be noted that siliciclastic and calcareous rocks
are mappeable at 1:100 000 scale (e.g. Feininger et al., 1970, GRP, 2008), the official
scale practiced in the region; in addition, those 2 different successions are easy to
identify, calcareous rocks outcrop mainly in Las Iglesias Creek and La Argentina and
related tributaries, whereas siliciclastic facies can be seen in La Miquera Creek and
tributaries.
Furthermore, it is pointed out that the sedimentological structures observed in field always
suggest that beds are normal, and in such way the calcareous successions overlies the
siliciclastic successions.
In adittion to geomorphologic, outcrop, hand-sample and thin section descriptions,

minerals identifications were improved by using X Ray Diffraction (Supplemental Material
3), which allowed to confirm the metamorphic character of the hole La Cristalina
Succession.
Siliciclastic successions
Siliciclastis successions are composed of metamudstones facies and siliciclastic

intercalations. A lineament put into contact metamudstones facies and siliciclastic
intercalations facies thorugh of La Miquera Creek and one tributary (Supplemental
Material 1, Figure 2) and crosses by the intersection of both (Figure 4). In adittion both
facies have different attitudes despite the proximity, therefore it is thought the contact
between both facies is faulted, in such way metamudstones are thrusted on siliciclastic
intercalations. Table 3 shows petrographic descriptions of selected samples of
metamudstones facies and siliciclastic intercaltions facies association, although in the
Supplemental Material 2 can be seen the sample descriptions at thin-section.
Metamudstones facies: crop out in the north and consists of dark grey metamudstones
with minor sandy and silty dark grey metamudstones, besides 3 massive metasandstones
of m-sized layers were observed, including one belonging to a regressive sequence 10 m
thick coarsening upward, varying from metamudstones, metamudstones and fine grained
metasandstones intercalations up to coarse metasandstones. Figure 1-6 shows the
genuine outcrops and hand-samples, whereas Figure 1-7 shows thin-section pictures and
Table 1-3 the petrpgraphical observations of selected samples.
The contact between the metamudstones facies and the overlying siliciclastic
intercalations facies association is a lineament (figures 2-3). Besides both facies have
different attitudes despite the proximity in the northern outcrops, therefore it is thought the
contact between both facies maybe faulted. The contact with underlying Precambrian
paragneisses is a faulted unconformity to the northeast (see further discussions and
Figure 3). In contrast, to the north, the metamudstones developed a better the schistocity
(forming phyllites) with penetrability (with linear objects, figures 6f and 7c,d) and is
missing a metasandstones bed, thus a minor fault is suggested.
At outcrop-scale, metamudstones facies consists of characteristic not well-developed

layers of < 1 cm (Figure 6a); however, when minor very fine silt or fine-sand sized
laminae are present some well-formed layers can be observed (Figure 6c), typically <5
cm continuous and plane-parallel to slightly wavy. The sequence is faulted and folded
thus the thickness must be lesser than ca. 1500 m (cf. figures 3 to the northeast).
At hand-sample scale, rocks have a poorly developed schistosity and fine foliation of <1
mm, with abundant pyrite indicating highly reductive conditions (Figure 6d). As well,
sedimentary pyrite might be due to originally high organic matter. Other pyrite crystals are
due to igneous intrusions associated with fractures and veins. On the other hand, in at
least 8 localities we found graptolites, one of them with phyllocarids (Almanza et al. 2016).
This assemblage is typical of offshore settings (Goldman et al., 2013; Cooper et al.,
2012).
There are 3 beds and set of beds of light grey, coarse- to medium-grained
metasandstones. The stratigraphycally lowest is near to the contact with Precambrian
paragneisses (Figure 3). Other metasandstones has 1 m of thickness is massive
(structure-less), well-sorted, fine-grained, and very friable with ichnofossils and
undetermined fossils (Figure 6e). Finally, the uppermost set of metasandstones belong to
a sequence of ca. 10 m (Figure 6b), which shows normal polarity criteria. The set of beds
can be seen at figures 6a-b and correspond to a coarsening upward sequence, from mm-
intercalations of metamudstones with fine-grained metasandstones up to coarse-grained
structure-less. This sequence is strongly useful for correlation purposes, as was here
used to solce structural issues.
At thin-section, metamudstones are very fine-grained (<1 mm), poorly laminated with very
thin wavy laminae of organic matter, other laminae are richer in white mica (biotite was
not identified petrographically) and other laminae, in coarser quartz and feldspar. Matrix
minerals are composed mainly of white mica, organic matter and pyrite. As framework
minerales, minor silt-grained quartz and feldspar, more or less in the same proportion.
Deformation microstructures include undulant extinction, kink bands and quartz-veins
formation, in addition to undulant extinction in muscovite and feldspar. Those
microstructures are indicative of low-grade deformation, coherent with low-grade
metamorphism. Evidences of grain boundary migration mechanism, inclusions alignment,
deformation lamellae formation and chess-board textures in quartz are suggested as
inherited from the provenance rocks.
Figure 1-6 Outcrops and hand-samples of metamudstones facies. a) Genuine outcrops showing not well-
developed layering of metamudstones (slates); b) coarsening upward sequence, to the base cm-sized
intercalations of metamudstones and fine metasandstones and, to the top, coarse grained
metaquartzsandstones; c) metamudstones with higher silt or sand content, showing better formation of layers;
d) hand-sample showing pyritic bioturbation on the foliation planes; e) strongly bioturbed metasandstones and
undetermined fossils in metasandstones; f) hand-sample of metamudstones showing penetrability and better
development of schistosity (phyllites).
Figure 1-7 Thin-section pictures of dark metamudstones facies in plane-parallel Nichols (to left) and cross
polarized (to the right). a-b) Metamudstones with mainly white mica and minor quartz and feldspars silt-sized
in similar proportions; d-e) transversal cut of rocks with penetrability showing object lineation (cf. Passchier &
Trown, 2005) of mainly quartz and coarser recrystallized muscovite, and e-f) well-sorted coarse
metaquartzsandstones, quartz with bulging re-crystallization (cf. Passchier & Trown, 2005).
Table 1-3 Selected thin-section descriptions of both of metamudstones facies and intercalations facies association of La
Cristalina Formation. Mineral abbreviations following Fettes & Desmons (2007).
Metamudstones near to fault zones developed object lineation composed of coarser

grains of quartz and re-crystallized muscovite. Figure 7c-d show a transversal cut of those
structures. As well, some samples show development of cleavage and minor poorly
development of crenulation cleavage.
On the other hand, in thin-section, metasandstones are structure-less. Framework

minerals constitute more 90% of volume of the rock and consist of quartz, feldspar and
metamorphic lithics with abundant iron oxides and hydroxides. Minor white mica without
biotite is the main matrix mineral. Strongly fractured quartz and bulging recrystallization
mechanism (Passchier & Trown, 2005) suggest very low deformation grade, coherent
either with metamorphism or later deformational events.
Near to igneous intrussions, the metamudstones show contact metamorphism, bearing

coarser white mica and minor andalusite porphyroblasts (also observed by Fonseca et al.,
2011), as well re-crystallized micas with different orientation than foliation.
Finally, the metamudstones together with metamicrites facies may represent the deepest
depositational settings of La Cristalina Formation, according to the lithologic facies
association and fossil assemblages (cf. Cooper et al., 2011).
Siliciclastic intercalations facies association: occupies the largest area of La Cristalina

Formation outcrops (Figure 2). It has a buried but concordant contact with the overlying
metamicrites facies (figures 3-4) in Las Iglesias Creek. A thickness of ca. 500 m has been
estimated for this facies, but with structural complications (abundant folds and inferred
faults cf. Figure 4 B-B’ cross-section), thus is thought the thickness should be less. In the
type section, rocks dips gently, except next to a strike slip-fault with Precambrian
paragneisses to the west (Figure 3), where dips are higher and outcrops are the most
deformed including crenulation, better development of schistosity and formation of up to
cm-sized pyrite cubes (Figure 8g).
This facies association includes cm-sized intercalations of dark grey metamudstones and
fine-grained lighter grey metasandstones (Figure 8a), together with dark grey mm-sized
intercalations of metamudstones, silty and sandy metamudstones, and minor
metasiltstones and metasandstones (Figure 8d).
At outcrop scale (Figure 8a-f), the succession dips gently, and characteristically forms
anticlinals and synclinals (figures 4 B-B’ and 8b), with minor accommodation faults. Beds
have tabular strata, strongly bioturbated (Figure 8c), with many normal polarity criteria
(e.g. Figure 8f). cm-sized intercalations can be differentiated easily by changes in colour
(light pinky grey and dark grey, the former caused by red biotite), some layers are mud-
rich and other are enriched in very fine to fine sand and coarse silt size grains (Figure 8c-
f). This is the clearest way to identify this facies in field, together with the well-developed
strata.cm-sized intercalations have minor mm-sized lens, cross-lamination, and other
critical structures shown at Figure 8c.
3 metasandstones beds and set of beds have been observed (Figure 8e and f). To the top
of this facies association one structure-less of considerable thickness, of m-scale, with
minor metasiltstones intercalations of cm-scale, this can can be observed in figures 5b

and 8f. These beds and set of beds are very useful for correlación porpuses.
Figure 1-8 Outcrop and hand-sample pictures of silicilastic intercalations facies association. a) Genuine
outcrop of siliciclastic cm-sized intercalations of metamudstones and fine metasandstones, in La Miquera
Creek. A reddish yellow bed is shown, likely related with bentonites; b) anticlinal in La Miquera Creek, with
minor faults that accommodate the deformation; c) genuine bioturbated siliciclastic intercalations, lighter
layers are enriched in sand-sized framework minerals (quartz and feldspar) those layers are pinky coloured
because biotites, whereas darker layers are enriched in organic matter and micas; d) mm-intercalations
siliciclastic of metamudstones with variations to minor silty and fine grained sandy metamudstones, without
changes in colour; e) metasandstones in La Miquera Creek to the top of the measured sequence, correspond
to the coarsest beds, mainly structure-less; f) meetasandstones bed showing a possible erosive base; g)
strongly deformed intercalations to the west and near to the faulted contact between siliciclastic intercalations
and paragneisses, and h) some fine grained and well sorted metasandstones associated to the highly
deformed siliciclastic intercalations showed in g), next to the faulted contact with paragneisses.
At hand-sample scale, all samples have very poorly developed schistosity and
gneissosity, and are fine to very fine-grained. Both the mm-sized and cm-sized
intercalations are strongly bioturbated. Bioturbation is perpendicular to subperpendicular
to lamination and foliation. Structures at hand-sample include lens, cross-lamination,
cross-lamination in opposite direction and major plane to wavy-parallel continuous
lamination.
At thin-section scale (Figure 9a-h), many structures have been observed in the cm-sized
intercalations including cross-lamination and lens, and in one sample cross-lamination in
opposite directions, all bioturbated. Laminae are differentitate by some framework-
enriched layers and others enriched in white micas, biotite and organic matter. Lamination
varies from parallel to minor no-parallel, continuous and discontinuous, most wavy and
minor plane. Grain size is mainly silt up to medium sand, well sorted. Microfaults have
been observed in the folded outcrops, filled with abundant chlorite. On the other hand,
mm-sized intercalations have minor discontinuous slightly wavy to parallel lamination of
<20 μm of thickness, one kind of laminae mainly composed of organic matter. Also,
samples have minor subperpendicular quartz veins typically of <100 μm of thickness. But
what is more evident, is that rocks are strongly bioturbated which, frequently, destroys
completely the original sedimentary structures. Bioturbated areas are enriched in
framework minerals, mainly coarser quartz and feldspar, typically of very fine sand, which
gives the pinky colour to rocks.
Figure 1-9 Thin-section pictures of siliciclastic intercalations facies in plane-parallel Nichols (to left) and cross
polarized (to the right). a-b) Metasiltstones with Chl-Wm in addition to quartz, feldspar and organic matter; this
sample has organic matter and white mica laminae, with predominant layers composed by quartz and
feldspar coarse silt-sized (85% modal); c-d) metamudstone with Mu-Bt in addition to quartz, feldspar and
organic matter; it is shown laminae enriched in biotite and white mica, in comparison with other enriched in
quartz and feldspar medium silt-sized; e-f) subarcosic metamudstone with Bt-Wm in addition to quartz,
feldspar and organic matter; sample shows microcrenulation with incipient development of crenulation
cleavage, and g-h) subarcosic metamudstone with Mu-Chl-Bt and many laminae enriched in coarse silt
grains; picture shows microfaults in the intercalations, lighter layers are identified by coarser quartz and
feldspar enrichments, in comparison with mica rich layers
Beds are mainly parallel to the foliation in most of the cases, but in some localities an
inclined relation was observed. Deformation microstructures are undulant extinction, kink
bands and veins formation in quartz; undulant extinction in muscovite, and undulant
extinction, strong undulant extinction and twins formation in feldspar. Those
microstructures are indicative of low-grade deformation, coherent with low grade
metamorphism. Evidences of grain boundary migration mechanism, inclusions alignment,
deformation lamellae formation, strong undulant extinction and chess-board textures in
quartz are thought as inherited from the provenance rocks.
Finally, we suggest that this facies have a shallower depositational setting in comparison
with metamudstones and metamicrites facies, when considering facies associations,
fossils and type of bioturbation. On the other hand, this facies association has higher
volume of biotite (around 30-40 %) in comparison with the others (<10 %).
Calcareous successions
Calcareous successions are composed of metamicrites facies and calcareous

intercalations facies association. It seems coherent that both successions are genetically
related. Table 4 shows the petrographical observations of the both facies.
Metamicrites facies: Consist of fine foliated dark grey metamicrites. A thickness of ca.
700 m has been calculated for metamicrites facies at Las Iglesias Creek locality, but
structural complications might be present, when considering the high structural attitudes,
these beds have the highest dips of all successions observed in La Cristalina Formation,
even with overturned beds. It should be due to close proximity to the faulted contact with
the paragneisses to the west (Figure 3). It is thought the metamicrites are stratigraphically
below the calcareous intercalations when consider the close outcrops and similar
attitudes, and because metamicrites are concordant with siliciclastic intercalations facies
association, nevertheless the contact have not been observed yet (figure 2-3). On the
other hand, Feininger et al. (1972) suggested the calcareous rocks correspond to lenses,
but we found continuous layers in field, which do not support that idea.
At outcrop scale, layers have typically <5 cm of thickness, are continuous, parallel and
less commounly crenulated because deformation (Figure 10a). This facies consists of
monotonous metamicrites, although one 8 m bed of green metamudstones with no
calcareous content was observed, in one tributary of Las Iglesias Creek (Figure 3 to the
west). It is recommended to use this bed for correlation porpuses and as tools to improve
structural issues.
At hand sample scale, rocks are dark grey, have very poorly developed schistosity and
are very fine-grained. Laminae are typically <1cm. Many samples have stylolites and
carbonate veins, both parallel and subperpendicular to foliation.
In thin section (Figure 11) rocks matrix consists of recrystallized carbonates (15-50 µm)
with slightly coarser white mica and chlorite in a lesser extent. Framework minerals
consist of typically coarse silt-sized quartz and minor feldspar. This suggests that the
rocks protolite were micrites instead of sparites. Samples show very fine organic matter-
rich laminae, continuous to discontinuous, but parallel and plane to wavy. One sample
has <1 % of metamorphic lithics and tourmaline (<1 %).
Figure 1-10 Outcrop and hand-sample pictures of metamicrites facies. a) Outcrop showing crenulated
foliation, those beds have been inverted; b) typical foliation; c) dissolution of metamicrites, d) quartzitic green
metamudstones; e) stalagmites formation in one bed-plane, very close to there also was observed a sinking
stream, and f) hand-samples showing the dark grey colours and frequent carbonate veins formation parallel
and subperpendidicular to the foliation, as well as some stylolites.
Figure 1-11 Thin-section pictures of metamicrites facies in plane parallel Nichols (to left) and cross-polirized
(to right). a) Metamicrite with white mica, showing quartz grains and opaque mineral not oriented with
foliation, all in a matrix of re-crystallized carbonate; b) metamicrite with white mica bearing metamorphic
lithics, showing some not oriented with foliation octahedral opaque minerals, and c) metamicrite with white
mica and Fe oxides and hydroxides. Mineral abbreviations following Fettes & Desmons (2007).
Table 1-4 Selected thin-section descriptions of metamicrites facies and calcareous intercalations facies
association of La Cristalina Formation. Mineral abbreviations following Fettes & Desmons (2007)
Deformation microstructures are undulant extinction, kink bands and minor fractured
grains in quartz; undulant extinction in white mica, as well as veins, stylolites, twins
formation and bent twins in carbonates which are indicative of low-grade deformation,
coherent with low grade metamorphism. Evidences of grain boundary migration
mechanism (Passchier & Trown, 2005) are suggested as inherited from the provenance
rocks. In addition, Fonseca et al. (2011) found diopside and epidote in some calcareous
metamorphic rocks, either metamicrites or calcareous intercalations can be related to that
local mineral assemblage. Those isogrades seem of great interest for metamorphic
petrogenesis.
Calcareous intercalations facies association: Consist of intercalations of metamicrites,

metawackstones, calcareous metasandstones and minor metamudstones. The
succession typically dips gently in the type section. Calcareous intercalations seems to
have an either faulted or discordant contact with overlying felsic to intermediate “Volcanic
Rocks” (petrographically classified as andesites and rhyolites by us) (sensu Feininger et
al., 1970) and are Middle Jurassic in age (González et al,. 2015). Here it is said “either”
because the contact is buried, but according to the structural data and observed stria it
should be faulted, which is also supported by Feininger et al. (1972). The calculated
thickness for calcareous intercalations is ca. 1000 m, but stria observed in field and
lineaments (Figure 2) demostrate the sequence is affected by structural complications.
At outcrop scale, beds are plane to wavy, parallel, continuous of cm- to m-scale in
thickness as shown in Figure 13d. Metawackstones have beds typically of 1 m (Figure
12d), but also less commonly as finer as 5 cm. It is proposed that fine grained rocks
correspond to metamicrites because the fine re-cristalyzed carbonate minerals.
Metamicrites have thicker beds (ca. meters) with parallel continuous beds, but with
irregular upper boundaries with metawackstones (Figure 13b). Lastly, metamudstones
(Figure 12c) are the least commoun; those are dark grey with fine foliation. In field and at
thin sections we looked for fossil, but we did not found any. Lastly, clasts of calcareous
pebbles conglomerates have been found (Figure 12e), but unfortunately those could not
be found in situ.
Figure 1-12 Outcrop and hand-sample pictures of calcareous intercalations facies association. a) Grey fine
sand-grained metawackstones, a hand-sample is to the upper right showing discontinuous parallel and
slightly undulate lamination; b) intercalations of grey fine sand-grained metawackstones showing a wormy-
texture with light grey metamicrites to the upper side; c) intercalations of grey fine sand-grained
metawackstones and light grey metamicrites to the base, it should be noted the base of the metawackstones
showing the normal polarity of beds; d) the same intercalations showed in b), note the strong contrast in
colour, as well note the green and red alteration minerals; e) intercalations of calcareous metasandstones (1
m) and metamudstones; f) other locality of the metamudstones and calcareous metasandstones
intercalations; g) clasts of the calcareous metaconglomerates of pebbles, with very well rounded clast, and h)
a boulder of metamicrites with plane-parallel discontinuous lamination, showing green and pinky colours, and
minor light grey layer of coarser grains.
In hand-sample, metawackstones and calcareous metasandstones have a very poorly

developed gneissose textures, fine grained. In contrast, marbles have both poorly
developed gneissose textures fine grained and granofelsic textures medium grain-sized.
Metawackstones and calcareous metasandstones are medium grey with discontinuous
wavy lamination enriched in dark minerals such as organic matter and pyrite. The lighter
laminae are mainly enriched in carbonates and quartz. Weathering makes
metawackstones and calcareous metasandstones to have a characteristic wormy-surface
(Figure 12a), in comparison with the more planar surfaces of metamicrites (figures 12b-d).
On the other hand, metamicrites are medium grey, light grey with minor greenish and
pinky colours observed in strong re-crystalized samples. Metamicrites have very fine
laminae, plane to slightly wavy, parallel, discontinuous and enriched in dark minerals
(organic matter and opaque minerals). Metamudstones are dark grey and have some
minor discontinuous lighter green laminae enriched in coarser quartz. Green colour is due
to chlorite.
At thin section, metawackstones have framework grains of quartz, feldspar and minor
lithics of metamorphic and volcanic rocks, fine and medium sand-sized. Matrix minerals
correspond to re-crystallized carbonate grains, always smaller than framework minerals,
with minor chlorite and white mica. Metawackstones and calcareous metasandstones
have darker plane-parallel to slightly wavy and continuous laminae, and others no
parallel, wavy and discontinuous, both enriched in organic matter and opaque minerals.
Some euhedral opaque minerals are not oriented; therefore those can be introduced or
late re-crystallized (porphyroblasts). On the other hand, metamicrites have a fine
lamination, wavy to plane parallel, discontinuous and enriched in opaque and organic
matter. Metamicrites have very little proportion of framework minerals, mainly silty-sized
quartz. Matrix consists of fine grained carbonates (150 µm) and minor white mica. Very
light grey marbles with granofelsic textures show strongly re-crystallized carbonates about
1000 µm sized, but the framework minerals (quartz, feldspar) are silt-sized which is
indicative that the contact metamorphism affected mainly carbonates (Figure 13e-f).
Deformation microstructures such as undulant extinction, kink bands and minor fractured
grains in quartz, as well as veins formation, twins formation and bent twins in carbonate
are indicative of low-grade deformation, coherent low grade metamorphism.
Figure 1-13 Thin-section pictures of calcareous intercalations facies association in plane-paralel Nichols (to
left) and cross polarized (to right). a-b) Sandy and lithic metawackstone with the mineral assemblage Cb-Wm-
Chl-Ep, at the center a metamorphic lithic of polycrystalline quartz with higher grade deformation in
comparison with La Cristalina metamorphism, framework minerals medium sand-sized; c-d) calcareous
metasandstone with Cb-Chl-Wm, with fine-sand framework minerals, and e-f) strongly re-crystallized marbles
of 1 mm-grains with granofelsic textures in hand sample. Cb:carbonate, Wm: white mica, Chl: chlorite, Ep:
epidote. Mineral abbreviations following Fettes & Desmons (2007).
1.4 Discussion
In the following there will be discussed invalid definitions, type locality, position and
stratigraphic relations, lithologic description, depositional setting, age, lithocorrelation,
rank and name. In addition to those characteristics not fundamental to define the unit, but
of interest for readers.
1.4.1 Invalid definitions

At geological maps memories, such as those of Fuquen et al., (2009) and Fonseca et al.
(2011) stratotypes were suggested using an unrepresentative part of the succession
traditionally considered as La Cristalina Formation (e.g. Botero, 1940 or Feininger et al.
1972) and without following the international procedure, but very useful and
complementary with this definition.
1.4.2 Composed type locality

The type locality is composed and includes outcrops in the whole Las Iglesias and La
Miquera creeks, as well as some tributaries of the later that go to the north up the
Precambrian paragneisses. There can be observed all the contacts of La Cristalina
Formation. See further information at the introduction, such as accessibility, means of
transport, etc. The above fulfils the recommendations of the sections 4, 3.B.1 and 5.D.1 of
the Guide (Salvador, 2013).
It is highlighted the structural complications of the type locality here proposed, which is a
clear disadvantage, but is characteristic of La Cristalina Formation outcrops. Hopefuly
future sub-surface (wells, high resolution seismic, etc.) could help to illustrate the contacts
diversity and serve as reference sections.
1.4.3 Stratigraphic relations

A summary of the stratigraphic relations of La Cristalina Formation can be seen at Table
5, stratigraphic relations will be discussed below. Figure 14 shows some the critical
contacts observed in field.
Table 1-5 Stratigraphic relations (nature of contacts) of La Cristalina Formation with adjacent units
Figure 1-14 Stratigraphic relations (nature of contacts) of La Cristalina Formation with adjacent units. a-c)
Intrusive contact with the Middle to Upper Jurassic gradioritic to dioritics rocks (“d” unit of the “Igneous rocks
mainly to the east of the Otú Fault” sensu Feininger et al., 1970), cropping out in Las Iglesias and La Miquera
creeks (cf. Chapter 4); d) intrusive contact with the granitoids, in La Miquera Creek (cf. Chapter 4); e) intrusive
contact with rhyodacitic porphyries (“Felsic porphyries to the east of the Otú Fault” sensu Feininger et al.
(1970), cf. chapter 4); f) unconformity with some Cenozoic alluvial deposits, in the road La Cristalina-
Sabaletas railway stations, and g) outcrop of rhyolites and andesites (“Volcanic Rocks” of the "Felsic rocks to
East of the Otú Fault" sensu Feininger et al., 1970) in Las Iglesias Creek, up-stream a buried contact with
calcareous intercalations facies association, it should be either an unconformable or a faulted contact,
according to observed lineaments (Supplemental Material 1, Figure 2).
La Cristalina Formation has a very contrasting lithological contacts and stratigraphic

positions (time differences) with adjacent units, in coherence with the recommendations of
the Code (Article 23).
La Cristalina Formation rests unconformably on Precambrian paragneisses according to

observations of Feininger et al. (1972), author said the contact “can be seen clearly in
some tributaries of La Miquera Creek”. Fonseca et al. (2011) observed an unconformity,
but also a faulted contact, but no pictures have shown. During field work, we looked for
contacts in La Miquera Creek and many tributaries, according to that mentioned by
Feininger et al. (1972), but the majority of contacts are buried along creeks. Field
observations suggest that everything is indicative of a faulted contact: better development
of schistosity (phyllites) and penetrability next to the contact (Figure 6g) in addition to
higher dips (Figure 2). Likely, we observed a faulted contact, but we do not have enough
criteria to identify paragneisses undoubtedly (Supplemental Material 4). Nevertheless, to
the NE due to the similar orientation of the Precambrian and Ordovician layers (Figure 3),
the undeformed rocks and Feininger et al.´s observations the contact is most likely
unconformable. It should be considered that recent deformation (eg. Paleocene cf.
Chapter 4) could accommodate the deformation by faults through unconformity weak
planes, thus originally would have been an unconformity, but today is faulted with very
small displacements. To the west of La Cristalina Formation, the contact is undoubtedly a
fault, very near to El Bagre and Palestina faults, according to the very strong deformation
of La Cristalina Formation, clear geomorphologic lineaments and fault and horizontal stria
observed (figure 2 and 6f-g).
Those Precambrian paragneisses have been studied in El Vapor River by Ordóñez et al.
(1999). Other authors called those gneisses as “San Lucas Quartz-Feldspatic Gneisses”
(cf. González, 2001; Fuquen et al., 2009), “San Lucas Gneiss” (cf. Clavijo et al., 2008),
“San Lucas Metamorphic Complex” (Fonseca et al. 2011) or “Grenvillian rocks in the
eastern flank of the Central Cordillera” (e. g. Cardona et al. 2010). Here are called as
“Precambrian paragneisses”, and is remarked that those studied gneisses of Ordóñez et
al. (1999) undoubtfully correspond to the paragneisses underlying La Cristalina
Formation, whereas the others remain uncertain, because crop out so far away, in
addition to the unclear stratigraphical nomenclature.
Age determinations in Precambrian paragneisses in El Vapor River performed by

Ordóñez et al. (1999) suggest 894 ± 36 Ma isochronic age by using Rb-Sr, authors
considered the age as metamorphic. As well, authors showed TDM= 1829 and 1757 Ma.
Despite the uncertainties of the method, this support the Precambrian age. On the other
hand and recently, Cuadros et al. (2014) performed U-Pb LA-ICP-MS datings in San
Lucas Ranges, which could be more meaningful, but measured rocks crop out further to
the north, therefore correlations cannot be confident. Nevertheless, populations around
1400, 1200, 1100 and 900 Ma were reported with a metamorphism during
Neoproterozoic, that opened a stratigraphic question about the relation of the here studied
paragneisses and those gneisses in San Lucas (cf. Chapter 4).
Many igneous units intruded La Cristalina Formation (cf. chapter 4), those include at least
the 1) granodioritic to dioritic rocks mapped as “d” unit sensu Feininger et al. (1970) or
very likely genetically related with the Segovia Batholith (cf. Chapter 4), 2) porphyries
grouped as “Felsic porphyries to the east of the Otú Fault” sensu Feininger et al. (1970)
and 3) granitoids cf. Chapter 4. Only the Middle to Upper Jurassic Segovia Batholith and
the Paleocene granitoids have been dated geochronologically, therefore their ages are
well-constrained.
Rhyolites and andesites mapped as “Volcanic Rocks” and grouped as “Felsic rocks to the
east of the Otú fault” by Feininger et al. (1970) or “La Malena Volcanic Set” sensu
González (2001) have a Middle Jurassic concordant age (González et al., 2015). That is
also supported by field observations of Feininger et al. (1972), González (2001) and by
us, as the granodioritic to dioritic rocks included some xenoliths ans is cut of the rhyolites
and andesites. On the other hand, Feininger et al. (1970) mapped an inferred faulted
contact to east between La Cristalina and the “Volcanic Rocks”, Fonseca et al. (2011)
suggested, apparently, a faulted contact. I suggest either an unconformable or a faulted
contact between the calcareous intercalations facies of La Cristalina Formation and some
rhyolites and andesites (Figure 14g), up-stream of the first outcrops worked in Las
Iglesias (Figure 3) the buried contact with calcareous successions can be observed. It is
remarkable lineaments between both units in the Supplemental Material 1.
Overlaying La Cristalina Formation are 1) Lower Cretaceous marine strata (Fuquen et al.,
2009), 2) doubtfully, not deformed the Mesa Formation? with an unconformity (Fuquen et
al., 2009) and 3) Neogene alluvial deposits with and unconformity (Figure 14f). A
discordant contact between La Cristalina Formation and the overlying Aptian to Albian
strata bearing ammonites, pelecipods, gastropoda and plants was suggested by Fuquen
et al., (2009) in the road Puerto Berrío-Puerto Serviez and called as “Segovia
Sedimentites to the East of the Otú Fault”. The same authors observed that La Cristalina
Formation rests below very thick conglomeratic sandstones matrix supported and
polymictic, likely, related with the Mesa Formation? As wll, I observed an unconformable
contact with alluvial Cenozoic deposits.
1.4.4 Age
According to the stratigraphic relations, La Cristalina Formation depositional age should
be considered as post-Neoproterozoic (cf. Ordoñez et al., 1991) and pre-Middle to Upper
Jurassic (e. g. Feininger et al. 1972; Leal-Mejía, 2003). Nevertheless, the most precise
age is assigned to the siliciclastic successions by the graptolite fossil association, as
Floian to middle Darriwillian (cf. Table 1 and Chapter 2). The calcareous succession age
is unknown, but here is suggested strictly it should be post-Darriwillian and pre-Middle to
Upper Jurassic, unlikely Silurian or Permian. On the other hand, the metamorphic age
should be considered as post-Darriwillian and pre-Middle to Upper-Jurassic.
1.4.5 Rocks description and petrogenesis

At the Results section can be checked out the succession description and further
information, such composed columns representative of the stratigraphic concept of La
Cristalina Formation. That description should be used as the main criteria to recognize, to
extend and to correlate the unit.
In a broad sense, La Cristalina Formation can be described from the sedimentological

and metamorphic point of view, because preserves the sedimentary characteristics
(composition, textures, structures) despite the low-grade metamorphism. This study is the
most complete description (in terms of area and facies description) done up to now of La
Cristalina Formation, that together with that of Feininger et al. (1972) represent the best
knowledge we have about the unit.
The total sequence cannot be determined yet, because it is critical to control the area with
a higher density of data, when considering the many faults, folds and in general rock-
deformation that affected the unit. Nevertheless, here is proposed that the basal
sequence includes the metamudstones facies that represents a Lower-Middle Ordovician
transgression. The siliciclastic intercalations overlies the metamudstones facies, but in
field a fault is suggested. Furthermore, it was observed a concordant contact between the
siliciclastic successions and the calcareous successions. I pointed out that the 2
calcareous facies described here are also concordant in between. Therefore the
calcareous successions are to the top of La Cristalina Formation and siliciclastic to the
base.
The age of calcareous successions is critical, because if they are Ordovician they could
represent the regression to the end of the period that coincided with warmer climates
before the glaciations (e.g. Haq & Shuter, 2008; Gutiérrez-Marco et al., 2011) and,
unless, they represent somehow another processes such as the Gondwana continent
migration to warmer latitudes, but before Jurassic. In addition although no disconformities
have been observed, and paraconformities/hiatuses those cannot be discharged and
significant amount of time could be absent in the rock record.
Finally, the total and accurate thickness of the succession has not been determined yet,
because bed orientation and structures are too variable to consider stratigraphic
simplicity, but it is calculated ca. 3600m, with clear structural issues.
Depositional setting
As was afore mentioned, despite there is no enough information to know the total
succession, the deposition settings could have evolved in offshore and distal shoreface
conditions (Nichols, 2000; Hampson & Storms 2003), as is indicated by the facies
association and fossil association (Cooper et al., 2012). For the calcareous successions is
suggested off-shore and shoreface conditions (Nichols, 2000 or distal shoreface
according Hampson & Storms 2003). Therefore, the base of La Cristalina Formation is a
transgressive surface and, with minor confidence, the top represents the shallowest facies
and a regression in comparison with the base. Many relative sea level changes can be
observed when considering the columns showed in Figure 5, but these analyses are out
of the scope of this text and requires further and detailed studies.
Deformation
La Cristalina Formation is a polymetamorphic unit. The most important one is that pre-
Middle to Upper Jurassic regional metamorphism, likely due to burying and less likely
orogenic metamorphism. Metamorphism is provisionally classified as green-schists facies,
when consider the biotite isograde, which indicates the peak metamorphic conditions.
Nevertheless, it has to be considered that in some localities just reached chlorite or white
mica isograde, which will be indicative of lesser grade than biotite isograde, but here is
suggested is due to to complex lithological changes that responds differently to the same
metamorphic conditions.
La Cristalina Formation has local contact metamorphism caused by the many igneous
intrusions, out of which granodioritic to dioritic rocks are the most important in terms of
area and expected higher temperatures. Contact metamorphism is evidenced by re-
crystallization of coarser and not oriented micas, porphyroblasts (andalusite), marbles
with granofelsic textures, in addition to diopside and epidote observed by Fonseca et al.
(2011).
Finally, local dislocation metamorphism affected La Cristalina Formation. From the

structural point of view, many faults and indications of faults have been observed,
especially strong are those in the proximity to Precambrian paragneisses to the west and
northwest, which are coherent with photointerpretation lineaments. But neither significant
movement indicators (such as shear zones) nor preferential deformation have been
observed in the total succession, therefore deformation is due to local faults, which
causes local very low-grade dislocation metamorphism. This deformation events could be
partially related with the on-going uplift of the Central Cordillera since latest Cretaceous
(Villlagómez et al. 2010) (cf. Chapter 4).
1.4.6 Lithocorrelation
El Hígado Formation, 460 km to the south in the Upper Magdalena Valley (Figure 1), was
dated as Darriwilian according to graptolites, trilobites, conodonts and brachiopods
occurrences (e.g. Borrero et al., 2007). El Hígado includes the graptolite assemblage
Didymograptus murchisoni, D. aff. artus, Glyptograptus sp., Cryptograptus cf. tricornis
and Hallograptus cf. bimucronatus (Mojica et al., 1987 and 1988). As well as, an
association of conodonts (the first conodont occurrences of Colombia and the third of
South America, Gutiérrez-Marco et al., 2007) Lenodus variabilis and Eoplacognathus
suecicus that have an age equivalent to Expansograptus hirundo and Didymograptus
artus biozones. Hence, at least part of La Cristalina and El Hígado are coetaneous and
here is reinforced that were deposited in a common basin.
Therefore, it is clear that La Cristalina and El Hígado successions have the same
stratigraphic position, similar lithology (both units have metamudstones bearing
graptolites with minor sandstones) and can be partially lithocorrelated; but, on the other
hand, it cannot be considered those are the same unit, until some issues can be cleared
up. To consider they are the same unit it should better first examined: 1) the lithologic
characteristics, 2) the stratigraphic position and 3) proving lateral continuity. Currently,
conditions 1 and 2 are fulfilled partially, and 3 is not fulfilled (lacking of information about
lateral continuity). Points are said 1 and 2 are partially fulfilled because stratigraphic
relations with adjacent bodies are not completely clear in El Hígado Formation (e. g. the
top is unknown or faulted) and due to deformation (faults, folds, no-parallel foliation to the
stratification, etc.) makes both total successions have not determined accurately
(suggestions for El Hígado Formation can be checked in Caicedo, 2001 and Gutiérrez-
Marco et al., 2007). It seems there is a lot to do with the best studied Ordovician units of
Colombia, up to now.
As far as deformation is concerned, La Cristalina Formation has a higher deformation,

undoubtedly metamorphic, in comparison with El Hígado Formation, which actually seems
to have advanced diagenesis (Borrero et al., 2007).
Lastly, as was concluded by Almanza et al. (2016), La Cristalina Formation has strong
similarities with Peruvian and Bolivian fauna including similar rocks facies and, therefore,
can be considered reasonably that those were deposited on the western margin of
Gondwana in interconnected Andean basin and can be potentially correlated.
1.4.7 Stratigraphic classification: Rank

Until no more studies are available, La Cristalina should be better accompanied by the
term formation, mainly because 1) the term has been traditionally used (section 3.B.3.g of
the Guide) and 2) fulfil all the recommendations suggested at the Guide, specially section
3.B. and sections 5.A, 5.C and 5.D. On the other hand, it should be considered as
lithostratigraphic unit because is undoubtedly its usefulness in mapping, regional geologic
understanding and because can be easily recognized by lithologic and geomorphologic
characteristics, as well as stratigraphic position.
Why La Cristalina Formation should not be split
At first glance, it might suggested to split the calcareous and siliciclastic successions as 2
different formations, but here is proposed that is more useful not to split the unit
considering: 1) usefulness in regional geologic understanding of the area (cf. section 5. A.
“Nature of Lithostratigraphic Units” of the Guide) as no other Ordovician rocks crop out in
the region, 2) the overspread and homogeneous low grade metamorphism and 3)
tradition (section 3.b.3.g of the Guide), when considering the unit has been understood as
composed of both concordant successions since Botero (1940) and Feininger et al.
(1972). As well, the Article 6 of the Code suggest that is undesirable to split the unit
without suitable arguments, and despite the approximation 3600 m of the thickness is not
a valid criteria to divide the unit (Article 24, e).
In addition, unless a regional discordance (Article 22, e of the Code) or very different age
can be proved between the siliciclastic and calcareous successions, here is suggested
not to split the unit.
1.4.8 Name
La Cristalina should be named as La Cristalina Formation because 1) is a well-stablished
name (section 3.B.3.g of the the Guide) and deserves preservation (Article 7 of the Code);
2) fulfil the requirements of section 3.B.3 and section 5.F of the Guide, and 3) priority
(section 3.B.3.v).
Here is not recommended a composed name (geographic name+descriptive term+rank)

because La Cristalina Formation is a well-stablished name and according to section
3.B.3.a and section 5.F.3 of the Guide which suggest is disadvantageous, in contrast to
Article 6 of the Code.
In addition, the unit has at least 2 homonyms. To this respect, it should be pointed out that
there are at least 2 map units called also La Cristalina the “Andesitic Porphyry of La
Cristalina” in the Western Cordillera in El Cairo Town (Parra, 1984a,b) and “La Cristalina
Complex” to the north of the Western Cordillera in the Urrao Town (González, 2002;
González & Londoño, 2003). Nevertheless, those names are informal (authors did not
followed the international procedure), were coined after the first time La Cristalina name
was used to refer to the Ordovician rocks and are just occasionally used. Therefore, those
homonyms should not be considered a reason to abandon the name La Cristalina
Formation for the Ordovician rocks. On the other hand, La Cristalina could have one
synonime as “La Cruz Sedimentites”, but is critical to confirm if those rocks follow the
complete definition here proposed (González et al., 2015).
Considering the “Preservation of Traditional and Well-Stablished Names” of the Guide

(section 3.B.3.g), it should be pointed out La Cristalina term was used to locate some
graptolitic shales as early as 1929 by Harrison (1929); thus La Cristalina term refers to a
locality. However, the first time La Cristalina was used to refer not a locality but
accompanying a geological term was “La Cristalina fossil locality” in 1940, 77 years ago
(Botero, 1940) and in 1945 was coined to name a lithostratigraphic unit! La Cristalina
Formation (Alvarado et al., 1945).
Currently, La Cristalina is a name used for a railway station, a small village (vereda) and a
creek (where La Cristalina rocks do not crop out!). Therefore, La Cristalina Formation
proper name is due to a railway station rather than due to the small village or creek name.
La Cristalina lithostratigraphic unit has been long quoted in many documents since it was
first-published (Harrison, 1929). Table 6 summarizes the most remarkable published
terms used to refer to La Cristalina Formation since 1911.
As can be seen at Table 6 most of the authors have used the term La Cristalina plus
different adjectives. In 1945 the term La Cristalina Formation was coined by Alvarado et
al. (1945), apparently, by the first time. Nevertheless, as it was pointed out by Julivert
(1968) Precambrian, Cambrian and Ordovician units had been used as lithostratigraphic
terms without defining them; despite the undoubtedly usefulness. On the other hand, La
Cristalina Formation term has been frequently used in informal (maps, internal reports,
etc.) and formal publications; out of which, Mojica & Villaroel (1990) used for the first time
the term in a peer-reviewed journal.
Table 1-6 Names used to refer to La Cristalina Formation since 1911 up to now.
All the aforementioned, supports that La Cristalina Formation term is the most suitable
name for the formal stratigraphic unit.
1.4.9 Formalization
To correctly formalize the definition of La Cristalina Formation, publication in a
“Recognized scientific medium” must be done, according to the section 3.B.4 of the
Guide. This is being currently done, as was submitted to an international and Schimago-
indexed journal.
1.5 Conclusions
Following the international procedure recommended by the International Commission on
Stratigraphy (Salvador, 2013), the lithostratigraphic unit La Cristalina Formation was
defined here, although it was cleared up that the term La Cristalina Formation was first
coined 72 years ago by Alvarado et al. (1945). La Cristalina Formation has a composed
stratotype in La Miquera, Las Iglesias creeks, and some tributaries of those, where all
contacts and the best outcrops and Ordovician fossils occurrences can be found. La
Cristalina Formation was defined as those rocks outcropping to the southeast of Antioquia
Department and concordant with Floian-early middle Darriwillian graptolitic
metamudstones. La Cristalina Formation is a polymetamorphic, with the most important
regional low-grade metamorphism. La Cristalina Formation has 4 facies, with clear
structural issues that do not allow knowing the total thickness, accurately. Facies have
been grouped in siliciclastic (metamudstones and siliciclastic intercalations) and
calcareous successions (metamicrites and calcareous intercalations). The basal
metamudstones were considered as the oldest facies and the calcareous intercalations
may be the youngest., although it was pointed out that the age of calcareous successions
is undetermined and critical. It was recommended that those characteristics together with
the low-metamorphism should be used to extend or correlate the unit far from the type
locality, and are useful enough to identify the unit in field. It was said La Cristalina
Formation has an unconformable and faulted contact with underlying Precambrian
gneisses in the composed stratotype, and is overlaid by rhyolites and andesites with
either a faulted or an unconformity contact, as well is overlaid by Lower Cretaceous
metamudstones (Fuquen et al., 2009) and alluvial Cenozoic deposits with unconformities.
Rocks have been intruded granodioritic to dioritic rocks, Paleocene S-type granitoids, and
some felsic to intermediate porphyries. It was suggested La Cristalina Formation can be
correlated in Colombia with the graptolite-bearing mudstones of El Hígado Formation in
the Upper Magdalena Valley and potentially correlated with San Juan and Contaya
formations in Peru and Bolivia, which have a very similar fossil assemblages. Also it was
proposed La Cristalina should have a formation-rank because it has been traditionally
used and due to fulfil all the requirements. The name was coined because priority and
because it is well-stablished, and because is more useful bearing in mind the early
description of its facies (Botero, 1940) and homogeneous metamorphism. It was
remarked that until no more studies are available, it is recommended not to be split.
Finally, here was concluded that La Cristalina Formation is a very useful stratigraphic unit
when considering the paleography of Gondwana, and the tectonic location and its
deformation meaning for the understanding of the tectonic processes that have occurred
since Ordovician times
Acknowledgments
To the Academic Vice-Rectory (Honor Degree Scholarship) and the Welfare Science Faculty (partially
financed an academic exchange to Johannes Gutenberg Universität) of the Universidad Nacional de
Colombia, the Spanish Mineco (CGL 2012- 39471) of the CSIC and GmasLab (Bogotá) for financing this
work. As well we are grateful with the today geologists Francisco Javier Muñoz, Luis Miguel Vélez, Andrés
Felipe Alvarado, Ángel Verbel and Felipe Pastor for their valuable help during field works.
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2. New graptolite fossil localities of La
Cristalina Formation
Abstract
La Cristalina Formation is a low grade metasedimentary unit that crops out in the eastern
flank of the Central Cordillera of Colombia. La Cristalina includes epicontinental marine
deposits that vary in offshore and shoreface. Previously, Floian to Dapingian graptolites
were found to the east and southeast of La Cristalina Railway Station in Puerto Berrío
(Antioquia). Fossils recorded here include the graptolite assemblage Didymograptus cf.
(Hopkinson), in adittion to phyllocarids remains. That assemblage suggests a middle
Darriwillian age. Therefore, currently La Cristalina Formation can be considered Floian to
middle Darriwilian in age, thus representing the late Lower to most of the Middle
Ordovician. This is the best time-resolution La Cristalina Formation has ever had.
Regarding the aforementioned, La Cristalina can be correlated with the coeval El Hígado
Formation in Colombia, which occurs in the Upper Magdalena Valley. The middle
Darriwilian graptolitic assemblage of La Cristalina and El Hígado formations are very
similar to those reported in Perú and Bolivia, thus those Ordovician units were, likely,
deposited in the today´s the western margin of Gondwana in interconnected basins.
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 General approaches of La Cristalina Formation
La Cristalina Formation was the first Ordovician unit discovered in Colombia (Harrison,
1929), it is widely recognized for its Ordovician graptolite assemblage, and often cited in
paleoreconstructions of South America (e.g. Aceñolaza, 1980; Mojica & Villaroel, 1990).
La Cristalina Formation is located in the Middle Magdalena Valley (MMV) in Puerto Berrío
Town (Antioquia Department). It is the unique Ordovician published in the Central
Cordillera, and together with El Hígado Formation are the westernmost outcrops in
Colombia (Figure 1). The largest outcrops are in La Cristalina Village and to the south of
the Antioquian Railway Station named also La Cristalina; but the best rock exposures can
be found rather in creeks, such as La Miquera (Figure 2).
Figure 2-1. Ordovician sedimentary and low-grade metasedimentary rocks in Colombia. From north to south
and west to east, outcrops in: 1) La Cristalina Formation (Floian-early middle Darriwilian) in the eastern flank
of the Central Cordillera, 2) Negritos Formation in the Orinoquía. 3) Venado Formation in the Eastern
Cordillera, 4) La Uribe in the Piedemonte Llanero Foothills, 5) “Series”/”Group” Güejar in La Macarena
Ranges, 6) El Hígado Formation in the Upper Magdalena Valley and 7) Araracuara Ordovician rocks in the
Amazonía. Many occurrences of Ordovician rocks in the Orinoquía are not showed here and are unpublished.
Map modified from Gómez et al. (2015).
2. New graptolite fossil localities of La Cristalina Formation 85
Figure 2-2. Geological Map of La Cristalina Formation at 1:100 000 scale. Geological map modified from
Gómez et al. (2015), after Feininger et al. (1970). Location map modified from Gómez & Almanza (2015).
La Cristalina unit extends over ca. 50 km2 (Figure 2) and consists of mainly
metamudstones; intercalations of metamudstones and metasandstones, as minor
metasandstones, in addition to metamicrities and calreous intercalations of metamircrites,
metawackstones, calcareous metasandstones and not-calcareous dark metamudstones.
According to the metamorphic mineral assemblage, the unit has green schist facies,
caused by regional metamorphism. The succession (ca. 3600 m with clear structural
issues) includes an epicontinental marine sequence that varies from shoreface to offshore
(Almanza et al., 2013), it is intruded all along by igneous rocks (mainly plutonic
granodioritic to dioritic rocks, felsic porphyries and S-type granitoids) that caused contact
metamorphism locally
2.1.2 Ordovician sedimentary/low grade metasedimentary rocks

in Colombia
High sea levels during the Early and Middle Ordovician (e. g. Haq and Shutter, 2008) are
responsible of thick marine sedimentary sequences preserved all around the world.
Successions to the west of Gondwana can be seen today in countries such as Venezuela,
Colombia, Ecuador and few in Chile. The the best exposures, and major thicknesses and
time-register in the NW of Argentina, Peru and Bolivia (e.g. Aceñolaza, 1980; Benedetto
et al., 2007).
Ordovician sedimentary/metasedimentary units recorded and published in Colombia were

dated mainly using fossils such as graptolites, trilobites, acritarchs and in a lesser extent
conodonts, brachiopods and ichnofossils. Ordovician successions can be seen in the
Figure 1.
Sedimentary occurrences to the east of the Andes include: serranía de La Macarena (e.
g. Trumpy, 1944; Harrington and Kay, 1951; Mojica and Villarroel, 1990; Gutiérrez-Marco
et al., 2006), Amazonía (Bogota, 1982; Thery et al., 1984), SW of Mitú Town (Mojica &
Villarroel, 1990) and some petroleum wells occurrences in Orinoquía (e.g. La Heliera-1,
Negritos-1, Trinidad-1 and Voragine-1. E. g. Baldis et al., 1984; Théry, 1985; Ulloa et al.,
1982; Dueñas, 2001; Arminio et al., 2013). Interestingly, information from Moreno-López
et al. (2015) allows figuring out the thick (thousands of meters) Orinoquian successions
presumably assignable to the lower part of the Paleozoic, by means of seismic
information.
Andes Ranges occurrences were recorded in: El Hígado Formation (e. g. Mojica et al.,
1987; Mojica and Villarroel, 1990; where the unique Ordovician Colombian conodonts
were found by Gutiérrez-Marco et al., 2007) in the Upper Magdalena Valley (UMV);
Venado Formation (e. g. Villarroel et al. 1997; Moreno-Sánchez et al., 2008b) in the
Eastern Cordillera; to the north and southwest of La Uribe (e. g. Trumpy, 1944) in the
eastern flank of the Eastern Cordillera, and in the Eastern flank of the Central Cordillera in
La Cristalina Formation. La Cristalina is the northern most Ordovician.
Not enough well-constrained Ordovician rocks require better information, such as in the
Perijá Ranges in Cesar and La Guajira departments (Tchantz et al., 1969), and Santa
Teresa in Tolima Department (González, 2001). Lastly, in Aquitania (Antioquia
Department) was suggested presumably Ordovician (Moreno-Sánchez et al., 2008a;
González, 2001), but recently Giraldo et al. (2015) found Tithonian ammonites (Upper
Jurassic) discarding Ordovician sedimentites to the west of local Palestina Fault, and thus
Otú-Pericos Fault.
2.1.3 La Cristalina Formation in the eastern flank of the Central

Cordillera
The Antioquia Railway was built in 1878-1929 (Cisneros, 2003) in the Central Cordillera,
engineers dealt with a very dense tropical rain forest; but thanks to that and to the
petroleum exploration in the area in 1927 DÁrcy Exploration Co. engineers, leaded by V.
Böckh, found graptolites near to La Cristalina Railway Station. However, fossil
occurrences were published only upto Harrison (1929). The fossil association suggested
“Arenigian”, the first undoubtedly Ordovician rocks known in Colombia. Table 1 shows the
main contributions to La Cristalina Formation knowledge.
Unfortunately up-to-now, no maps showing fossil-localities were published, except that

hand-made of Botero (1940), but fossils were not found by us. As well, neither pictures
nor schemas of graptolites are available, and just Botero and Díaz fossils are in the
Colombian Geological Survey (National Geology Museum José Royo y Gómez). The
other fossil occurrences were not found yet.
Table 2-1 Main published contributions to La Cristalina Formation biostratigraphical knowledge
2.1.4 Ordovician transgression in Colombia

The lowest Ordovician Colombian rocks are Tremadocian (in some localities include the
upper Cambrian) in the serranía de La Macarena; Orinoquía, and Floian in the Central
Cordillera (La Cristalina Formation). In addition, evidences are in reworked Tremadocian
to Floian/Dapingian conodonts found in the UMV (Gutiérrez-Marco et al., 2006) in the
Eastern Cordillera. Most of the Colombian Ordovician rocks record the “Arenigian”, as
well as most localities to the west of Gondwana (e.g. Aceñolaza, 1980). “Areginian” has
been found in the Central Cordillera, Eastern Cordillera, Orinoquía and Amazonía (likely,
including Mitú). Finally, the Darriwilian Stage has been just found in the Central Cordillera
and in the UMV. The aforementioned cf. Figure 1. Up to now, no later Darriwilian rocks
have been found. In the future, more studies will allow us to have a better dating and
correlation with global sea levels, according to the updated International

Chronostratigraphic Chart, but biostratigraphy and geochronological studies are critical.
2.1.5 La Cristalina biostratigraphy and age

In 2009 the International Commission on Stratigraphy completed the GSSP´s definition
of the bases of all Ordovician stages, therefore nowadays fossils can be used to date
precisely stages, as it was done for the first time for La Cristalina in this paper. Table 2
summarizes the biostratigraphic knowledge of La Cristalina, including fossil localities and
the up-to-date age of La Cristalina Formation.
2.2 Methodology
6 field trips to La Cristalina in Puerto Berrío town (Antioquia) have been done, 109 hand-
samples were collected and 64 thin-sections were made at GMAS S.A.S. and at the
Universidad Nacional de Colombia (Bogotá).
Rocks description were done according to Fettes and Desmons (2007) and Folk (1980).
Mineral abbreviations, metamorphic concepts and other terms (e.g. metamorphic grade,
P/T relation, isograde, etc.) according to Fettes and Desmons (2007). Mineral association
and temperature stability conditions approaches, according to Spears (1993), and Vernon
and Clarke (2008).
Samples were prepared in the CSIC laboratories and in the Universidad Nacional de
Colombia. Pictures were taken at GMAS S.A.S. photographic studio, with the camera
Canon Sony a99, 55mm lent, ISO 100, f/16 and 1/5s and graptolites in the CSIC
Laboratories.
2.3 Results
2.3.1 Metasedimentary succession bearing graptolites
La Cristalina Formation consists of fine-laminated metamudstones, intercalations of

metamudstones and fine-grained metasandstones, besides minor and very fine to fine
quarzitic metasandstones that grades to medium grain-size, in adittion to calcareous
successions. At least 3 igneous rocks have intruded La Cristalina, causing contact

metamorphism. One corresponds to sills-like granitoids and, the other, diorites (Almanza
et al. in preparation).
Biotite in metamudstones indicates the highest grade and suggests green schist facies at
the metamorphic peak-conditions (Figure 3e-f), whereas metasandstones have a less
indicative mineral association with white mica. Succession thickness cannot be
determined yet, because deformation that includes belds (several anticlinal and synclinal),
faults, etc.; but ca. 3600 m is calculated (cf. Chapter 1). Normal beds polarity has been
determined; nevertheless, it seems possible to do it too by biostratigraphic means (that
will allow to constrain the depositional rate), but only when the other fossil assemblages
will be find, such as those Floian or Dapingian (e.g. Harrison, 1929 or De la Cruz, 1939).
Finally, lithology, sedimentological structures and fossil assemblage indicate shoreface to
offshore marine setting as was suggested by Almanza et al. (2013) (Hampson and
Storms, 2003), out of which the deepest correspond to the black metamudstones where
graptolite occurrences were found, as well this facies looks very similar to the facies
where Botero (1940) and Botero & Díaz found their fossils.
It should be highlighted that the 250 m of altitude, climate conditions (considered as

humid warm climate, with 28.5 °C on average and 2394 mm/year precipitation. IDEAM,
2005) and deformation make fossil preservation a challenge, as well as difficult to find
appropriate outcrops, therefore it is thought that some fossil-localities maybe have been
totally weathered (specially those not located in creeks, such as those of Feininger et al.
1972 and those in the Nus Section on the railroad).
Graptolites were found in 7 localities to the south of La Cristalina Railway Station in La

Miquera Creek and one tributary (Figure 2), the local stratigraphic column can be seen in
Figure 4. Fossils are poorly-preserved in dark-grey (N3 in wet) monotonous foliated
metamudstones (term slates best describe the rock appearance) with abundant organic
matter (leave dark residue in hands) (Figure 3a-d), significantly bioturbated (Figure 3d).
Metamudstones foliation layers are plane-parallel continuous and typically of <5 cm
(Figure 3c). Lamination, typically of 1-2 mm. Framework grains of silt-size consist mainly
of quartz and feldspar, in approximately the same proportion. Importantly, no graptolites
have been recorded in other facies of La Cristalina Formation, such as calcareous
successions.
Figure 2-3 Outcrops, hand-sample and thin-section pictures of La Cristalina Formation, where fossils were
found. a-c) Kind of outcrops where graptolites were found, it consists of fine foliated metamudstones.
Metamudstones typically leave hands dark-coloured. d) Hand-sample with Pseudoamplexograptus latus
(Bulman), it can be seen abundant pyritic bioturbation to the right. e, f) Thin section (PPL to the left and XPL
to the right) showing quartz (Qtz), biotite (Bt) and organic matter (OM), together with feldspars, which are the
main constituents of La Cristalina metamudstones
Figure 2-4 Composed generalized columns of La Cristalina Formation, that represent the stratigraphic
concept of La Cristalina Formation. a) Column using information obtained in La Miquera Creek and some
tributaries; b) column using information from La Miquera Creek; c) column using information from Las Iglesias
Creek, and d) column using information from Las Iglesias Creek and some tributaries.
2.3.2 Graptolites occurrences
Graptolites are found along 400 m in the column, where no structural disturbations were
identified, although it cannot be discharged when considering several occurrences of the
same fossils. Graptolites were determined by J. C. Gutiérrez-Marco as Didymograptus cf.
(Hopkinson). Phyllocarids remains were found too (Figure 5). The main issue with the
identification were the poorly preservation (strongly oxidized) and the strong deformation
(the same taxon show evidences of stretching and contracting), thereby the important
taxonomic dimensions could not obtained with certainty.
Different localities have variable assemblages. One with Dydimograptus cf. murchisoni
(Beck) and Pseudoamplexograptus latus (Bulman), together with phyllocarids; other with
Glossograptus hincksii (Hopkinson), and other with a single-specie with Dydimograptus
cf. murchisoni. Rhabdosomes commonly are current-oriented on the bedding plane,
suggesting bottom currents. In the following the taxonomy of graptolites occurrences will
be showed according to website fossiilid.info.
1. Order Graptoloidea Lapworth, 1875
Suborder Dichograptina Lapworth, 1873
Family DIDYMOGRAPTIDAE Mu, 1950
Subfamily Dichograptinae Lapworth, 1873
Genus Didymograptus McCoy, 1851
Species Didymograptus murchisoni (Beck, 1839)
Suborder Axonophora Frech, 1897
Family DIPLOGRAPTIDAE Lapworth, 1873
Subfamily Diplograptinae Lapworth, 1873
Genus Pseudamplexograptus Mitchell, 1987
Pseudoamplexograptus latus (Bulman)

Figure 2-5 New graptolite assemblage of La Cristalina Formation. A-F) Didymograptus cf. murchisoni (Beck);
G-J) Pseudoamplexograptus latus (Bulman); K-M) Archiclimacograptus? sp.; N, S) Glossograptus hincksii
(Hopkinson), O-T) undetermined and p) phyllocarids. Fossils determined by J.C. Gutiérrez.
Suborder Glossograptina Jaanusson, 1960
Family GLOSSOGRAPTIDAE Lapworth, 1873

Genus Glossograptus Emmons, 1855
Glossograptus hincksii (Hopkinson, 1872)
Paleontogical material will be stored at the Paleontological Collection of the Universidad

Nacional de Colombia in Bogotá, meanwhile are being studied.
2.4 Discussion
2.4.1 Age of La Cristalina Formation

Until now, La Cristalina Formation had been considered Floian to Dapingian due to
Expansograptus hirundo, E. extensus, E. nitidus and Pseudisograptus? sp. (equivalent to
“Didymograptus” gibberulus) (Harrison, 1929; Gutiérrez-Marco, 2011, and reviews of this
study), as well as Botero (1940) and Feininger et al. (1972) as is shown in Table 2. This
report is the first time that Posada (1936) graptolitic assemblage is taken into account,
those suggest Floian because Clonograptus flexilis, Tetragraptus serra and Phylograptus
typus. Unfortunately, all the previous works neither included pictures nor maps (except
the Botero, 1940´s schema) nor the fossils have not been found again, despite we have
looked for them.
To summarize, thanks to the aforementioned La Cristalina should be considered Floian to

early middle Darriwilian (equivalent to late Lower Ordovician to Middle Ordovician), Table
2 shows fossil localities and the time-ranges of the fossil occurrences reported here.
Table 2-2 Fossil localities, identification of graptolite assemblages and age of La Cristalina Formation.
Colours according to the International Stratigraphic Chart (2016).
2.4.2 Implications of La Cristalina graptolite occurrences in

Colombia
From the correlation point of view, El Hígado Formation, 460 km to the south in the UMV
(Figure 1), was dated as Darriwilian according to graptolites, trilobites, conodonts and
brachiopods occurrences (e.g. Borrero et al., 2007). El Hígado Formation includes the
graptolite association Didymograptus murchisoni, D. aff. artus, Glyptograptus sp.,
Cryptograptus cf. tricornis and Hallograptus cf. bimucronatus (Mojica et al., 1987 and
1988). As well as an association of conodonts Lenodus variabilis and Eoplacognathus
suecicus that have an age equivalent to Expansograptus hirundo and Didymograptus
artus biozones. Hence, at least part of La Cristalina and El Hígado are coetaneous and it
is reinforced that were deposited in a common basin.
La Cristalina and El Hígado formations have the same stratigraphic position and can be
correlated; but, on the other hand, it cannot be considered they are the same unit, until
some issues can be cleared up, such as lateral continuity.
2.4.3 Paleogeographical implications in South America

Lower and Middle Ordovician fossil associations of Colombian La Cristalina and El
Hígado formations are very similar to the fauna of Bolivia and Perú (where the others
unique South American Ordovician conodonts have been found by Gutiérrez-Marco et al.,
2007) as has been proposed as early as 1940 by Botero (1940). But it does not
necessary means that they were deposited in the same basin, rather better it should be
considered that they were deposited in an interconnected setting to the today´s west of
Gondwana (Figure 7).
Borrero et al. (2007) suggested that Tremadocian Oleniids of Colombia are similar to
Eastern Argentina-Bolivia Cordillera, Orinioquian planes of Venezuela and in minor
extend to Baltica (e. g. Jujuyaspis-Neoparabolina of Baldis et al., 1984 and Kainella of
Harrington and Kay, 1951). They also suggested that “Arenigian” fossil association is
cosmopolite, with epi- to mesopelagic graptolites and rare oleniids, except coastal
icnofacies of Amazonía, similar to ones of the north of Gondwana. They conclude that a
number of graptolites and few benthic fossils of El Hígado Formation can be correlated
with fossil associations of Contaya Formation of Perú (in Amazonía), that clearly shows
Gondwanan affinities, according to Hughes et al. (1980).
Figure 2-6 Paleogeographic reconstruction. Note to the souther position of Gondwana, which suggest La
Cristalina graptolites came from cold waters. Modified from Staal & Hatcher (2010).
Borrero et al. (2007) pointed out that Gondwanan proto-Avalonian fauna is very similar to
El Hígado Formation because the presence of Anebolithus and Ogygiocarella cf. debuchii
in both areas, with Protolloydolithus (or Myttonia?) that reinforces connection. Those
affinities began in the early and middle “Arenigian” of Perú (San José Formation), where
there are the oldest occurrences of Anebolithus and Athiella, and then they migrate to the
north to Colombia, Terranova and Gales (Gutiérrez-Marco et al., 2004).
Interestingly, Lower to Middle Ordovician beds (probably Coroico Formation) in the

northermost of Bolivia Eastern Cordillera has Cryptograptus cf. schaeferi and
Didymograptus association, including Didymograptus murchisoni (Mitchell et al., 2008).
Similarly, in the Eastern Cordillera (central Perú), the San José Formation (cerro
Huancampa Junín Departament) has Cryptograptus cf. schaeferi (Chacaltana et al.,
2006), and in Sandia region in the south of Perú Didymograptus murchisoni was also
found (Maletz et al., 2010). Those occurrences prove marine connection between
graptolitic faunas of Peru, Bolivia and Colombia.
Finally, in respect of Cruziana furcífera dÓrbigny ichnofossils, they have been reported in
Colombia (Araracuara), Peru, Bolivia and Argentina during Ordovician times, which also
supports the Gondwanan connection (Aceñolaza and Gutiérrez-Marco, 2010).
2.4.4 Colombian tectonic scenario

It has been long suggested that Colombian tectonic setting has changed significantly to
the west of the Colombian Amazonian Craton since Ordovician times, including terranes
accretion (e. g. Restrepo and Toussaint, 1989; Spikings et al., 2015) and terranes long
translations (e. g. Bayona et al., 2010). Coherently, many questions remain unanswered,
such as the degree of deformation reminding e.g. the amphibolite facies of the Silgará
Formation (sensu Ward et al. 1973. Forero, 1990; Ordovician protolite age according to
Mantilla et al., 2016) in the Santander Massif in contrast to La Cristalina and El Hígado
formations with very low deformation. In the same way, other questions remains
unanswered such as what is the geological meaning of the Otú-Pericos Fault as terrane
boarder (sensu Restrepo et al., 2011) and its close proximity to La Cristalina Formation
and, if it is accepted terranes long-translations, the translation mechanisms.
As was showed, those models have wide disagreements in between. The geological
history of Colombian terranes is not an easy task and it may have involved tectonic
processes we have not understood yet, hence we cannot explain them satisfactory. It is
even harder when we have little to guide us, and neither enough geochronological nor
geochemical nor isotopic data are available for the Ordovician units. It is required much
more information to understand how those events/models can be actually seen and
explained regarding La Cristalina and El Hígado formations.
To summarize, considering the current petrologic and paleontological knowledge of the

Ordovician units, it does not seems reasonably to favour one over the other model with
certainty, but it is clear that La Cristalina and El Hígado formations are critical to those
models because they are too close to a terrane boarder.
2.5 Conclusions
La Cristalina Formation new graptolite assemblage allowed to date the unit as Floian to
early middle Darriwilian in age, thus representing the upper Lower to Middle Ordovician.
That is the best age resolution that the La Cristalina has ever had. It was correlated in
Colombia with the coeval El Hígado Formation, which occurs in the UMV further to the
south. The middle Darriwilian graptolitic assemblage of the La Cristalina and El Hígado
formations were compared because are very similar to those of the northern most Eastern
Cordillera of Bolivia as well as to the Amazonía and centre of Perú. It was suggested,
reasonably, that La Cristalina has clear biostratigraphic affinities with western Gondwanan
and, likely, were deposited in interconnected Andean basins. Finally, those occurrences
were considered as valuable for regional tectonostratigraphic reconstructions that are
challenging to interpret. Also it was pointed out that fossil occurrences suggested that the
terrane (if so, the Chibcha Terrane cf. Restrepo et al., 2011) to the west of critical faults
systems was in or very near to Gondwana by late Lower Ordovician.
Acknowledgments
To the Academic Vice-Rectory (Honor Degree Scholarship) and the Welfare Science Faculty (partially
financind the academic exchange to Johannes Gutenberg Universität) of the Universidad Nacional de
Colombia, the Spanish Mineco (CGL 2012- 39471) and GmasLab (Bogotá) for financing this work. As well we
are grateful with the today geologists Francisco Javier Muñoz, Luis Miguel Vélez and Andrés Felipe Alvarado
for their valuable help during field works, including carrying heavy samples and preparing some figures for this
manuscript, as well as with the geologist Lisette Karbach and Anna Rebaza for improving this manuscript.
2.6 References
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3. Colombian first ocurrences of Ordovician
foraminifera: La Cristalina Formation
Abstract
The low-grade metasedimentary Lower to Middle Ordovician La Cristalina Formation

crops out in the Eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, to the southwest of Puerto Berrío.
Thanks to conventional petrography and hand-samples preparation, there were
discovered the first occurrences of Ordovician agglutinated foraminifera in Colombia.
Rocks bearing-foraminifera correspond to highly bioturbated metamudstones.
Occurrences were determined as Astrorhiza? sp. Foraminifera together with field work
and petrographic analyses suggest those rocks were deposited in a marine epicontinental
platform in a shoreface setting, with low ƒO2 and low pH conditions in the bottom of sea,
as is also indicated by the rock facies association. Foraminifera found here are not useful
bioestratigraphic tools owing to its broad time-range; but considering Ordovician
foraminifera are very scarce during Ordovician times, this report seems of international
interest, especially for South America, where only 2 occurrences have been reported up-
to-now.
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Ordovician foraminifera

Following Pawlowski et al. (2013), who used critical molecular phylogenetic studies to
improve the higher-level taxonomic classification, the phylum Foraminifera (d'Orbigny,
1826) belong to Rhysopoda, unicellular organisms. 3 highest taxonomic levels of
foraminifera were proposed 1) the paraphyletic assemblage of “Monothalamids” (includes
the previous orders Allogromiida, Artrorhizida, Xenophyophorea) and the orders 2)
Tubothalamea (including Spirillinida, Miliolida and Ammodiscidae orders) and 3)
Globothalamea (Rotaliida with Globigerinida, Robertinida and Textulariida orders).

Importantly, it seems that single-chambered to multi-chambered innovation has occurred
2 times in the last 2 groups.
The “Monothalamids” very frequently are naked and single-chambered (with agglutinated
or organic-walled tests), whereas Tubothalamea and Globothalamea are multi-chambered
foraminifera. Those high levels are strongly supported by genetic analyses and it seems
that from the evolutionary point of view, the single- and multi-chambered is a major step in
the evolution of phylum Foraminifera.
The paraphyletic “Monothalamids” group, whose phylogenetic relations are unknown up

to known, are abundant at today´s high-latitude and deep-sea habitats. About 24 clades
are grouped as “Monothalamids”. Pawlowski et al. (2013) pointed out that richness and
genetic diversity of “Monothalamids” by far exceed the multi-chambered orders, which are
the best known.
Astrorhizida Order includes almost only single-chambered agglutinated foraminifera, of

which some have the ability to change the composition of the test according to the setting
conditions. Species typically are cm-sized (Hedley, 1964). The agglutinated characteristic
is not anymore a critical condition to identify the group, since agglutination has appeared
many times in different “Monothalamids” clades.
To Astrorhizida Order belong the most of the Ordovician foraminifera reported up-to-now
(e.g. Nestell & Tolmacheva, 2004; Trela, 2016), as well as those occurrences here.
From the palaeontological point of view, the undoubtedly earliest foraminifera fossil record
dates from early Cambrian (Culver, 1991), although is proposed the group emerged in
Neoproterozoic, according to molecular clocks (Pawlowski et al., 2003). The first
foraminifera are thought were naked and single-chambered, and because of the difficult
preservation it is very rare to find foraminifera fossils even in Lower Ordovician rocks. In
Floian rocks are recorded the first agglutinated foraminifera (Trela, 2016), whereas by
Middle Ordovician the multi-chambered foraminifera appeared (the most well-known
group), but only by Carboniferous the radiation was reached.
3. Colombian first ocurrences of Ordovician foraminifera in La Cristalina... 107
The aim of this text is to publish the second report of Ordovician foraminifera of South
America, which belong to the “Monothalamids” benthic agglutinated foraminifera, very
likely Astrorhizida Order and Astrorhiza? sp.
3.1.2 La Cristalina Formation

High sea levels during Ordovician times are responsible of thick marine sedimentary
sequences preserved to the west of Gondwana, as it can be seen today in countries such
as Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela and Chile, with the best exposures and major
thicknesses and time-register in the NW of Argentina, Perú and Bolivia. The most
abundant Ordovician rocks in South America are “Arenigian” (abandoned term, used here
for practical-historical purposes) with lesser reports in Tremadocian and Upper
Ordovician.
Ordovician sedimentary units recorded and published in Colombia were dated mainly
using fossils such as graptolites, trilobites, and lesser important conodonts, brachiopods,
icnofossils and acritarchs, but never before foraminifera.
The unique Ordovician unit in the Central Cordillera is La Cristalina Formation that is
widely recognized in Colombia and in South America for its Ordovician graptolites, of
which recently new graptolitic assemblage is reported here. That assemblage allowed to
date the unit as Lower to Middle Ordovician (cf. chapter 2, Almanza et al. 2016). La
Cristalina Formation extends over 45 km2 (Feininger et al., 1970) and consists of mainly
low-grade metamorphic siliciclastic and calcareous successions. Metamudstones;
intercalations of metamudstones and fine grained metasandstones; metamircrites, and
calcareous metasandstones, laminated metamicrites and metamudstones. La Cristalina
unit is located to the southwest of Puerto Berrío Town and to the south of Antioquia
Railway Station named also La Cristalina, in Figure 1 is shown the geological map of the
main outcrops of La Cristalina Formation.
Figure 3-1 Geological Map of the Ordovician La Cristalina Formation. Thw white rectangle shows the studied
area where fossils were found. Map modified from Gómez et al. (2015) after Feininger et al. (1970). Location
map modified from Gómez & Almanza (2015).
3.1.3 La Cristalina biostratigraphy

Table 1 shows the main authors and their contribution to the biostratigraphic knowledge of
La Cristalina Formation.
Table 3-1 Main published contributions to the biostratigraphic knowledge of La Cristalina Formation. Colours
according to the International Stratigraphic Chart (2016).
The first Ordovician rocks published in Colombia were those of La Cristalina Formation by
Harrison (1929). Author reported some arenigian graptolites determined as
Didymograptus nitidus Hall, D. extensus Hall, D. gibberulus Nich and D. hirundo Salt.
Then, other 5 occurrences were mentioned (cf. Table 1), but it was until Almanza et al.
(2016, cf. chapter 2) who reported the most complete biostratigraphy and reported a new
Darriwillian association with Didymograptus cf. murchisoni (Beck), Pseudamplexograptus
latus (Bulman) and Glossograptus hincksii (Hopkinson). Authors concluded that La
Cristalina Formation dates from Lower to Middle Ordovician, taking into account for the
first time the graptolites reported by Posada (1936). As well, authors concluded that La
Cristalina Formation is partially coetaneous with El Hígado Formation in the Upper
Magdalena Valley.
3.2 Methodology
6 field trips were done to La Cristalina Village, 109 hand-samples were collected and 64
thin-sections were made in GMAS S.A.S. laboratories and in the Universidad Nacional de
Colombia-Bogotá.
Metasedimentary rocks were described as sedimentary rocks according to Folk (1980),

and nomenclature used following the procedure of Fettes & Desmons (2007); therefore,
as the protoliths characteristics were conserved, the most correct name was that of the
sedimentary rock with the prefix meta- preceding the sedimentary name.
Mineral abbreviations, metamorphic concepts and another terms (e.g. metamorphic

grade, P/T relation, isograde, etc.) were used according to Fettes & Desmons (2007).
Mineral association and temperature stability conditions following Spears (1993) and
Vernon & Clarke (2008).
As foraminifera were found in metasedimentary rocks (mainly metamudstones) composed

from silica material and the very scarce material, it was no possible to isolate them easily.
Therefore, paleontological classification was done by optical petrographic means, using
14 thin-sections, where we looked for useful structures.
3.3 Results
Fossils were found in strongly bioturbated metamudstones in the siliciclastic intercalations
facies (cf. Chapter 1). At the outcrop scale, rocks containing fossils are metamudstones
with fine foliation. Figure 2 shows general outcrops in La Miquera Creek and hand-
samples, whereas in Figure 3 a bioturbated hand-sample.
Figure 3-2. Outcrop and hand-samples pictures of metamudstones bearing foraminifera. a-b) Genuine of
metamudstones outcrops where foraminifera were found in La Miquera Creek; c) genuine hand-sample of
bioturbated metamudstones, and d) polished hand-sample where can be observed the foraminifera with
naked eyes.
Figure 3-3 Polished 3D hand-sample, showing the foliation and the subperpendicular bioturbation (borrows?).
Light-pinky coloured due to biotite and enrichment in coarser grains.
At hand-sample scale, rocks are dark grey (N3) with weathered surface pale-orange
(10YR8/6) and moderate reddish brown (10R 4/6), in wet.
Structures include very fine foliation of ≤ 5 cm, as well minor sedimentary discontinuous
parallel to wavy lamination composed of abundant organic matter and anhedral pyrite
(Figure 3). It is worth to mention that metamudstones have significant bioturbation
perpendicular and subperpendicular to the foliation. Bioturbation can be seen clearly by
changes in colour and composition and proportion of framework minerals. Bioturbated
areas, likely borrows, have more coarse grained proportion (typically silt to very fine sand
size, composed of red biotite, feldspar and quartz) with light pink colour (5R7/4 in wet)
(see Figure 3). Stratification and foliation are not always parallel, that fact makes finding
macrofossils a challenge.
As well, minor bioturbation is observed parallel to the lamination filled with pyrite, which is
different than fractures with introduced pyrite.
At thin section scale (figures 4a-d), metamudstones have minor discontinuous slightly
wavy to parallel lamination of < 20 μm of thickness, mainly composed of organic matter.
Also, have minor subperpendicular quartz veins typically of 75 μm of thickness. But what
is more evident is that rocks are strongly bioturbated which, frequently, destroys
completely the original sedimentary structures (figures 4c-d). Bioturbation is enriched in
framework minerals, mainly more coarse quartz and feldspar, typically very fine sand (70
μm). Petrographic description of fossils-bearing rocks can be seen in Table 2.
Figure 3-4 Thin-section pictures of samples where foraminifera were found, in plane-parallel Nichols (to the
left) and cross polarized (to the right). a-b) Organic matter enriched lamina, wavy, discontinuous and parallel,
and c-d) bioturbated facies showing an enrichment in framework minerals, across the stratigraphic layers.
Table 3-2. Petrographic description of selected samples. Mineral abbreviations following Fettes & Desmons
(2007).
Opaque minerals include syn-genetic and introduced pyrite, it is remarkable the former
goes according to foliation and bioturbation structures; the second type of pyrite is bigger
and has euhedral shapes, frequently, associated with fractures.
Rocks containing fossils were classified as well-sorted subarcosic metamudstones with

biotite and muscovite in addition to quartz and feldspar.
Astrorhiza? sp.
Fossils were determined by professors N. Tchegliakova and C. Sánchez. Figures 5a-d

show fossils in thin section, and Figure 3e shows fossils in polished hand-sample, it is
remarkable the big size of fossils that can be observed with naked eyes.
Figure 3-5 Benthic agglutinated foraminifera in thin-section in plane-parallel Nichols (to the left) and cross
polarized (to the right). a-e) Arms of Astrorhiza? sp. and f) living Astrorhiza limicola from Lukina (2001) used
to illustrate Astrorhiza? sp. specimens.
Kingdom Protozoa: Goldfuss (1817), Owen (1858)

Subkingdom Gymnomyxa: Lankester (1878), Cavalier-Smith (2002)
Infrakingdom Rhizaria: Cavalier-Smith (2002)
Phylum Retaria: Cavalier-Smith (1999), Cavalier-Smith (2002)
Subphylum Foraminifera: (d’Orbigny, 1826), Eichwald (1830), Margulis (1974), Cavalier-
Smith (2002)
Class Astrorhizata: Saidova (1981), Mikhalevich (1995)

Subclass Astrorhizana: Saidova (1981)
Order Astrorhizida: Lankester (1885), Calkins (1909), Fursenko (1958)
Family Astrorhizoidae: Brady (1881)
Genre Astrorhiza: Sandahl (1858)
Foraminifera specimens showed in Figure 5 are fragmented, not completed specimens

have been found. Test of fossils consist of almost uniquely quartz coarse silt sized (45
µm), moderate sphericity, with not observed cement. It is thought that the low
metamorphic grade do not affect significantly the degree of sorting as well as minor
recrystallization of quartz do not affect at least the sphericity, on the other hand
roundness is not considered.
3.4 Discussion
3.4.1 Why foraminifera should be considered Ordovician

The presence of graptolitic metamudstones in La Miquera Creek and tributaries, and the
facies association allow to confirm that foraminifera occurrences reported here belong to
the same Lower to Middle Ordovician Formation.
3.4.2 Paleontological and paleogeographical issues

As was mentioned before, Astrorhiza genre are unilocular and benthic foraminifera that
exists from Ordovician. Unfortunately this single chambered foraminifera are poorly
understood because the difficult preservation during Precambrian and Paleozoic times,
that is why occurrences recorded here are so valuable.
Astrorhiza? sp. foraminifera use to live freely in stable muddy or sandy bottoms,
especially in the later (Buchanan & Hedley, 1960). Those foraminifera tends to make their
test from the same material as the bottom (Buchanan & Hedley, 1960), it should be noted
that not as coarse quartz as the test is found in rocks facies where fossils were found, as
well as not the same biotite composition in the test in comparison with rocks. Therefore,
the original habitat where fossils life, likely, was composed of slightly coarser bottoms
more enriched in framework minerals. Vertical facies association of the local sequence
includes, to the top, intercalations of fine metasandstones and metamudstones, which is

also expected in the lateral facies variation. Any of those seem more similar to the
settings where fossil could life and the material from which the foraminifera tests are
made of. Foraminifera occurrences were found in facies association indicative of
shallower settings in comparison with facies where graptolites were found.
Astrorhiza limicola and Astrorhiza arenaceous are genuine species of the group, they
preferentially live in cold open oceans (deeper than sublittoral habitats), those species
have been found in an association with depth up to 3100 m, but as shallow as 8 m
(Buchanan & Hedley, 1960; Lukina, 2001). On the other hand, those foraminifera do not
usually borrow, they are active predators with not so active displacements, 25 cm in 24
hours as observed by Buchanan & Hedley (1960) in A. limicola.
The abundant pyrite observed in rocks might suggest low oxygen availability and high
organic availability, although strong bioturbation suggest not so anoxic bottoms for those
rocks facies.
With respect to other formainifera occurrences found in South America, the foraminifera
found by Nestell et al. (2011) in the San Juan Formation in Argentina have an association
of conodonts that dates Floian, a stage is thought to be present at La Cristalina
Formation. Argentinan fossils belong to the same order Astrorhizida as Colombian ones,
but to different families.
On the other hand, rock facies are different, in the San Juan Formation fossils are
associated to shallow high energy carbonate platform, in contrast to the siliciclastic
platform facies of La Cristalina Formation (cf. chapter 2).
Foraminifera occurrences of La Cristalina Formation are the first in Colombia and,

importantly, open the possibility to find those organisms in other equivalent units in the
northwestern of South America, such as in El Hígado Formation or Peruvian Ordovician
units. Although those occurrences are no useful to date La Cristalina Formation because
the broad age-range, they are valuable for Ordovician paleontological research and
seems of international interest.
3.4.3 Lithologic facies, sedimentary setting and metamorphism

According to the petrographic analyses, the protolith could have more than about 50 % of
phyllosilicates (clays) with a framework of about coarse silt grain-sized, composed by
quartz and feldspars, in addition to accessory minerals such as opaques, zircons,
together with organic matter.
Considering field, hand-sample and thin section descriptions, including mainly facies
association and sedimentary structures of the local sequence, it can be proposed,
reasonably, that the unit was deposited in an epicontinental platform in a marine setting,
likely, in shoreface (Nichols 2000, Folk 1930, Hampson & Storms 2003) with relatively
calm bottoms. Furthermore, sea bottoms had to be soft enough to allow strong
bioturbation, which is also indicative of not too depth settings. Pyrite is indicative of low
ƒO2 as well as low pH conditions, probably associated with high organic decomposition.
Finally, metamorphic low grade is suggested by biotite-white mica association, as well as

by very fine grained and very poor-developed schistose texture. Those features are
consistent with green schist facies, which is also coherent with the observed low grade
microtectonic deformation that includes minor undulant extinction, as the highest grade.
3.5 Conclusions
The low grade metasedimentary La Cristalina Formation has been known by its Lower to
Middle Ordovician graptolite assemblages, but here the first Ordovician foraminifera were
reported. Foraminifera were determined provisionally as Astrorhiza? sp. taking into
account the petrologic descriptions at outcrop-, hand sample- and thin section-scale, as
well as biostratigraphic indicators, it is reasonable to infer that the local rock facies
association belong to continental marine shoreface settings in cold waters. These fossil
occurrences call us to carry out biostratigraphic works in the Ordovician units of
Colombian, especially in La Cristalina and El Hígado formations.
Acknowledgments
To the Academic Vice-Rectory (Honor Degree Scholarship) and the Welfare Science Faculty (partially finance
the academic exchange to the Johannes Gutenberg Universität) of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, the
Spanish Mineco (CGL 2012- 39471) and GmasLab (Bogotá) for financing this work. As well we are grateful
with the today geologists Francisco Javier Muñoz, Luis Miguel Vélez and Andrés Felipe Alvarado for their
valuable help during field works, including carrying heavy samples and preparing some figures for this
manuscript, as well as with the geologist Lisette Karbach and Anna Rebaza for improving this manuscript.
3.6 References
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4. Rhyolitic to andesitic rocks, granodioritic to
dioritic rocks, rhyodacitic porphyries and
Paleocene S-type granitoids intruded La
Cristalina Formation: Petrological approach
and stratigraphic discussion
Abstract
To the southeast of Antioquia, in the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera granodioritic to
dioritic rocks, rhyodacitic porphyries and S-type granitoids intruded the low-grade
metamorphic Ordovician La Cristalina Formation. Field work, petrography, XRF
geochemical analyses and U-Pb LA-ICP-MS geochronological datings were performed in
order to describe and classify those rocks. Those studies suggest that granodioritic to
dioritic rocks are, probably, related to the Middle to Upper Segovia Batholith, rhyodacitic
porphyries can be related to “Hypabyssal felsic rocks to the east of the Otú Fault”
(Feininger et al. 1970) with an unknown age, whereas the Paleocene granitoids has S-
type strong evidences, but the petrogenetic mechanisms remains unclear. Finally,
igneous rocks allow concluding that the low grade metamorphism of La Cristalina
Formation occurred, likely, before Middle Jurassic, and that during Paleocene times La
Cristalina was shallow enough to permit hypabbysal felsic rocks to crystallize.
4.1 Introduction
At least 3 different igneous units intruded the graptolitic Lower to Middle Ordovician La
Cristalina Formation (cf. chapter 2), those include
1) Granodioritic to dioritic rocks equivalent to the “d” unit included in the “Igneous
rocks mainly to east of the Otú Fault” (sensu Feininger et al., 1970);
2) porphyries grouped as “Hypabyssal felsic rocks to the east of the Otú Fault” sensu
Feininger et al. (1970), and
3) some S-type granitoids first described here.
Those units crop out in the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera of Colombia and to the
southwest of Puerto Berrío, as can be seen in Figure 1. Figure 2 shows the geologic map
of the area and the studied localities, coordinates can be obtained from Table 1.
The aim of this chapter is to study igneous rocks that intruded La Cristalina by using field
observations, petrography, geochemistry, trace elements and U-Pb datings.
4. Rhyolitic to andesitic rocks, granodioritic to dioritic rocks, rhyodacitic … 125
Figure 4-1 Geological map of the studied area. The white rectangle shows the studied area in the eastern
flank of the Central Cordillera of Colombia, next to the Middle Magdalena Valley. It should be highlighted 2
different basements: to the west of the Otú Fault a Triassic metamorphic complex, and to the east some
Precambrian gneisses. In the studied area, the critical Otú Fault is displaced by the Palestina Fault. Map
modified from Gómez et al. (2015) after Feininger et al. (1970). Location map modified from Gómez &
Almanza (2015).
Figure 4-2. Geological Map of the studied area (as shown in Figure 1). Granitoids and “Hypabyssal rocks to
the east of the Otú Fault” are mapped as point-elements because outcrop size. “Felsic and intermediate
volcanic rocks to the east of the Otú Fault” and “Felsic porphyries to the east of the Otú Fault” sensu
Feininger et al. (1970). Map modified from Gómez et al. (2015) after Feininger et al. (1970).
In the following, it will be summarized the current knowledge of the igneous rocks that
intruded La Cristalina Formation; rhyolites and andesites and some Precambrian
paragneisses (cf. Carmona et al., 1999) that underlies the Ordovician rocks. Taking into
account the poor-knowledge of the local igneous rocks, variations of igneous intrusions
and critical faults that affected all the units, the information cited here should be
considered only for a local interpretation (figures 1 and 2), hence no regionalization is
recommended.
Likely, the first who described igneous rocks to the east of Antioquia were T. Ospina and
R. Scheibe, in the earliest XX century, as granitic and dioritic rocks (Ospina, 1911;
Scheibe, 1933). Afterwards, Botero (1940, 1941) described igneous bodies intruding
Paleozoic rocks that caused contact metamorphism and formed marbles and quartzites to
the southeast of Antioquia. Critically, the author did not take into account the Palestina
and Otú faults because were not discovered by that time, hence some low to medium-
grade metamorphic rocks located to the west of those faults were considered Ordovician
because La Cristalina graptolites (nowadays, those low to medium metamorphic rocks to
the west of the fault are rather better considered as a Triassic metamorphic complex, cf.
e.g. Restrepo et al. 2011). Therefore, it is doubtful if all those igneous rocks cited by
Botero (1940) intruded either the graptolitic sequence or the Triassic metamorphic
complex, or both. Importantly, Botero (1940) proposed that those intrusive bodies belongs
to an extensive batholith of more than 8000 km 2 and coined the name Antioqueño
Batholith. According to the today´s view (e.g. Leal-Mejía, 2003) that batholith main
outcrops are to the west of the studied locality and thus to the west of Otú-Pericos Fault,
after displaced by the Palestina Fault.
Feininger et al. (1970, 1972) mapped and constrained the geological evolution of the east
of Antioquia, mentioning for the first time the critical Palestina Fault and differentiating
units in both sides of the fault. Feininger et al. (1970) mapped at 1:100 000 scale, thus the
Antioqueño Batholith sensu Botero (1940) was re-interpreted by Feininger et al. (1972) as
different igneous units, such as those that will be cited here. Feininger et al. (1970, 1972)
divided igneous rocks that intruded or are related with La Cristalina Formation in 3 units:
1) “Volcanic felsic Rocks to the East of the Otú Fault” of special interest is the subunit
“Volcanic Rocks”; 2) “Igneous rocks mainly to the east of the Otú Fault” out of which we
will focus on the sub-unit “d”, and 3) “Hypabyssal felsic rocks to the east of the Otú Fault”.
With respect to the “Volcanic Rocks”, Feininger et al. (1972) described afanitic rocks that
have dark, greenish and light grey colour with less than 1 % of phenocrysts (mainly
feldspars), as well as massive and, in a lesser extend, laminated textures.
On the other hand, González (2001) named the “Volcanic Rocks” as “La Malena Volcanic
Set” (“LMVS”). “LMVS” was described by González (2001) as effusive rhyolitic to
rhyodacitic volcanic fluxes, volcanic breccias and, to the top, tuffs; hence to the medium
and top of the sequence there are evidences of explosive volcanism. Locally, basaltic
dikes, lamprophyres, and andesitic and traquitic porphyries. The unit also includes
volcanic mud-flows. According to the author, those rocks were crystallized and deposited
in a subaquous setting and have gold occurrences. Lastly, the author suggested that the
Segovia Batholith intruded the “LMVS” and thus interpreted that an explosive-effusive
acid volcanic magmatism of “LMVS” was followed by a plutonic magmatism that
correspond to the Segovia Batholith.
To the northeast of La Cristalina Formation at the Puerto Serviez Sheet were mapped
some afanitic rocks as “LMVS” by Fuquen et al. (2009), following the name and genetic
proposal of González (2001). According to Fuquen et al. (2009), the “LMVS” consist of
highly fractured basic tuffs; peralkaline and hypocrystalline andesites with microporphyritic
texture, in addition to ash and lapilli lithic tuffs. Those rocks are covered by Neogene
deposits of pebble and granule conglomerates.
Finally, Fonseca et al. (2011) mapped “LMVS” at 133 Puerto Berrío Sheet as afanitic and
porphyritic textures composed mainly of volcanic glass (most showing devitrification to
quartz, feldspars, biotite, muscovite) and phenocryst of quartz, K-feldspar (sanidine,
anorthoclase), plagioclase and biotite, with pyritic mineralization. Authors remarked that
quartz, chlorite and epidote are introduced minerals. Also, minor tuffs were mentioned.
Rocks were classified as rhyodacites, andesites, trachites and latites. Coronitic and
cummulitic textures were also observed, as well as fluidal texture and low grade
metamorphism. As well, authors observed a disconformity with the underlying
Precambrian gneisses at La Botella Creek.
The subunit ”Volcanic Rocks” crops out in the area and was studied here only by
petrographic means. Feininger et al. (1972) inferred a faulted contact between the La
Cristalina Formation and the “Volcanic rocks”, but during the field we evidenced this
contact might include either unconformities or/and faults (Figure 2). Critically, Feininger et
al. (1972) observed that xenoliths of the “d” unit were included in the “Volcanic rocks”,
therefore “Volcanic rocks” are older. That relation was also observed by Fonseca et al.
(2011) in the Santa Cruz Creek and La Palmera Farm. González et al. (2015) suggested
the Middle Jurassic age for this unit according to U-Pb concordant age of 163,51±0,95
Ma.
With respect to the “d” unit, it crops out ~700 km 2, but here are only described those that
crop out in the studied area (~5 km 2). According to Feininger et al. (1972), the unit consist
of dioritic and quartz-dioritic rocks, massive to less commonly laminated (differentiated by

the mafic and felsic mineral proportions with a diffusive contact) and, locally, strongly
gneissic. Those rocks have hypidiomorphic and equigranular texture, are composed
mainly of plagioclase, quartz, orthoclase, hornblende, biotite and chlorite. To the
southwest of La Cristalina Formation, the unit is metamorphosed by faults. Authors
pointed out that the “d” unit produced contact metamorphism in La Cristalina Formation
forming marbles. The same authors reported K-Ar ages of 160 ± 7 Ma in the Montecristo
Quarry (near to the Cabañas Railroad Station and to the west of La Cristalina Formation)
and suggested that veins bearing gold were mined by Frontino Mines Gold Company.
González (2001) considered that the unit “Igneous rocks mainly to the east of the Otú
Fault” (and therefore the “d” unit) belongs to the Jurassic Segovia Batholith (age assigned
by the radiometric age of Feininger et al., 1972) originally proposed by Álvarez (1981).
Segovia Batholith is described by Fuquen et al. (2009) in the 149 Puerto Serviez Sheet as
massive and laminated dioritic, granodioritic, quartz-dioritic and granitic rocks. Grey
granodioritic rocks have faneritic fine-grained texture and are composed of hornblende,
biotite and chlorite. Two-feldspar granites are melanocratic and have biotite, chlorite and
amphiboles, with chlorite, biotite and sericite as alteration minerals. Besides, authors
observed that the Segovia Batholith has protomylonites. Fuquen et al. (2009) observed
that the Jurassic Segovia Batholith intruded La Cristalina Formation and mapped the “d”
unit of Feininger et al. (1970) in 149 Sheet as the Segovia Batholith with few differences.
On the other hand, Fonseca et al. (2011) described the Segovia Batholith in the 133
Puerto Berrío Sheet (to the north of the studied area) as metamonzogranites bearing
hornblendes, syenogranites, k-feldspar-metagranites, monzonites, granodioritic and
dioritic rocks. Some of them bearing gold. Critically, they observed an unconformity with
the overlying Lower Cretaceous rocks bearing ammonites, named “Segovia
Sedimentites”.
Leal-Mejía (2011) carried out petrographic, geochemical and U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS

datings of the Segovia Batholith to the north of the studied area. Author suggests is
composed of medium- to coarse-grained faneritic rocks that include massive biotite
dioritic rocks to quartz-dioritic rocks. Minerals include quartz (30 %); strongly sericited and
not-zoned plagioclase (35 %); k-feldspar including orthoclase and microcline (20 %);
hornblende (10 %) as primary and as pseudomorphs after pyroxenes and, as accessory

minerals, biotite altered to clinochlore (<5 %), clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, ilmenite,
apatite, clinozoisite and very few circons. Author also observed local variations to
quartzmonzonites, granodioritic rocks and gabbros. In some areas, rocks are slightly
banded to strongly gneissic in aspect. U-Pb datings suggest ages between 166.5 +2.3/-
2.5 to 158.7 ±2.0 Ma (Middle to Late Jurassic) with few inhered ages. Author suggest
calc-alkaline and metaluminous I-type intrusions, in a pre-collision and subduction setting
with a less contaminated magma. Critically, the author analysed rocks to the north and
very close of La Cristalina Formation, but to the west of the Palestina Fault.
Finally, the “Felsic porphyries to the east of the Otú Fault” unit corresponds to felsic and
mainly dacitic hypabyssal rocks with porphyritic texture that crop out as small (<50 m) and
irregular bodies, that intruded La Cristalina Formation and the Precambrian paragneisses
(named by Feininger et al. 1972 as “Precambrian gneisses”). Feininger et al. (1972)
suggest porphyries have phenocrysts of not-zoned plagioclase and quartz with 10:1
proportion, with a fine granular matrix of feldspar, quartz, biotite, muscovite and allanite,
as well as apatite and magnetite as accessory minerals. Authors proposed a “Lowee
Paleozoic” age for those prophyries, because they did not observe cross-cut relations with
the other youger igneous rocks. As well, authors suggest “Felsic porphyries to the east of
the Otú Fault” have the same metamorphism of La Cristalina Formation because rocks
are deformed, and authors suggested plagioclases are not zoned due to metamorphic
homogenization.
4.2 Methods
6 field trips have been done to Puerto Berrío (Antioquia), 109 hand-samples were
collected including igneous, Ordovician metasedimentary rocks and Precambrian
gneisses. 64 thin-sections were made at GMAS Laboratories and at the Universidad
Nacional de Colombia-Bogotá. Metamorphic and igneous rocks descriptions recorded
here, mineral abbreviations, concepts and another terms were used according to Fettes &
Desmons (2007) and Le Maitre (2002).
X Ray Fluorescence measurements: measurements were performed in the AcmeLabs

(Canada) and at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia-Bogotá.
AcmeLabs (FLC-02, FLC-16): Total rock composition (major and minor oxides) was
determined using 0.2 g of the sample. Emission Spectroscopy-ICP followed by Lithium
Metaborate/Tetraborate Fusion and Digestion in a solution with nitric acid. Ignition Losses
(LOI) was calculated by weight difference after 1000 °C ignition. Total carbon and sulphur
by weight by Leco. In order to analyse the trace elements, ICP-MS was used and to
determinate REE and refractory elements, the mass spectrometry (ICP), followed by
lithium metaborate/tetraborate fusion and digestion with nitric acid, using 0.2 g of the
sample. In addition, 0.5 g it was used for simple digestion in aqua regia using ICP, and
finally, precious and base metals were worked out.
Universidad Nacional de Colombia (CLC-07, CLC-09, CLC-18): Samples were measured

in a MagixPro PW-2440 Phillips XRF spectrometer, with Ro tube, and maximum 4 KW
power. The spectrometer has a resolution of 200 ppm for heavy metallic elements.
Powdered samples of <100 µm were heated to 105 °C for 12 hours and mixed with wax
(10:1) (MERK Laboratory), then were pressed hydraulically until 120kN. Those were
measured with SEMIQ-2016. Semiquantitative analyses were done with IQ (11
scannings). H, C, Li, Be, B, N, O and transuranim elements were not measured.
U-Pb datings: were performed at the University of Arizona by Laserchron Center following
the method of Gehrels et al. (2006, 2008). U–Pb measurements in zircon single grains
were conducted by LA-ICP-MS. For magmatic zircon tips were selected for analysis, in
order to check the younger magmatic crystallization age.
Weight average and concordia age calculations as well as detrital zircon histograms were
plotted using Arizona Laserchron Excel macro age pick program.
4.3 Results
In the following will be described (at outcrop-, hand sample- and thin section-scale, and
geochemically) the granodioritic to dioritic rocks, rhyodacitid porphyries and S-type
granitoids. “Volcanic Rocks”, on the other hand, were classified by petrographic means as
rhyolites and horblende andesites.
4.3.1 Rock descriptions at outcrop, hand-sample and thin-section

scale
S-type granitoids
At outcrop scale, granitoids have 1 up to 20 m of thickness (Figure 3). In Figures 3a-c can
be seen how the igneous rocks clearly intruded the Ordovician metasedimentary
succession, following foliation planes. 3 different outcrops were taken into account, each
one separated by c.a. 500 m (Figure 2).
At hand-sample scale (Figure 3g), rocks have an inequigranular porphyritic

(microporphyritic) to slightly porphyritic texture (<1 mm), also a fluidal. Rocks are
leucocratic with mainly middle grey (N5) to light grey (N7) colours. Alteration surfaces are
greyish brown (5YR3/2), dark yellowish orange (10YR6/6), dark greenish grey (5GY 4/1)
and light brown (5YR 5/6), in wet. Less commonly, this facies include rocks with faneritic
texture with medium to fine gran size (<5 mm).
Those porphyritic rocks have phenocrysts composed mainly of quartz (including minor
bipyramidal-shape) and feldspars. In the matrix can be seen quartz and feldspar, minor
biotite. As alteration minerals, significant chlorite and Fe-oxides and hydroxides. Finally,
quartz and muscovite filled some minor fractures, whereas other fractures have chlorite
and significant pyrite.
Figure 4-3. Outcrops and hand-samples of granitoids (S-type) and granodioritic to dioritic rocks in La Miquera
Creek. a-b) Outcrop of granitoids from the sample locality, sample FLC-02 showing clearly an intrusive
contact; c) granitoid sample (FLC-16), red line shows the contact with La Cristalina Formation; d) genuine
granodioritic to dioritic rocks outcrops and falls along La Miquera Creek; e) compositional banding, with some
minor hornblende and biotite enrichments, and f) polygonal structures with diffuse contacts and mafic
minerals-enrichments. Hand-sample pictures of g) granitoids to upper side FLC-02 sample with porphyritic
texture and fine grained phenocrysts and, to the lower side, the FLC-16 sample texture which is lightly
porphyritic and fluidal, some fractures show significant quartz and muscovite as filling minerals; h)
granodioritic to dioritic rocks showing faneritic texture and showing leucocratic to mesocratic character due to
an enrichment in mafic minerals.
At thin section scale, samples are fine-grained (1 mm) and have a holocrystalline,
inequigranular, together with fluidal texture (Figure 4a-b). Sample FLC-02 has dynamic
metamorphism with sigma objects (figures 4e-f). Biotite aggregates, likely, represents
either hidrothermal alteration or evidences of genetic mechanisms (Figure 6). Figures 4-6
show remarkable and critical characteristics of textures, minerals and mineral
assemblages of both samples, and Table 1 shows petrographic and microstructural
descriptions.
Phenocrysts in both samples include quartz as single crystals (including minor

bipyramidal crystals in sample FLC-02, figures 4c-d) or aggregates (polycrystalline grains,
figures 5a-b); also, include plagioclase strongly sericited and kaolinitized K-feldspar.
Besides, a single euhedral pyroxene with a retrograde rim in sample FLC-02 crystallized
from the original magma. On the other hand, sample FLC-16 has strongly fractured
garnets (figures 6a-b).
According to hand-samples and thin-sections (following Le Maitre, 2002), rocks were

classified as granitoids according to modal phenocrysts composition, specifically as
biotitic granitoids bearing sericite (FLC-02) with dynamic metamorphism, and biotitic and
sericitic granitoids bearing garnets (FLC-16).
Finally, some microstructures account for minor deformation conditions. In quartz, strong
undulant extinction, deformation lamellae and inclusion alignment. Undulant extinction
was also observed in feldspars and biotites. In some grains have been observed grain
rotations (figures 4e-f). Furthermore, recrystallization mechanisms in quartz include
Bulging Recrystallization (BGR) and Subgrain Rotation (SGR) (cf. Passchier & Thrown,
2005). Finally, it has to be highlighted that grains included in the magma (xenocrysts)
have higher temperature deformation mechanisms, which do not represent the granitoids
deformation conditions, such as polycrystalline quartz.
Figure 4-4. FLC-02 granitoid thin-section photographs in plane-parallel Nichols (to the left) and cross-
polarized (to the right). a-b) Here is showed the porphyritic texture, biotites aggregates, likely, due to either
genetic mechanisms or hydrothermalism; c, d) in centre, bipyramidal quartz phenocryst and to the right-down
quartz is partially re-crystallized by bulging re-crystallization (cf. Passchier & Trown, 2005), with surrounding
“matrix” of quartz, K-feldspar and biotite aggregates. Upper left there is a strongly sericited plagioclase, and e,
f) in centre, plagioclase δ-object showing simple shear.
Figure 4-5. FLC-02 granitoid thin-section photographs in plane-parallel Nichols (to the left) and cross-
polarized (to the right). a-b) At the centre an aggregate of quartz, likely, an assimilated xenocryst, and c-d)
euhedral pyroxene showing and outer reacting corona composed of biotite/amphibole (?).
Figure 4-6. FLC-16 granitoid thin section photographs in plane-parallel Nichols (to the left) and cross-
polarized (to the right). a-b) Strongly fractured garnets xenocrysts and c-d) feldspar phenocryst in a matrix
composed mainly of quartz, feldspar and biotite.
Table 4-1. Selected petrographic description of granitoids (FLC-02 and FLC-16), granodioritic to dioritic rocks
(CLC-07, CLC-09, CLC-10) and rhyodacitic porphyries (CLC-18). The last 2 columns show the
microstructures and deformation mechanisms by petrographic means according to Passchier & Trown (2005).
Granodioritic to dioritic rocks (CLC-06, CLC-07, CLC-09, CLC-10, CLC-11)
At outcrop scale, granodioritic to dioritic rocks crop out as 2 main bodies that intruded La
Cristalina Formation with ca. 60 000 m2 (Figure 1). As well, minor intrusions up to 50 m
can be observed in La Miquera and Las Iglesias creeks (figures 3d-f).
Samples studied here come from the northwestern outcrops that intruded La Cristalina
Formation. It corresponds to a body of ca. 2.2 km cropping out along La Miquera Creek
with an area of ca. 38 000 m2 (Figure 2). Rocks are massive with minor fractures. Minor
local banding is formed by relatively more mafic minerals enrichments (hornblendes and
minor biotites). Minor quantity of quartz-veins (most of <10 cm) cross-cut the granodioritic
to dioritic rocks in La Miquera Creek. Some polygonal structures of cm-size were
observed too, with major proportions of mafic minerals and diffusive contacts (Figure 3f).
At hand sample scale (figure 3h), rocks are faneritic, equigranular, most of them with
crystals-size variations of 1-5 mm, and minor minerals >5 mm (some hornblendes reach
15 mm) (Figure 3f). Rocks are leucocratic to minor mesocratic, have very light grey colour
and minor darker medium grey.
Compositionally, correspond to euhedral feldspar (60-30 %), euhedral hornblende (50-20

%), euhedral biotite (10-20 %) and subhedral quartz (35-10 %), with variations of
hornblende up to 60% in the darkest bands. Rocks were classified as granodiorites to
diorites, minor banded, with variations to hornblend diorites rocks and in a lesser extend
diorites.
At thin section scale (see Table 1), not-deformed samples CLC-07, CLC-09 and CLC-10
are faneritic, holocrystalline, equigranular, with fine to medium grained texture (Figure 8a-
p). Plagioclases are zoned and have reaction boarders with quartz, most of them
sericited, with minor epidote included in crystals in one sample. Feldspars include minor
exolution textures with quartz. Clinoamphiboles are minor chloritized with Fe oxides and
hydroxides. As accessory minerals are apatites, titanites and very few zircons.
Samples CLC-07, CLC-09, CLC-10 were classified as biotitic and clino-amphibolic

granodiorites; clino-amphibolic granodiorites, and clino-amphibolic biotitic granodiorites. It
is highlighted that granodiorites have very low K-feldspar modal proportion that make
samples be classified very near to granodiorites-tonalites border.

Figure 4-7 Thin-section pictures of granodioritic to dioritic rocks and rhyodacitic porphyritic rocks in plane-
parallel Nichols (to the left) and cross-polarized (to the right). a-b) Biotitic and clino-amphibolic granodiorite
(CLC-07), c-f) clino-amphibolic granodiorite (CLC-09), g-l) clino-amphibolic biotitic granodiorite (CLC-10) and
m-p) biotitic andesite with an alkaline-feldspar rhyolitic matrix (CLC-18).
Rhyodacitic porphyries (CLC-18)
At outcrop scale, minor intrusions up to 100 m can be observed in La Miquera Creek in

Figures 8a-b is showed a clearly intrusive contact.
Figure 4-8 Rhyodacitic porphyries (CLC-18) at outcrop and hand-sample pictures. a) Contact between
rhyodacitic porphyries and La Cristalina Formation; b) rhyodacitic porphyries intruding La Cristalina Formation
in La Miquera Creek, intrusion follows the foliation planes of La Cristalina, and c) hand sample of rhyodacitic
porphyries.
At hand sample scale, CLC-18 is coarse-grained (5 mm), with a porphyritic texture, mainly
composed of phenocrysts of feldspar and very minor quartz (Figure 8d), and was
classified as andesitic porphyries. Rocks are mesocratic and have darker medium grey
colour.
At thin-section scale (Figure 7m-p, Table 1), CLC-18 has a porphyritic texture, coarse-
grained, with holocrystalline matrix. Phenocrysts include not-zoned plagioclases, biotites
in aggregates and minor quartz. Matrix consist of anhedral quartz and feldspars, with
minor biotite. Zircons are euhedral and are more abundant than in granodiorites and
diorites. Rocks were classified as biotitic andesites with an alkaline-feldspar rhyolitic
matrix.
4.3.2 Geochemical analyses

Table 2 shows the geochemical measurements performed. Major, minor and trace
elements were plotted in different diagrams, as is shown in figures 9 and 10. Trace
elements and REE were measured just for granitoids.
Table 4-2 Major, minor and trace elements measurements by XRF of granitoids (FLC-02 and FLC-16),
granodioritic to dioritic rocks (CLC-07, CLC-09 and CLC-10) and rhyodacitic porphyries (CLC-18).
Granitoids
XRF measurements (Table 2) show that granitoids (FLC-02 and FLC-16) crystallized from
a highly felsic magma with high SiO 2 70.3-72.7 % (oversaturated), high Al2O3 14.9-15.7
%, low CaO (1.0-1.5 %) and low Fe2O3*(1.0-2.5 %). Besides, rocks have slightly higher
wt. percentage of Na2O (4.2-4.8 %) in comparison with K2O (3.4-4.3) (Na2O/K2O=1-1.4).
Diagrams (Figure 9) allow to classify rocks as rhyolites, calc-alkalines, peraluminous and
belonging to high K-series.
With respect to the incompatible trace elements of granitoids (Figure 10a-b), clearly it can
be seen the spiky pattern and a general enrichment in trace elements 500-10 times higher
than the chondrite (except for Ti) and, in a lesser extent, 200-1 times in comparison with
the N-MORB. It is noteworthy the high Rb and Ba enrichment, and U in a minor extend.
Furthermore, the Nb, Ta and Ti negative anomalies can be seen. REE diagram (Figure
11c) shows that granitoids have a general enrichment in LREE (<60 times) and more
flatten behaviour for elements heavier than Tb (>6 times) in comparison with chondrite,
therefore LREE>HREE.
Granodioritic to dioritic rocks and rhyodacitic porphyries
Granodioritic to dioritic rocks (CLC-07 and CLC-09) crystallized from sub-alkaline

intermediate magmas, with SiO2 55-62.5 % (oversaturated), high values of Al2O3 15-18.8
%, and expected Fe2O3* 5-11.3 %, CaO 4.4-6.9 %, Na2O 3.2-4.4 % and low K2O 1.9-2.5
%. CLC-09 has an anomalous low MgO of 1 %. Rocks were classified as a granodiorites
and a diorites, calco-alkaline, metaluminous to peraluminous (CLC-07 is I-type and CLC-
09 close to limit between I-type and S-type), and belonging to high K-series.
On the other hand, CLC-18 is sub-alkaline, calco-alkaline and at the border between
metaluminous and peraluminous with Al2O3 16.5 %. It was classified as a rhyodacitic
porphyry (SiO2 67.2 %), according to de la Roche (1980) diagram and, at the equivalent
diagram for plutonic rocks, correspond to a granodiorite. An-Ab-Or diagram suggest a
trodhjemite.
Incompatible trace elements indicates that granodioritic to dioritic rocks and rhyodacitic
porphyries have an enrichment 25 and 500 times in Rb and Ba, and 100 in Sr, with
respect to chondrite. A lesser difference with respect to N-MORB, 10 times in Rb and 80,
Ba. Therefore, in a broad sense rocks show a general enrichment in LIL elements in
comparison with a depletion in HFS elements.
Moreover, Harker diagrams (Figure 11) show samples have lineal behaviour for all
samples in major and minor elements, except for Na 2O and K2O. Granitoids (FLC-02 and
FCL-16) can be strongly correlated in all the diagrams, except for Na 2O. Granodioritic to
dioritic rocks and rhyodacitic porphyries show a lineal behaviour for all oxides, except K 2O
and Al2O3. Coherently, AFM diagram also shows a common trend.
Figure 4-9 Minor and major elements diagrams for granitoids (FLC-02 and FLC-16), granodioritic to dioritic
rocks (CLC-07, CLC-09) and rhyodacitic porphyries (CLC-18). a) TAS Diagram; b) K2O vs. SiO2; c) AFM
diagram; d) An-Ab-Or Diagram; e) de la Roche et al. (1980) diagram for intrusive rocks; f) de la Roche et al.
(1980) diagram for extrusive rocks; g) A/CNK vs. A/NIK diagram of Shand (1927); h) Nb vs. Y diagram.
Figure 4-10 Spider and REE diagrams for granitoids (FLC-02 and FLC-16), and Spider diagram for
granodioritic to dioritic rocks (CLC-07, CLC-09, CLC-10) and rhyodacitic porphyries (CLC-18). a, e) Diagram
with respect to the chondrite of Anders & Grevesse (1989); b, f) diagram with respect to the N-MORB of Sun
& McDonough (1989), c, g) LIL/HFS diagram with respect to the N-MORB of Sun & McDonough (1989) and d)
REE diagram with respect to the chondrite for granitoids. For granodioritic to dioritic rocks and rhyodacites in
spider diagrams just Ba, Rb, K, and Sr value must be taken into account. Ta values were measured just for
CLC-18; Zr for CLC-07; Nb values are valid for CLC-18 and informative for the two others; Y are informative
for the all samples; Ce values are valid for CLC-18, but informative for CLC-07 and CLC-09. Lastly, other
elements were lower than limit detection (cf. Table 2).
Figure 4-11 Harker diagrams of granitoids (FLC-02 and FLC-16), granodioritic to dioritic rocks (CLC-07 and
CLC-09) and rhyodactic porphyries (CLC-18). For symbols nomenclature see Figure 9.
4.3.3 Pb dating
55 circons of the 2 granitoid samples samples were dated, at the Supplemental Material 6
can be seen the data and dated circons. Ages vary from Mesoproterozoic to Paleocene,
with populations in Mesoproterozoic (1387.2 ± 16.3-1011.7 ±34.7 Ma), Neoproterozoic
(954.3 ±76.5-633.3 ±7.7 Ma), Permian (294.7 ±5.9-258.4 ±4.6 Ma), Cretaceous (88.6 ±
2.0-71.6 ± 2.0 Ma) and Paleocene (64.3 ± 1.4-58.3 ± 1.2 Ma). Also there are some
dispersed single-ages at the Cambrian-Ordovician limit (486.9 ±12.3 Ma), Ordovician-
Silurian (446.7 ±10.2 Ma), Devonian (368.2 ±7.6 Ma), Carboniferous (365.9 ±11.8 and
312.9 ±23.5 Ma) and Jurassic (189.4 ±4.5 Ma). Figure 12 shows the concordia diagrams
for the two samples.
Figure 4-12 Concordia diagrams and frequencies histogram of granitoids of samples FLC-02 (a, b, e) and
FLC-16 (c, d, f).
Ages show the most significant frequency in Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic, next
Permian and, finally, Cretaceous and Paleocene (figures 12e-f).
4.4 Discussion
In the following, it will be discussed the characteristics, age and stratigraphy (emphasis on
nomenclature) of granitoids, granodioritic to dioritic rocks and rhyodacitic porphyries. To
the end, it will be pointed out the meaning of this contribution to the local geology to La
Cristalina Formation.
4.4.1 Petrological approaches

Granitoids
Granitoids have a clearly intrusive contact with Ordovician rocks. Porphyritic, lightly
porphyritic and minor faneritic textures indicate the rocks crystallized near to the surface,
rather than in deep settings. Phenocrysts arrangements are associated with a fluidal
magmatic texture more than metamorphic textures. Nevertheless, minor simple shear and
deformation structures of FLC-02 are evidences of the low temperature deformation. This
deformation may be responsible of the oriented texture due to a minor fault (figures 3a-b,
4e-f and Table 1) that can be seen field near to an anticlinal formed by the Ordovician
metasedimentary strata.
There are some critical petrographical observations that require explanation. On one
hand, anhedral garnets in FLC-16 are strongly fractured, likely, representing assimilated
minerals. On the second hand, quartz aggregates in both samples seem like
polycrystalline metamorphic grains. Here is proposed those were included in the magma.
On the third hand, the pyroxene euhedral phenocryst in FLC-02 looks like if it would have
crystallized from the original magma, and the retrograde corona could account for typical
reaction in those kind of rocks.
With respect to geochemical analyses, similarity of FLC-02 and FLC-16 in major, minor
and trace elements and, specially, the incompatible elements diagrams clearly supports
are genetically related, in addition to the rocks crop out very close. Therefore, samples
studied here are grouped as generated by the same processes, except the dynamic
metamorphism exclusively of FLC-02. Rocks are classified as rhyolites.
Granitoids are considered as S-type because high SiO2; calc-alkaline behaviour; low
values of R2 and high of R1 in de la Roche et al. (1980) diagram; peraluminous character;
enrichment in trace elements and REE, high Cr, Ni, Rb, Th and U values; biotite and
ilmenite crystals; included highly fractured garnets and metamorphic aggregates; etc.
Rocks belong to high-K series, which can be related with the continental signature,
whereas A/CNK>1 maybe related with muscovite crystallization.
The strongly enrichment in trace elements with respect to primitive mantle and chondrites
suggests the magma source was already enriched in those elements and/or during the
magma generation and the trend to the surface the magma was enriched in those
elements. The strong enrichment in Ba and Rb might be associated with micas source.
On the other hand, ilmenite could be explained by low ƒO2 during magma crystallization.
The Nb-Y diagram (Figure 9b) suggests that granitoids are volcanic arc-related
(VAG+syn-COLG field), syn-collision granitoids are discharged with Rb-Y+Nb diagram,
because the tectonic regimen in which rocks were generated, including no collision during
Paleocene (cf. Bayona et al., 2016).
Remains unanswered what are the petrogenetic mechanisms and the petrological
meaning of Paleocene S-type granitoids in the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera,
considering the regional tectonic reconstructions for Paleocene, because is out of the
scope of this work.
With respect to U-Pb datings, Mesoproterozoic to Cretaceous ages are considered here
as inherited ages, whereas the youngest Paleocene ones are considered as the
crystallization age. 8 populations were grouped, each of them related with a single
geological event or a succession of related geological events, as will be discussed.
Mesoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic ages can be associated with the Precambrian

paragneisses that underlies La Cristalina Formation coherent with field observations.
Those paragneisses have been considered as the southernmost outcrops of San Lucas
Gneisses by González (2001), but with more certainty, because proximity and lithology,
correspond to those gneisses studied by Ordóñez et al. (1999). Radiometric datings in
those paragneisses, performed by Ordoñez et al. (1999) using Rb-Sr, indicate 894 ± 36
Ma isochronic age, that authors considered as the metamorphic age. As well, authors
showed TDM= 1829 and 1757 Ma.
Recently, Cuadros et al. (2014) performed a U-Pb LA-ICP-MS datings in San Lucas
gneisses, which would have been more meaningful to these correlation, but measured
rocks crop out further to the north in the San Lucas Ranges, therefore correlations cannot
be confident. Nevertheless, populations around 1400, 1200, 1100 and 900 Ma were
reported with a metamorphism during Neoproterozoic, which is very similar to the ages
obtained here and opened a stratigraphic question about the relation of the Precambrian
paragneisses and the San Lucas gneisses. Those Mesoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic
zircons of granitoids could have got into the magma either during the magma ascent
through paragneisses or through the overlying Lower-Middle Ordovician La Cristalina
Formation or they will be part of the magma source.
Ordovician and Silurian zircons cannot be easily related with any close geological unit in
the area, but it seems very interesting considering Martens et al. (2015), Mantilla et al.
(2012) and van der Lelij et al. (2016) U-Pb datings of Ordovician igneous rocks in
Colombia, the former in the western flank of the Central Cordillera, and the others in the
Eastern Cordillera.
Permian and Triassic zircons could have come from many igneous intrusions and
orthogneisses, as Permian-Triassic igneous rocks and metamorphism is well constrained
in the Central Cordillera to the west of the granitoids. Those igneous intrusions in the
Centra Cordillera with or without metamorphism are interpreted as A and S-Granitoids e.
g. Spikings et al. (2015). Units dated as Permian-Triassic near to the granitoids are
metagranites 10RC41, 10RC42 and 10RC43 of Spikings et al. (2015); Río Verde Granitic
Gneiss of Vinasco et al. (2006), and Santa Isabel Gneiss of Restrepo et al. (2011).
Jurassic ages can be related with igneous intrusions studied here as granodioritic to
dioritic rocks and rhyolites and andesites. A sample of the Segovia Batholith dated as
163.1 ±2.8 Ma by Leal-Mejía (2011) is very close to the granitoids in El Dorado locality
and is very similar to inherited ages obtained here. As well, obtained ages might be
related with other close Jurassic igneous bodies, such as those dated by Spikings et al.
(2015) and González et al. (2015).
Finally, Cretaceous ages might mainly come from the Antioqueño Batholith, and other
Cretaceous rocks outcropping at the same latitude of the granitoids such as La María,
Cerro Gramalote and La Floresta localities cf. Leal-Mejía et al. (2011). Ages of the
Antioqueño Batholith have been obtained by several methods. By U-Pb LA-ICP-MS
means, it dates as early as 93.5 ±1.5 Ma (Villagómez et al. 2011) and as late as 59.2 ±1.2
Ma (Leal-Mejía et al., 2011). To see ages of the Antioqueño Batholith cf. Gómez &
Almanza (2015), some references therein are: Leal-Mejía et al., (2011) ages by U-Pb LA-
ICP-MS and SHRIMP; Villagómez & Spikings (2013) fission track and Ar-Ar; Ibáñez-Mejía
et al. (2007) by U-Pb ID-TIMS; Ordóñez & Pimentel (2001) by Rb-Sr, and Pérez (1967),
Botero & Feininger (1982) and Botero (1963) by K-Ar.
Lastly, Bayona et al. (2012) dated Paleogene volcanic and plutonic zircons in the northern
Andes (Central Cordillera), as well as some sedimentary rocks in the Middle Magdalena
Valley and Eastern Cordillera. According to their measurements and together with other
published data (including data from Ecuador to Venezuela), authors suggested that a
magmatic arc to the northern Andes of ca. 700 km is the responsible of those ages, due
to the subduction of Caribbean Plate. Critically, propose a shutdown during Eocene (ca.
45 Ma) due to the thickened, shallow and obliqueness subduction of the Caribbean Plate,
as well as the South American Plate movement to the north. The aforementioned might
account for the paleotectonic scenario in which granitoids could be generated, that is
mainly a subduction.
Textures of granodioritic to dioritic rocks allow to classify them as plutonic, with enough
time to crystalize big crystals (apparently, water has nothing to do). Banded textures could
indicate a relative calm magmatic chamber. Enclaves could evidence magma mingling as
composition is very similar to host rock, contacts are diffuse and grain size is smaller.
CLC-07 and CLC-09 crystallized from intermediate magma, those were classified as
granodioritic to dioritic rocks, but it is expected to find other facies such as granitic and
quartzdioritic rocks and even gabbros, according to observed in field and to was pointed
out in other studies e. g. Feininger et al. (1972) or Leal-Mejía (2011).
Geochemical results indicate that intermediate rocks have a continental signature, with
high Al2O3 content, high-K series and enrichment in trace elements, especially LIL.
Diorites are typical continental arc related rocks, this tectonic setting have been long
proposed for NW South American margin during Jurassic times (e.g. Spikings et al., 2014,
Leal-Mejía et al. 2011; Bustamante et al., 2016); therefore, it is likely that these
granodioritic to dioritic rocks magmas were generated in a tectonic setting including an
on-going subduction and a continental arc. To confirm that, other analyses should be
performed to correctly interpret the petrogenetic scenario, such as isotopic
measurements. However, Leal-Mejía (2011) performed isotopical measurements in a
quartzdiorite near to the studied area (El Dorado) which suggest a mantle source
(87Sr/86Sr and variable positive ƐNd) with minor continental crust contamination. Leal-Mejía
(2011) performed 7 samples LA-MC-ICP-MS U-Pb datings that suggest Middle to Late
Jurassic age. Interestingly, U-Pb datings of Leal-Mejía (2011) have few inherited ages, it
indicates no assimilation and accounts for the minor crustal contamination.
Geochemical results, specially, Harker diagrams indicate a relation between granodioritic

to dioritic rocks and rhyodacitic porphyries and, despite few trace elements measured,
both have a very similar concentrations. Nevertheless, the fact we do not have all the
trace elements measurements and geochronology or other isotopes, and the fact have
different textures make it difficult to correlate granodioritic to dioritic rocks with the
rhyodacitic porphyries, as well as no cross-cut relations have been observed neither
directly nor indirectly. Only granodioritic to dioritic rocks should be considered as
petrogenetically related with certainty and, likely, differentiated by small extend of
fractional crystallization, CLC-07 more differentiated than CLC-09. In coherence,
rhyodacitic porphyries are considered here as a different unit and petrogenetically
different until no more information are available, and here is considered the
metamorphism is local (not the same as La Cristalina Formation), in contrast to Feininger
et al. (1972).
4.4.2 Stratigraphic nomenclature

There is much work to do with igneous rocks in the southeastern of Antioquia and in the
studied area. Stratigraphic nomenclature of igneous rocks is confusing, because there is
a lot of geochemical and geochronological information missing, and studies are critical
when considering the economic importance of those igneous intrusions as gold-bearing
rocks.
Igneous rocks that intruded La Cristalina Formation and the Precambrian paragneisses
have been associated with 1) the Cretaceous Antioqueño Batholith by Botero (1940), 2)
“La Malena Volcanic Set” and 3) the Jurassic Segovia Batholith by González (2001),
Fuquen (2009) and Fonseca (2011). In the following it will be discussed the stratigraphic
nomenclature.
Granitoids
Granitoids cannot be related with certainty to any unit described in the area up-to-now.
Rather, it is proposed here that granitoids are a different unit, because the Paleocene
age, the geochemical characteristics, the stratigraphic relations and because there is not
enough criteria to correlate them with any other. Below, it will be explained why the
granitoids cannot be correlated with any other unit.
Firstly, granitoids do not belong to the “d” unit of Feininger et al. (1972) or the granodioritc
to dioritic rocks because its texture, composition and age, and because the cited
disconformity with overlying Lower Cretaceous rocks observed by Fuquen et al. (2009).
The possible equivalence between the granitoids and “LMVS”, when considering the
similar composition and texture, the critical argument to discard the proposal are the
cross-cut relations observed in the field: Aphanitic rocks or “LMVS” were intruded by the
granodioritic to dioritic rocks, which was also observed by Feininger et al. (1970), who
pointed out that the “Volcanic rocks” (or “LMVS”) were intruded by “Igneous rocks mainly
to the east of the Otú Fault” that includes “d” unit.
On the other hand, granitoids seems similar to those hypabyssal rocks named “Felsic
porphyries to the east of the Otú Fault” by Feininger et al. (1972). This unit was not
mapped in La Miquera Creek. Nevertheless, those hypabyssal rocks were checked in
field at some tributaries of La Miquera Creek and Las Iglesias Creek and textures are
quite different, but composition is similar. Feininger et al. (1972) suggested what he
considers the same metamorphic Paleozoic age of La Cristalina Formation for those felsic
porphyries because they assumed rocks have the same metamorphism. That assumption
and the fact they were not mapped in La Miquera Creek are not a satisfactory arguments
to discard that, actually, those are the same unit. Metamorphism of porphyries is not so
likely, because textures may be due to petrogenetic processes or dynamic metamorphism
rather than due to the regional metamorphic processes that affected La Cristalina. In
coherence not deformed porphyries have been found which confirm this hypothesis.
On the other hand, the Antioqueño (40 my span-time of crystallization, 4 pulses and an
area of 7221 km 2 of Leal-Mejía, 2011) and Sonsón batholiths (1100 km 2 cf. Leal-Mejía,
2011) outcrop in the Central Cordillera and are the nearest batholiths to the granitoids.
The second does not show similar characteristics to the granitoids according to Leal-
Mejía (2011) data. Nevertheless, to the former have been associated many satellite
stocks, of which the Caracolí Stock is the nearest to the granitoids studied here, ca. 15
km. The Caracolí Stock is petrographically and geochemically (quartz-dioritic rocks)
different than the studied rocks, but share strong similar characteristics of age. The stock
returned a U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS crystallization age of 60.1 ±1.2 Ma and have inherited
Cretaceous (84-80 and 78-75 Ma) and Neoproterozoic (900 Ma) ages. Therefore, a
petrogenetic relation might be considered between the Caracolí Stock and the granitoids.
Due to all discussed above, the granitoids are a different unit, but similar to “Felsic
porphyries to east of the Otú Fault”. Those rocks allow to make clear the local geological
evolution of the local area and have a geological importance because are S-type
granitoids. Those rocks must not be formalized with a proper geographic name because
are too small to be mapped at 1:100 000 scale, thus is not recommended to use any the
term for granitoids until relations with other bodies will be disclosed, above all with the unit
“Felsic porphyries to the east of the Otú Fault” and some Paleocene and Cretaceous
igneous rocks outcropping in the Central Cordillera, such as Caracolí Stock, and to light of
the magmatic arc and volcanic activity proposed by Bayona et al. (2012).
Granitoids can be defined as Paleocene S-type granitoids with porphyritic, light porphiritic
to minor faneritic textures, mainly light grey colour and felsic rocks that intruded La
Cristalina Formation in La Miquera Creek, very often along foliation planes and usually of
<100 m of thickness.
From the stratigraphic point of view, data from Leal-Mejía (2011) reinforced that the
Segovia Batholith can be considered as a single stratigraphic unit from Segovia town (to
the north) until El Dorado locality (to the south), which is the nearest locality to the studied
area here, but to the west of the Palestina and Otú-Pericos faults.
Granodioritic to dioritic rocks studied here are, likely, associated with the Segovia
Batholith, according to strong similarities with field, petrographic and geochemical
characteristics. On the other hand, U-Pb datings are being performed at the Rio de
Janeiro University, but there are not available data yet. Therefore, if U-Pb are coherent
with ages for the Segovia Batholith, the term Segovia Batholith must be used for
granodioritic to dioritic rocks and quartzdioritic rocks that intruded La Cristalina Formation,
and other names must be avoided. But, currently, is recommended to name those rocks
as granodioritic to dioritic rocks.
With respect to the rhyodacitic porphyries, they look very similar to the “Felsic Porphyries
to the east of the Otú Fault” (Feininger et al., 1970), hence the sample studied here is
recommended to be provisionally considered as a part of that map unit. This proposal is
supported by the hand-sample and thin-section descriptions, as well as the close
proximity outcrops (Figure 2). Remains unknown, if all porphyries that intruded La
Cristalina Formation can be actually be grouped in a single unit (do those belong to the
same petrogenetic event?), or if those belong to another igneous units (Segovia Batholith
or “Felsic rocks to the East of the Otú Fault”?) or if those rather should be considered
different units and deserves another name. As well, it remains unclear the petrogenetic
characteristics and the economic importance of those porphyries.
4.4.3 Critical aspects in relation with La Cristalina Formation

On the first hand, the intrusive contact with the granodioritic to dioritic rocks allows to
conclude that La Cristalina Formation low grade metamorphism occurred earlier than the
crystallization age of the gradioritic to dioritic rocks (Middle to Upper Jurassic if
correspond to the Segovia Batholith) and after Middle Ordovician. On the second hand,
likely, during Middle Jurassic Ordovician rocks were deep enough to allow the
crystallization of a plutonic granodioritic to dioritic rocks; on the contrary, during
Paleocene Ordovician rocks were shallow enough to crystallize porphyritic S-type
granitoids.
Those igneous intrusions caused contact metamorphism in La Cristalina Formation,

evidences are found in Las Iglesias Creek and some tributaries of La Miquera Creek
(Figure 14). Las Iglesias white marbles have been formed from dark grey metamicrites, as
well some andalusite porphyroblasts and red coarser muscovites have been re-
crystallized in metamudstones. Whereas in La Miquera, coarser (1-2 mm sized) red
biotites and white mica have been re-crystallized. Fonseca et al. (2011) also observed
andalusite porfiroblasts due to contact metamorphism at the outcrops of the road Puerto
Berrío-Medellín, and Fuquen et al. (2009) reported epidote and diopside.
Figure 4-13 Contact metamorphism of La Cristalina Formation caused by igneous intrusions in Las Iglesias
Creek and in one tributary of La Miquera Creek. a) Outcrop of marbles with green alteration minerals; b-c)
light grey marbles that retain plane-parallel and wavy lamination formed from metamicrites and calcareous
metasanstones; d) andalusite porphyroblasts in metamudstones, and e) coarser white mica re-crystallized in
metamudstones, note pinky colours due to red biotites.
4.5 Conclusions
It was proposed that at least 3 different igneous rocks intruded La Cristalina Formation:
granodioritic to dioritic rocks, rhyodacitic porphyries and S-type granitoids. Granitoids
petrographic, geochemical and geochronological data indicate that correspond to
Paleocene S-granitoids. Most of the inhered zircons ages can be associated to rock
bodies surrounding the granitoids. With respect to the granodioritic to dioritic rocks can be
associated with continental active margins, as is expected during Jurassic-time to the
northwestern of Southamerican Andes, and could be associated with Middle to Upper
Jurassic plutonic Segovia Batholith, U-Pb and isotopes measurements are missing in the
granodioritic to dioritic rocks to confirm it.
Rhyodacitic porphyries might belong to the Feininger et al. (1970)´s “Felsic porphyries to
the east of the Otú Fault”, but remains unknown the petrogenetic characteristics and the
relation with other local igneous bodies.
It seems natural that as more detailed data are available and, above all, better
cartographical and petrological studies of the local igneous rocks will be done, a better
understanding of igneous rocks of the southeastern of Antioquia can be achieved, as well
as the nomenclature could be meaningful, clear and correct.
Acknowledgments
I am grateful with GMAS Laboratories to support the zircons separation and thin section preparation. Thanks
to the Facultad de Ciencias of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia (UN) for the Honor Degree Scholarship;
to the Departmento de Bienestar of the UN for the partial-financial support during the academic exchange to
the Johannes Gutenberg Universität (Germany), where valuable discussions improved this study, and to the
Departamento de Geociencias of the UN for supporting some geochemical analyses. Lastly, I am grateful with
the today´s geologists Francisco Javier Muñoz, Luis Miguel Vélez and Andrés Felipe Alvarado for their
valuable help during field works.
4.6 References
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intrusivos granitoides meso-cenozoicos. Ingeominas, Boletín Geológico, 26(2):1-175.
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Mejía, M., 2012. Early Paleogene magmatism in the northern Andes: Insights on the effects of
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Giraldo, W. 2015. Memoria de la plancha 118-San Francisco, Scale 1:100 000, Servicio Geológico
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27–35. Bogotá. URL: http://www.accefyn.org.co/revista/vol_25.htm
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de Puerto Berrío-Antioquia, Revista de la Academia de Ciencias, 23(87), 225-232, Bogotá,
Colombia.
Ordoñez, O., Restrepo, J. J., Pimentel, M.M., 2006. Geochronological and isotopical review of pre-Devonian
crustal basement of the Colombian Andes. Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 21.
Passchier, Cees W., Trouw, Rudolph A. J., 2005. Microtectonics. Springer. 2nd edition. 366p. Germany.
Restrepo-Pace, P.A., Cediel F., 2010. Northern South America basement tectonics and implications for
paleocontinental reconstructions of the Americas. Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 29(4):
764–771.
Restrepo, J.J., Ordoñez, O., Armstrong, R., Pimentel M.M. 2011. Triassic metamorphism in the northern part
of the Tahamí Terrane of the central cordillera of Colombia. Journal of South American Earth
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UPTC., 2012. Geología de la plancha 133 Puerto Berrío. Servicio Geológico Colombiano. Bogotá, Colombia.
van der Lelij, R., Spikings, R., Ulianov, A., Chiaradia, M., Mora, A. 2016. Palaeozoic to Early Jurassic history
of the northwestern corner of Gondwana, and implications for the evolution of the Iapetus, Rheic and
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geochemistry and tectonic evolution of the Western and Central cordilleras of Colombia. Lithos,
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5. Conclusions
—La Cristalina Formation is a very useful stratigraphic unit when considering the
paleography of Gondwana and the tectonic location and its deformation meaning for the
understanding of the tectonic processes that have occurred since Ordovician times.
—La Cristalina Formation is a polimetamorphic and low grade metamorphic unit that
preserves its marine sedimentary characteristics and therefore was studied as a
sedimentary unit.
—La Cristalina Formation was classified as lithostratigraphic unit with a formation rank,
because tradition and fulfill all the recommendations of the ICS. Here was not
recommended to split the unit, because usefulness in regional geologic understanding of
the area, tradition and homogeneous lithological characteristics (metamorphism).
—The name “La Cristalina Formation” was suggested because tradition as is a well
stablished name (used 72 years ago) and because of fulfil all the requeriments Chapter
3.B.3 and Chapter 5.F of the Guide.
—La Cristalina Formation overlies Precambrian paragneisses with observed faulted

contacts and an unconformities. On the other hand La Cristalina Formation is intruded by
the 1) granodioritic and dioritic rocks, 2) rhyodacitic porphyries and 3) some S-type
granitoids. Lastly, La Cristalina is overlied by rhyolites and andesites, likely by either an
unconformity or a fault; by Aptian-Albian marine rocks (bearing ammonites) according to
Fuquen et al. (2009), and alluvial Cenozoic sequences with unconformable contacts.
—I was suggested that at least 4 different facies and facies association compose La
Cristalina Formation: 1) metamudstones, 2) siliciclastic intercalations, 3) metamicrites and
4) calcareous intercalations.
—Facies analyses indicate the base of the Ordovician rocks correspond to a

transgression that reached the off-shore settings and the top of the unit corresponds to
shoreface settings, therefore the unit seems is a completely marine sequence.
—La Cristalina Formation has a Floian to Middle Darriwillian age according to the 7
occurrences published up-to-now, out of which the graptolite assemblage Didymograptus
cf. murchisoni (Beck), Pseudamplexograptus latus (Bulman) and Glossograptus hincksii
(Hopkinson) in adittion to phyllocarids remains are early middle Darriwillian in age. This
assemblage was first reported here. This is the best age-resolution ever suggested to La
Cristalina Formation.
—The first Ordovician foraminifera in Colombia and the second occurrence of South
America were reported here. This occurrence has international interest. Fossils were
determined as Astrorhiza? sp.
—The succession was considered as polymetamorphic, with a main regional low

metamorphic grade, evidenced by foliation, mineral assemblage including biotite, besides
textural, petrographic and field observations. On the other hand, the unit has a local
contact metamorphism that forms white marbles (with granofelsic textures), and re-
crystallization of andalusite porphyroblasts and coarser muscovite in metamudstones.
Finally, the latest metamorphism corresponds to local dislocation.
—La Cristalina Formation was correlated with El Hígado Formation, 460 km to the south
in the Upper Magdalena Valley, because both have at least part of the same stratigraphic
position and similar lithology. Both units have mudstones bearing a Didymograptus
murchisonii assemblage.
—Granodioritic to dioritic rocks that intrudued La Cristalina were related to the Middle to
Upper Jurassic Segovia Batholith, whereas age-undetermined rhyodacitic porphyries can
be related to “Hypabyssal felsic rocks to the east of the Otú Fault” (Feininger et al. 1970).
Finally, the Paleocene granitoids were classified as S-type and could not be related with
any other unit, but its U-Pb inherited ages were correlationed with many units in the
Central Cordillera of Colombia.
Conclusions 165
—Igneous rocks allowed concluding that the low grade regional metamorphism of La
Cristalina Formation occurred before Middle Jurassic, that during Paleocene times La
Cristalina was shallow enough to permit hypabbysal granitoids to crystallize, and that the
granodioritic to dioritic rocks are the responsible of the most important contact
metamorphism of La Cristalina Formation.
6. Future researching opportunities

1. Mapping at scales 1:25 000 or 1:10 000 of the hole unit can improve many
issues (especially structural and succession issues)
2. Improving the model of La Cristalina by using sub-surface information such as
wells and high resolution seismic imagery can help to e.g. determine the
complete succession, to know more about the nature of the contacts with
adjacent units, etc.
3. Carring out petrogenesys studies, both metamorphic and sedimentary, are
missing and could help to understand the roll of La Cristalina Formation in
ptetrolleum systems and in calcareous minery.
4. Gechronological and thermochronological studies can help to determine
provenance analyses, age-calibration (betonites?), numerical ages
(sedimentary/metamorphic), uplifting ages, etc.
5. It seems of regional tectonic importance to prove the geological history
similitude between La Cristalina Formation and other Colombian units such as
El Hígado and Venado formations; La Uribe outcrops; Güejar Group;
Ordovician sedimentary register in the Llanos Basin; Silgará Formation,
Quetame Complex, Cajamarca Complex, as well as other units which could
include Ordovician ages.
6. Finally, throught evaluating the formalization of some beds of geological
interest some stratigraphical issues can be solved and make easy the
mapping work (e.g. metasanstones beds both in siliciclastica intercalations
and metamudstones facies; green metamudstones in metamicrites facies)
A. Supplemental Material 1: Stops,
hand-samples and lineaments maps
SM_A_Figure 1 Stops Map of La Cristalina Formation. Legend can be seen in Figure 1 of the Introduction.
168 Stratigraphy of the Ordovician La Cristalina Formation, Puerto Berrío
(Colombia)
SM_A_Figure 2 Hand-Samples Map of La Cristalina Formation. Legend can be seen in Figure 1 of the
Introduction.
Supplemental Material 169
SM_A_Figure 3 Lineaments Map of La Cristalina Formation. Legend can be seen in Figure 1 of the
Introduction.
(Colombia)
B. Supplemental Material 2:
Petrography
Metasedimentary rocks. For paragneisses petrography
see Supplemental Material 4
(Colombia)
(Colombia)
Igneous rocks
C. Supplemental Material 3: X Ray

Difraction
SM3_Figure 1 Selected measurements of X Ray Difraction. a) Metamudstones facies, b) metasandstone of
metamudstones facies, c) metasandstone of the siliciclastic intercalations facies association, d) siliciclastic
intercalations facies association, e) siliciclastic intercalations facies association, f) siliciclastic intercalations
facies association, g) siliciclastic intercalations facies association, h) deformed metamudstones facies, i)
deformed metamudstones facies, j) calcareous intercalations facies association and k) metamicrites facies.
c
(Colombia)
f
i
(Colombia)
k
D. Supplemental Material 4:
Precambrian paragneisses
SM4_Figure 1. Likely a faulted contact between Precambrian paragneisses and La Cristalina Formation. It
was not comproved satisfactorily because we were not shure the lighter unit corresponds to the Precambrian
paragneisses.
SM4_Table 1 Petrography of Precambrian paragneisses showing evidences of peak metamorphic conditions

at amphibolite facies, but greenschist facies retrograde metamorphism
(Colombia)
E. Supplemental Material 5:
Bentonites
SM5_Figure 1 Outcrops of which could be a bentonite. a) Siliciclastic intercalation facies of La Cristalina

Formation in La Miquera Creek and b) bed of yellowish metamudstone that could be a bentonite.
SM4_Figure 2 X Ray Diffraction of the possible bentonite
SM5_Table 1 X Ray Fluorescence of the possible bentonite.

F. Supplemental Material 6:
Gechrological data
SM6_Figure 14 Dating points in the measured circons

(Colombia)
SM6_Table 6-2 Geochronological data

Bibliografía 183
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____________________________

Stratigraphy of the Ordovician La

María Fernanda Almanza Meléndez

Universidad Nacional de Colombia

Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Geociencias

Bogotá D. C., Colombia

María Fernanda Almanza Meléndez

Thesis presented as partial requisite to get the title of:

Universidad Nacional de Colombia

“(…) never achieved just abandoned”

Cristalina as pre-Jurassic and are the responsible of the La Cirstalina contact

forma escencial, La Cristalina tiene metamorfismo de bajo grado en toda la secuencia

Figures .............................................................................................................................. XVI

Tables ............................................................................................................................... XVII

1. Stratigraphic definition of the Lower to Middle Ordovician La Cristalina

2. New graptolite fossil localities of La Cristalina Formation ................................... 83

2.2 Methodology ...................................................................................................... 89

3. Colombian first ocurrences of Ordovician foraminifera: La Cristalina Formation105

4. Rhyolitic to andesitic rocks, granodioritic to dioritic rocks, rhyodacitic

5. Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 163

6. Future researching opportunities........................................................................... 166

A. Supplemental Material 1: Stops, hand-samples and lineaments maps ............. 167

B. Supplemental Material 2: Petrography .................................................................. 170

C. Supplemental Material 3: X Ray Difraction ............................................................ 175

D. Supplemental Material 4: Precambrian paragneisses ......................................... 179

E. Supplemental Material 5: Bentonites ..................................................................... 180

F. Supplemental Material 6: Gechrological data ....................................................... 181

References ........................................................................................................................ 183

Chapters have a research-paper structure, therefore each one has an abstract,

complete descriptions, including approaches to the depositional setting, Ordovician

—To know the stratigraphic relations of the Ordovician unit

—To describe La Cristalina Formation succession (as sedimentary and metamorphic

—To correlate La Cristalina Formation with other Ordovician units in Colombia.

—To classify La Cristalina Formation as a formal stratigraphic unit.

—109 samples were handed

—64 thin sections were done. Petrography included microtectonic descriptions.

—Geochemical measurements with X Ray Fluorescence and X Ray Diffraction, a total of

1. Stratigraphic definition of the Lower to

The Floian to early middle Darriwillian La Cristalina Formation is a low-grade

1.1.1 Location and access

1.1.2 Generalities of La Cristalina Formation

Table 1-1 Main published contributions to La Cristalina Formation knowledge

Cartographical works have contributed the most to the understanding of La Cristalina

1.1.3 Tectonic importance of La Cristalina Formation: Why it is a

On one hand, it should be considered the preliminary paleomagnetic approaches of

On the second hand, it has been proposed a “Lower” Palaeozoic (Ordovician-Silurian,

The Tahamí Terrane has a well-constrained Triassic metamorphism (e.g. Villagómez et

Therefore, having a low-grade and undoubtedly Ordovician rocks so close to those

Cross-sections and composed general columns were prepared by using creek-sections

X Ray Fluorescense measurements were done at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia-

1.3.1 Geomorphologic expression

1.3.3 Facies description

described as sedimentary, rather than metamorphic (litodemic). Likewise, following the

In adittion to geomorphologic, outcrop, hand-sample and thin section descriptions,

Siliciclastis successions are composed of metamudstones facies and siliciclastic

At outcrop-scale, metamudstones facies consists of characteristic not well-developed

Metamudstones near to fault zones developed object lineation composed of coarser

On the other hand, in thin-section, metasandstones are structure-less. Framework

Near to igneous intrussions, the metamudstones show contact metamorphism, bearing

Siliciclastic intercalations facies association: occupies the largest area of La Cristalina

minor metasiltstones intercalations of cm-scale, this can can be observed in figures 5b

Calcareous successions are composed of metamicrites facies and calcareous

Calcareous intercalations facies association: Consist of intercalations of metamicrites,