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FULLADIO SHMEIWSEWN 1
1
1. Hlektrik FortÐa kai ReÔmata.
dQ
ρ = .
dV
To hlektrikì fortÐo, to opoÐo perièqetai se mia perioq ìgkou V , dÐnetai apl
Z
QV (t) = d3 r ρ(~r, t) .
V
diapern mia stoiqei¸dh epifneia, an monda qrìnou kai an monda epif-
dQ
J~ = n̂ ,
dS dt
ìpou n̂ eÐnai to monadiaÐo kjeto sto stoiqeÐo epifneiac embadoÔ dS .
I
IS = ~ · J~
dS
S
eÐnai Ðso me to hlektrikì fortÐo pou diapern thn epifneia an monda qrìnou.
MporoÔme na gryoume
dQV d ∂ρ
I Z Z
~ · J~ = −
dS = − d3 r ρ = − d3 r .
S dt dt V ∂t
To arnhtikì prìshmo ofeÐletai sto ìti reÔma jetik c forc (proc ta èxw)
Apìklishc èqoume
I Z
~ · J~ =
dS ~ · J~ .
d3 r ∇
S V
Telik, mporoÔme na gryoume
∂ρ
Z
d3 r ~ · J~
+∇ = 0
V ∂t
2
∂ρ ~ · J~ = 0 .
+∇ (1)
∂t
H teleutaÐa exÐswsh onomzetai ExÐswsh thc Sunèqeiac kai ekfrzei thn to-
dQ ∂ρ
Z Z I
= d3 r = − ~ · J~ = −
d3 r ∇ ~ · J~ → 0,
dS
dt ∂t
ìpou to epifaneiakì olokl rwma pnw se mia kleist epifneia sto peiro
mhdenÐzetai.
∂ρ ~ · J~ = 0
∂t +∇
ìpou ~r0 (t) h troqi tou swmatidÐou. H antÐstoiqh puknìthta reÔmatoc eÐnai
ìpou ~v0 (t) = ~r˙ 0 (t) eÐnai h taqÔthta tou swmatidÐou. Oi posìthtec autèc
∂ρ ∂ ~ J~ .
= q δ(~r −~r0 ) = −q ẋ0i ∇i δ(~r−~r0 ) = −∇i { q v0i δ(~r − ~r0 )} = −∇·
∂t ∂t
3
PARADEIGMA. Se mia meglh kathgorÐa agwg¸n uprqei grammik sqèsh metaxÔ thc puknìthtac
J~ = σ E
~ (2)
kai onomzetai {Nìmoc tou Ohm}. H stajer analogÐac eÐnai h {eidik agwgimìthta} tou ulikoÔ tou agwgoÔ.
Gia tèleiouc agwgoÔc eÐnai, fusik, peirh ( σ = ∞). Apì thn exÐswsh sunèqeiac (1) èqoume ìti
∂ρ ρ
~ · J~ = −σ ∇
= −∇ ~ ·E
~ = −σ ,
∂t 0
ìpou gia to teleutaÐo b ma qrhsimopoi same thn ExÐswsh Poisson . Oloklhr¸nontac wc proc ton qrìno paÐr-
noume
−t
ρ(t) = ρ(0) e τ ,
0
ìpou h stajer τ ≡ σ
èqei diastseic qrìnou kai antiproswpeÔei ton qarakthristikì qrìno metabol c thc
puknìthtac fortÐou entìc tou agwgoÔ. Gia èna polÔ kalì agwgì o qrìnoc autìc eÐnai mikrìc, prgma pou
shmaÐnei ìti taqÔtata ja èqoume mhdenismì thc puknìthtac fortÐou entìc tou agwgoÔ.
2. Hlektromagnhtik Epagwg .
ktregertik DÔnamh eÐnai to èrgo an monda fortÐou, to opoÐo pargetai apì
1
I
E = d~r · F~ . (3)
q
EÐnai fanerì ìti h hlektregertik dÔnamh pou aporrèei apì èna hlektrosta-
tikì pedÐo
~ st
E eÐnai mhdenik , dedomènou ìti
I
~ st = 0
d~r · E
C
~ = dS
~· ∇~ ×E
~
H R
r matoc tou Stokes d~r · E me thn {astrobilìthta} tou
dhlad
~ ×E
∇ ~ st = 0 . Sunep¸c, h dÔnamh, h opoÐa odhgeÐ se E 6= 0 ja prè-
pei na aporrèei eÐte apì èna mh-hlektrostatikì hlektrikì pedÐo eÐte apì èna
magnhtikì pedÐo gia thn perÐptwsh enìc kinoÔmenou agwgoÔ, mia kai to ma-
tou strobiloÔ)
( hlektrikoÔ pedÐou kat m koc enìc kleistoÔ drìmou
I
EC = ~.
d~r · E (4)
C
1
H hlektromagnhtik dÔnamh se èna shmeiakì fortÐo dÐnetai apì ton tÔpo thc DÔnamhc
~ = q E
~ + ~v × B
~ .
Lorentz F
4
EÐnai peiramatikì gegonìc ìti mia qronik metabalìmenh magnhtik ro
dhmiourgeÐ hlektrikì reÔma dia mèsou enìc agwgoÔ. Sugkekrimèna, ìpwc faÐ-
netai sthn ditaxh tou sq matoc, h metabol thc magnhtik c ro c lìgw thc
S N
(B) R
~·B
~
tik dÔnamh. En ΦS ≡ S dS eÐnai h magnhtik ro di mèsou tou
~
H
agwgoÔ, tìte h sqèsh me thn hlektregertik dÔnamh EC = C d~r · E , h opoÐa
d (B)
EC = − dt ΦS
H sqèsh aut isqÔei gia kje brìqo C kai kje epifneia S pou èqei ton C
wc sÔnoro.
ΦΒ
C
neia S kai o brìqoc C den exart¸ntai apì ton qrìno), h sqèsh aut grfetai
Z d
Z Z ~
∂B
~· ∇
dS ~ ×E
~ = − ~ ·B
dS ~ = − ~·
dS
S dt S S ∂t
5
~
!
~ + ∂B
Z
~·
dS ~ ×E
∇ = 0.
S ∂t
Dedomènou ìti autì isqÔei gia kje epifneia S , sumperaÐnoume thn akìloujh
topik exÐswsh
~
∇ ~ = − ∂B .
~ ×E (5)
∂t
To arnhtikì prìshmo sqetÐzetai mesa me ton {Kanìna tou Lenz} , sÔmfwna
me ton opoÐo h for tou epagomènou reÔmatoc eÐnai tètoia ¸ste na teÐnei na
PARADEIGMA. 'Ena peiro swlhnoeidèc aktÐnac a me n speirec an monda m kouc diarrèetai apì (azimou-
jiakì) reÔma èntashc I(t). Poiì eÐnai to epag¸meno hlektrikì pedÐo sto eswterikì tou phnÐou?
To magnhtikì pedÐo pou ofeÐletai sto hlektrikì reÔma eÐnai (sthn hmistatik prosèggish, sthn opoÐa
mèsa sto phnÐo kai mhdenikì èxw apì autì. Apì thn topik ekdoq tou Nìmou thc Epagwg c èqoume
~
∂B dI
~ ×E
∇ ~ = − = −ẑµ0 n .
∂t dt
∂ φ̂ ∂ ∂
~ ×E
∇ ~ = ρ̂ + + ẑ × ρ̂Eρ (ρ) + φ̂Eφ (ρ) + ẑEz (ρ)
∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
0 0 ẑ dI
= ẑEφ (ρ) − φ̂Ez (ρ) + Eφ (ρ) = −ẑµ0 n
ρ dt
µ0 n dI
~
E(ρ) = −φ̂ ρ.
2 dt
3. AmoibaÐa Epagwg /Autepagwg .
ja èqoume
( )
µ0 (~r − ~r 0 )
Z Z I
Φ2 = ~ ·B
dS ~ 1 (~r) = ~·
dS I1 d~r 0 ×
S2 S2 4π C1 |~r − ~r 0 |3
Φ2 = M21 I1 ,
6
ìpou o suntelest c M21 onomzetai Sunteleust c AmoibaÐac Epagwg c kai
orÐzetai wc
2
d~r1 · d~r2
I I
M21 = . (6)
C1 C2 |~r1 − ~r2 |
Profan¸c, M12 = M21 . 'Opwc faÐnetai apì ton tÔpo orismoÔ tou suntelest
M12 , autìc exarttai apokleistik apì tic gewmetrikèc idiìthtec (jèsh kai
getai kai metabol thc magnhtik c ro c Φ2 , h opoÐa epgei mia hlektregertik
dÔnamh E2
dΦ2 dI1
E2 = − = −M21 .
dt dt
H hlektregertik dÔnamh E2 prokaleÐ me thn seir thc èna reÔma ston agwgì
{2}, to opoÐo, mèsw tou magnhtikoÔ tou pedÐou, metablei thn magnhtik ro
ston agwgì {1}. IsqÔei, loipìn, pntote, anexrthta apì ton deÔtero agwgì,
kje agwgì
dI
Φ = L I =⇒ E = −L . (7)
dt
O suntelest c L onomzetai Suntelest c Autepagwg c kai exarttai mìno
Akìma kai se èna tèleio agwgì, ston opoÐo den ja eÐqame ap¸leia enèr-
geiac lìgw antistsewc, h ro reÔmatoc apaiteÐ thn katabol enìc posoÔ
opoÐa antitÐjetai sthn aÔxhsh tou reÔmatoc, ìpwc deÐqnei kai o tÔpoc (7). H
enèrgeia aut eÐnai apojhkeumènh sto kÔklwma ìso o agwgìc diarrèetai apì
dÔnamh tou kukl¸matoc eÐnai ex orismoÔ èrgo an monda fortÐou, mporoÔme
dW dQ dI d 1 2
= −E = −E I = L I = LI .
dt dt dt dt 2
2
Shmei¸ste ìti
(I )
r 0
Z Z I
r −~
~
1
~· 0 ~· 0 ~
dS d~
r × = dS d~
r ×∇
|~ r 0 |3
r −~ |~ r 0|
r −~
S2 C1 S2 C1
I Z I Z I I
r 0 r 0
0 1 d~ r · d~
d~
= dSi ijk dxj ∇k = dSi ~ ×
∇ = .
|~ r 0|
r−~ |~ r 0|
r−~ i
|~
r−~ r 0|
C1 S2 C1 S2 C1 C2
7
Apì ton tÔpo autì exgetai ìti h dapan¸menh enèrgeia eÐnai
1 2
W = LI . (8)
2
O tÔpoc autìc mporeÐ na genikeujeÐ kai gia qwrikèc epifaneiakèc katanomèc
reÔmatoc wc ex c:
Z Z I
L I = ΦB = ~ ·B
dS ~ = ~· ∇
dS ~ ×A
~ = ~.
d~r · A
I
I
W = ~.
d~r · A
2
Gia mia qwrik katanom reÔmatoc ja prèpei na knoume thn antikatstash
I d~r → d3 r J~ .
1
Z
W = d3 r J~ · A
~. (9)
2
To pedÐo thc olokl rwshc eÐnai o gewmetrikìc tìpoc thc katanom c reÔmatoc.
MporeÐ ìmwc tupik na epektajeÐ mèqri to peiro, dedomènou ìti èxw apì thn
1
Z
W = ~ ×B
d3 r ∇ ~ ·A
~.
2µ0
H tautìthta
~ ×B
∇ ~ ·A
~ = ijk (∇j Bk )Ai = ijk ∇j (Bk Ai ) − ijk Bk ∇j Ai =
~ · B
∇ ~ ×A
~ +B
~· ∇
~ ×A
~ = ∇
~ · B
~ ×A
~ + B2,
mac dÐnei
1 1
Z Z
W = 3 ~ · B
d r∇ ~ ×A
~ + d3 r B 2 .
2µ0 2µ0
O pr¸toc ìroc, me thn bo jeia tou Jewr matoc thc Apìklishc gÐnetai
1
I
~· B
dS ~ ×A
~ ,
2µ0
8
ìpou h olokl rwsh gÐnetai se mia kleist epifneia sto peiro kai dÐnei mh-
1
Z
W = d3 r B 2 . (10)
2µ0
Epanalambnoume ìti h olokl rwsh gÐnetai se ìlo ton q¸ro. Sthn èkfrash
aut blèpoume oti h enèrgeia pou dapan jhke gia to st simo enìc kukl¸matoc
B2
UB ≡ . (11)
2µ0
1
d3 r B 2
R
UB = 2µ0
Magnhtik Enèrgeia
PARADEIGMA. JewreÐste èna swlhnoeidèc apeÐrou m kouc, to opoÐo èqei aktÐna a, arijmì speir¸n
an monda m kouc n kai diarrèetai apì reÔma èntashc I. UpologÐste ton Suntelest Autepagwg c an monda
0
m kouc L .
ẑµ0 n I (ρ < a)
~ =
B
0 (r > a)
0 dU 1 2 2 1 2 2
2
U ≡ = πa B = µ0 π a n I .
dz 2µ0 2
EÐnai safèc apì ton tÔpo autì ìti o Suntelest Autepagwg c an monda m kouc ja eÐnai
0 2 2
L = µ0 π a n .
9
5. Oi Exis¸seic tou Maxwell.
Sthn perÐptwsh statik¸n hlektrik¸n fortÐwn, opìte kai h puknìthta for-
mìno sthn statik perÐptwsh kai antikajÐstatai apì tnn exÐswsh Maxwell-
Faraday ( Nìmo thc Epagwg c)
~
∇ ~ = − ∂B .
~ ×E (13)
∂t
Parllhla, eÐnai peiramatikì gegonìc ìti h exÐswsh Poisson exakoloujeÐ na
~ ·B
∇ ~ = 0. (14)
èqei thn Ðdia ermhneÐa kai sthn dunamik perÐptwsh. EpÐ plèon, sthn Magnh-
thn apìklish amfotèrwn twn mel¸n tou nìmou tou Ampere , paÐrnoume
~ · ∇
∇ ~ ×B
~ ~ · J~ .
= µ0 ∇
∂ρ
Apì thn exÐswsh thc sunèqeiac ìmwc, to dexÔ mèloc isoÔtai me −µ0 ∂t , prg-
exÐswsh Maxwell-Ampere
~
∇ ~ = µ0 J~ + 0 µ0 ∂ E .
~ ×B (15)
∂t
3
QrhsimopoioÔme to sÔsthma mondwn SI sto opoÐo stic exis¸seic pou dièpoun ta h-
lektromagnhtik fainìmena emfanÐzontai h hlektrik diaperatìthta tou kenoÔ 0 kai h
magnhtik diaperatìthta tou kenoÔ µ . 0 Oi stajerèc autèc sqetÐzontai me thn taqÔthta
tou fwtìc sto kenì. Se ìti akoloujeÐ ja proume wc dedomènh thn sqèsh
√
twn diaperatot twn me thn taqÔthta tou fwtìc sto kenì c = 1/ 0 µ0 .
10
H diìrjwsh ston Nìmo tou Ampere mporeÐ na jewrhjeÐ wc mia prosj kh sthn
puknìthta reÔmatoc
~
∂E
J~ =⇒ J~ + 0
∂t
kai onomzetai {ReÔma Metatìpishc}.
~ ·E
∇ ~ = ρ/0 , ~ ×B
∇ ~ = 0
~ ~
~ ×E
∇ ~ = − ∂B , ∇ ~ = µ0 J~ + 0 µ0 ∂ E
~ ×B (16)
∂t ∂t
onomzontai Exis¸seic tou Maxwell kai dièpoun me exairetik akrÐbeia ìla ta
~ ·E
~ = ρ
∇ 0
~ ·B
∇ ~ = 0
~ = − ∂ B~
~ ×E
∇ ∂t
~ = µ0 J~ + 0 µ0 ∂ E~
~ ×B
∇ ∂t
Ektìc apì thn topik diatÔpwsh twn nìmwn thc Hlektrodunamik c mèsw
11
ArqÐzontac apì thn exÐswsh Poisson kai oloklhr¸nontac se mia perioq ìgkou
V , èqoume
1 Q
Z Z
~ ·E
∇ ~ = ρ/0 =⇒ ~ ·E
d3 r ∇ ~ = d3 r ρ =
V 0 V 0
~ = Q,
I
~ ·E
dS (17)
S 0
ìpou qrhsimopoi jhke to {Je¸rhma thc Apìklishc} kai S eÐnai h kleist
epifneia pou perikleÐei ton ìgko V kai QV eÐnai to hlektrikì fortÐo pou
Z I
~ ·B
d3 r ∇ ~ = 0 =⇒ ~ ·B
dS ~ = 0 (18)
V S(V )
pou isodunameÐ me ton mhdenismì thc magnhtik c ro c gia kje kleist epif-
d
Z Z
~ · ∇
dS ~ ×E
~ = − ~ ·B
dS ~
dt S
(B)
~ = − dΦS
I
~ ·E
dr , (19)
C dt
ìpou qrhsimopoi same to {Je¸rhma tou Stokes} gia thn epifneia S me sÔnoro
(B)
thn kleist kampÔlh C , kai ìpou ΦS eÐnai h magnhtik ro diamèsou thc S .
To epikampÔlio olokl rwma
I
EC ≡ ~ ·E
dr ~
C
(B)
dΦ
EC = − S . (20)
dt
12
Telei¸nontac me tnn exÐswsh Maxwell-Ampere èqoume
~ · J~ + 0 µ0 d
Z Z Z
~ · ∇
dS ~ ×B
~ = µ0 dS ~ ·E
dS ~
S S dt S
(E)
~ = µ0 IS + 0 µ0 dΦS
I
~ ·B
dr , (21)
C dt
(E)
ìpou IS kai ΦS eÐnai antÐstoiqa h èntash tou hlektrikoÔ reÔmatoc kai h
H
~ ·E
~ = Q
ΦE = dS 0
~ ·B
~ = 0
H
ΦB = dS
d~` · E
~ = − dΦB
H
E= dt
d~` · B
~ = µ0 I + 0 µ0 dΦE
H
dt
pedÐa.
Sb
C2
C1 C3
I I
−Q(t)
Sa Q(t)
13
Efarmìzontac ton Nìmo tou Gauss gia thn kulindrik perioq metaxÔ twn plak¸n tou puknwt ( ρ < a, 0 <
z < d), èqoume, an agno soume ta fainìmena sta kra twn plak¸n,
I
2 Q(t)
~·E
dS ~ = (ẑπa ) · E
~ + 0 = ,
0
paÐrnoume
Q(t)
~ = ẑ
E .
πa2 0
Upojètoume ìti isqÔei h hmistatik prosèggish kai to hlektrikì pedÐo mèsa ston agwgì eÐnai amelhtaÐo. To
magnhtikì pedÐo mporeÐ na upologisjeÐ efarmìzontac ton Nìmo tou Ampere. Sthn perioq arister ( dexi)
ìpou S1 eÐnai h epifneia me sÔnoro ton brìqo C1 . To pr¸to olokl rwma tou dexioÔ melouc eÐnai
Z Z Z
~ · J~ =
dS dS ẑ · (ẑJ) = dS J = I .
S1 S1
To deÔtero olokl rwma mhdenÐzetai lìgw mhdenismoÔ tou hlektrikoÔ pedÐou mèsa ston agwgì sthn hmistatik
I Z 2π
µ I
~ = µ0 I =⇒
r·B
d~ ~ = φ̂ 0 .
dφ ρ B(ρ) = µ0 I =⇒ B
2πρ
C1 0
Ac proqwr soume t¸ra na broÔme to magnhtikì pedÐo sthn perioq tou brìqou C2 . Saut n thn perioq ,
en¸ apousizei h suneisfor tou reÔmatoc, o deÔteroc ìroc (reÔma metatìpishc) suneisfèrei
Z
d d 2 Q(t) dQ(t)
µ0 0 dS Ez = µ0 0 πa = µ0 = µ0 I(t) .
dt dt πa2 0 dt
S2
Kat m koc tou brìqou C3 , o opoÐoc e'qei mikrìterh aktÐna apì tic plkec tou puknwt ( ρ < a), to reÔma
metatìpishc eÐnai
2
d 2 Q(t) ρ
0 πρ = I(t) .
dt πa2 0 a2
H R
O Nìmoc Ampere-Maxwell ~ ·B
dr ~ = µ0 ~ · J~tot
dS mac lèei ìti h kukloforÐa tou magnhtikoÔ pedÐou
C S(C)
sto brìqo C isoÔtai me thn ro thc olik c puknìthtac reÔmatoc J~tot = vecJ + J~D dia m,èsou thc S(C),
˙
ìpou J~D = 0 E
~ . Gia thn epifneia Sa tou sq matoc èqoume J~D = 0 kai h ro aut eÐnai µ0 I . Gia profaneÐc
lìgouc h ro dia mèsou thc Sa eÐnai Ðsh me thn ro dia mèsou thc Sb , gia thn opoÐa èqoume J~ = 0. All kai
4
EÐnai safèc apì thn
~B
∇ ~ = µ0 J~ ∝ ẑ ìti
~ ∝ φ̂.
B Aktnik sunist¸sa apagoreÔetai apì thn
~ ·B
∇ ~ = 0.
14
SHMEIWSH: Oi exis¸seic tou Maxwell sthn Ôlh.
Oi hlektromagnhtikèc idiìthtec twn makroskopik¸n swmtwn mporoÔn na ekfrasoÔn mèsw thc Pìlwshc
~
P kai thc Magn tishc
~
M en eisaggoume ta pedÐa thc Hlektrik c Metatìpishc
~ = 0 E
D ~ + P
~
~
B
~ =
H ~ .
−M
µ0
H
~ ·D
∇ ~ = ρ ~ ·D
dS ~ = Q
H
~ ×E
∇
~
~ = − ∂B ~ = − dΦB
~ ·E
dr
∂t dt
H
~ ·B
∇ ~ = 0 ΦB = ~ ·B
dS ~ = 0
H
~ ×H
∇
~
~ = J~ + ∂ D ~ = I + dΦD
~ ·H
dr
∂t dt
~ = ∇
B ~ ×A
~ ~ ·B
=⇒ ∇ ~ = 0 .
H sunrthsh ~
A onomzetai dianusmatikì dunamikì. Antikajist¸ntac to ma-
gnhtikì pedÐo sunart sei tou dianusmatikoÔ dunamikoÔ ston Nìmo thc Epa-
gwg c, paÐrnoume
~
!
~ × ∂A ~
∇ +E = 0.
∂t
EÐnai fanerì ìti h dianusmatik èkfrash se parènjesh ja eÐnai èna gradient
~ ~
~ + ∂ A = −∇φ
E ~ =⇒ E ~ − ∂A .
~ = −∇φ
∂t ∂t
H sunrthsh φ onomzetai bajmwtì dunamikì.
15
~ = −∇φ
~ − ~
∂A
E ∂t
~ = ∇
B ~ ×A
~
Ta dunamik
~
φ, A den orÐzoun monos manta ta pedÐaE~ kai
~
B . Prgma-
~ 0 ~ × A
~ + ∇Λ
~ ~ ×A
~ = B
~.
B = ∇ = ∇
∂Λ ∂ ~ ~ ~
~ − ∂A = E
~ 0 ~ ~.
E = −∇ φ− − A + ∇Λ = −∇φ
∂t ∂t ∂t
Oi metasqhmatismoÐ
∂Λ ~
φ → φ0 = φ − ~0 = A
, A → A ~ + ∇Λ
~
∂t
onomzontai MetasqhmatismoÐ BajmÐdac kai af noun ta pedÐa ametblhta.
~ 0 = 0.
~ ·A
∇
H anwtèrw sunj kh antistoiqeÐ sthn epilog thc sunrthshc Λ ¸ste na isqÔei
~ ·A
∇2 Λ = −∇ ~ .
0
~ 0 + 1 ∂φ = 0 .
~ ·A
∇
c2 ∂t
'Opwc ja deiqjeÐ argìtera, to pleonèkthma thc sunj khc Lorentz eÐnai ìti
16
Oi dÔo mh-omogeneÐc exis¸seic Maxwell mporoÔn na graftoÔn sunart sei
~
~ · ∂A = ρ
−∇2 φ − ∇ (22)
∂t 0
~
∂2A ~ ∂φ = µ0 J~ .
~ + 0 µ0
−∇2 A + ~ ∇
∇ ~ ·A
~ + 0 µ0 ∇ (23)
∂t2 ∂t
Qrhsimopoi same thn tautìthta
~ × ∇
∇ ~ ×A
~ = −∇2 A
~ +∇
~ ∇
~ ·A
~ .
ρ
−∇2 φ = (24)
0
~
∂2A
~ + 0 µ0
−∇2 A ~ ∂φ = µ0 J~ .
+ 0 µ0 ∇ (25)
∂t2 ∂t
AntÐstoiqa, sthn bajmÐda Lorentz èqoume thn summetrik morf
1 ∂2φ ρ
−∇2 φ + 2 2
= (26)
c ∂t 0
1 ∂2A~
~ +
−∇2 A = µ0 J~ , (27)
2
c ∂t2
PARADEIGMA. Br te poi dunamik antistoiqoÔn se qronik kai qwrik stajer hlektromagnhtik pedÐa
namikì
~ r ).
A(~ Antikajist¸ntac sthn sqèsh
~ = ∇
B ~ ×A
~
thn dokimastik lÔsh Ai = α Bi + β ijk Bj xk , sumperaÐnoume ìti α = 0 kai β = 1/2. Sunep¸c, h lÔsh eÐnai
1
~ =
A ~ ×~
B ~ ,
r + ∇ψ
2
~ = 0 =⇒ ∇i ijk Bj xk + ∇2 ψ = iji Bj + ∇2 ψ = 0
~ ·A
∇
2
∇ ψ = 0.
~ = −∇φ(~
E ~ r ) =⇒ φ(~ ~ ·~
r ) = −E r + φ0 ,
17
ìpou φ0 stajer.
PARADEIGMA. To hlektrikì kai to magnhtikì pedÐo gÐnontai antilhpt apì ta fortismèna swmatÐdia mèsw
thc DÔnamhc Lorentz . H exÐswsh kÐnhshc enìc swmatidÐou mzac m kai fortÐou q sthn hmiklassik prosèggish
v << c eÐnai
d~
v
m = q ~ + ~
E ~
v×B .
dt
Parìlo pou sthn exÐswsh kÐnhshc emfanÐzontai ta pedÐa, eÐnai endiafèron to gegonìc ìti h sunrthsh Lagrange
apì thn opoÐa aporrèei h exÐswsh kÐnhshc grfetai sunart sei twn dunamik¸n. Gia na to doÔme autì ac
∂Ai ∂Ai
mv̇i = q −∇i φ − + ijk vj (k`m ∇` Am ) = q −∇i φ − − vj ∇j Ai + vj ∇i Aj .
∂t ∂t
Qrhsimopoi same thn tautìthta ijk k`m = δi` δjm − δim δj` . Gia na proqwr soume shmei¸noume ìti
Telik, èqoume
dvi dAi
m = −q∇i φ − q + qvj ∇i Aj
dt dt
d
m~ ~
v + qA ~
= ∇ ~ − qφ
v·A
q~ .
dt
SugkrÐnontac thn anwtèrw exÐswsh me ton tÔpo twn exis¸sewn Lagrange
d ∂L ∂L
= ,
dt ∂vi ∂xi
mv 2
L = + q~ ~ − qφ .
v·A (28)
2
Mia eÔlogh er¸thsh eÐnai h ex c: EÐnai aut h sunrthsh Lagrange analloÐwth se metasqhmatismoÔc bajmÐdac?
∂ψ
φ → φ − , ~ → A
A ~ + ∇ψ
~ ,
∂t
ìpou ψ tuqaÐa sunrthsh. H metabol thc sunrthshc Lagrange ktw apì autìn ton metasqhmatismì eÐnai
∂ψ dψ
δL = q + q~ ~
v · ∇ψ = q .
∂t dt
EÐnai gnwstì ìmwc ìti h prosj kh miac olik c qronik c parag¸gou sthn sunrthsh Lagrange den metablei
18
7. To Je¸rhma Poynting.
JewreÐste tic dÔo exis¸seicMaxwell
~ ~
∇ ~ = − ∂B ,
~ ×E ~ = µ0 J~ + µ0 0 ∂ E .
~ ×B
∇
∂t ∂t
1 ~ ∂B ~ ~
~ · ∂ E = −J~ · E
~ + 1E ~ − 1B
B· + e0 E ~· ∇~ ×B ~· ∇~ ×E
~
µ0 ∂t ∂t µ0 µ0
!
∂ B2 0 E 2 ~ + 1 ijk (Ei ∇j Bk − Bi ∇j Ek )
+ = −J~ · E
∂t 2µ0 2 µ0
~ + 1 ijk (Ei ∇j Bk + Bk ∇j Ei )
= −J~ · E
µ0
!
∂ B2 0 ~ − 1∇
+ E2 = −J~ · E ~ · E~ ×B
~ . (29)
∂t 2µ0 2 µ0
H posìthta
B2 0
U = + E2 (30)
2µ0 2
eÐnai h Puknìthta Enèrgeiac tou hlektromagnhtikoÔ pedÐou. H pio pnw e-
xÐswsh ekfrzei topik thn diat rhsh thc enèrgeiac kai eÐnai gnwst me to
∂U ~ ·S
~ + J~ · E
~ = 0,
+∇ (31)
∂t
ìpou to dianusmatikì mègejoc
~ ≡ 1E
S ~ ×B
~ (32)
µ0
onomzetai Dinusma Poynting .
19
B2 0 2
U = 2µ0 + 2E
Puknìthta Enèrgeiac
~ ≡
S 1 ~ ~
×B
µ0 E
Dinusma Poynting
d 1
Z Z Z
d3 r U + ~ ·S
d3 r ∇ ~ + d3 r J~ · E
~ = 0
dt V µ0 V V
dUV
I Z
+ ~ ·S
da ~ + d3 r J~ · E
~ = 0.
dt Σ(V ) V
∂U ~ ·S
+∇ ~ + J~ · E
~ = 0
∂t
dUV H
~ ·S
~ +
R 3
~ ~
dt + Σ(V ) da V d rJ ·E = 0
Je¸rhma Poynting
N N
Z !
~ = ~ ra )
X X
3
d r qa~va δ(~r − ~ra ) ·E qa~va · E(~
V a a
kai isoÔtai me thn qronik metabol thc kinhtik c enèrgeiac twn fortismènwn
dmv 2 /2
swmatidÐwn ( m~v˙ ∼ q(E ~ → m~v · ~v˙ = q~v · E
~ + ~v × B) ~ →
dt
~
= q~v · E ).
20
EÐnai fanerì ìti h ermhneÐa thc parapnw sqèshc eÐnai ìti to algebrikì jroi-
sma tou rujmoÔ metabol c thc hlektromagnhtik c kai thc kinhtik c enèrgeiac
wc h enèrgeia pou diapern thn exwterik epifneia an monda qrìnou kai to
EFARMOGH. JewreÐste èna kulindrikì agwgì m kouc L kai aktÐnac b, o opoÐoc na diarrèetai apì omoiìmor-
f puknìthta reÔmatoc J~ = J0 n̂, ìpou n̂ eÐnai to monadiaÐo dinusma pou orÐzei h dieÔjunsh tou kÔriou xona
summetrÐac tou kulÐndrou. MporeÐte na upojèsete ìti to hlektrikì pedÐo entìc tou kulÐndrou sundèetai me thn
drou. Br te thn isqÔ, h opoÐa diapern thn exwterik epifneia tou kulÐndrou kai exetste en epalhjeÔetai
to {Je¸rhma Poynting}.
Epilègoume to sÔsthma anaforc ¸ste n̂ = ẑ . Apì ton {Nìmo tou Ampere} kai thn summetrÐa tou sust -
matoc eÔkola exgetai ìti to magnhtikì pedÐo sta shmeÐa ρ≤b eÐnai
µ J
~ = φ̂ 0 0 ρ .
B
2
bJ02
1 J0 µ0 J0 b
~ =
S ~ ×B
E ~ = ẑ × φ̂ = −ρ̂ .
µ0 µ0 σ 2 2σ
J ρ 2
Gia tic epÐpedec epifneiec tou kulÐndrou èqoume
~0, L = ± ρ̂ 0 .
S H olik isqÔc ja eÐnai
2σ
I Z b Z 2π Z b Z 2π Z L Z 2π
d~ ~ =
a·S dρ ρ ~L −
dφ ẑ · S dρ ρ ~0 +
dφ ẑ · S ~
dφ b ρ̂ · S
0 0 0 0 0 0
Z L Z 2π
bJ02 2 J02
= − dφ b = −π L b .
2σ σ
0 0
L 2
P = − I .
πb2 σ
To {Je¸rhma Poynting} gia ìlon ton ìgko tou kulÐndrou èqei wc ex c:
I Z
~ = − 3
a·S
~ dV J~ · E
~
Z
3 J2 L
P = − ~ = −J0 E L πb2 = − 0 Lπb2 = −
dV J~ · E
2
I .
σ πb2 σ
Epomènwc, to {Je¸rhma Poynting} epalhjeÔetai. EÐnai fanerì ìti stic anwtèrw ekfrseic o sunduasmìc
2
L/(πb σ) eÐnai h antÐstash R tou agwgoÔ.
21
8. O Hlektromagnhtikìc Tanust c Tshc.
~ ~
~ = − ∂B , ∇
~ ×E
∇ ~ = µ0 J~ + µ0 0 ∂ E
~ ×B
∂t ∂t
~ ~
~ + 1B ~ × ∂B + B ~ × ∂E
~× ∇
0 E ~ ×E ~× ∇~ ×B
~ = −0 E ~ × J~ + 0 B
µ0 ∂t ∂t
~
∂S
= −0 µ0 ~ × J~ .
+B
∂t
To aristerì mèloc eÐnai
1 1
0 ijk Ej k`m ∇` Em + ijk Bj k`m ∇` Bm = (δi` δjm − δim δ`j ) 0 Ej ∇` Em + Bj ∇` Bm
µ0 µ0
1
= 0 ( Ej ∇i Ej − Ej ∇j Ei ) + ( Bj ∇i Bj − Bj ∇j Bi ) =
µ0
0 1
~ Ei − 1 ∇j (Bi Bj ) + 1 ∇
~ ·E
~ ·B
~ Bi
∇i (E 2 ) + ∇i (B 2 ) −0 ∇j (Ej Ei ) + 0 ∇
2 2µ0 µ0 µ0
! !
0 2 B2 1
= ∇j δij E + − 0 Ei Ej − Bi Bj + ρ Ei .
2 2µ0 µ0
Telik, èqoume thn exÐswsh
! !
0 2 B2 1 ∂Si ~
∇j δij E + − 0 Ei Ej − Bi Bj = −ρ Ei −0 µ0 + B × J~ .
2 2µ0 µ0 ∂t i
!
1 0 2 B2
σij ≡ 0 Ei Ej + Bi Bj − δij E + . (33)
µ0 2 2µ0
1 ∂Si
~×B
~ .
∇j σij = + ρ Ei + J (34)
c2 ∂t i
22
O summetrikìc pÐnakac σij orÐzei trÐa dianÔsmata ~σ (i) me sunist¸sec (~σ (i) )j =
σij . Sunart sei twn ~σ (i) , h anwtèrw exÐswsh grfetai
~ · ~σ (i) = 1 ∂Si + ρ Ei + J~ × B
∇ ~ . (35)
c2 ∂t i
~ · ~σ (i) = 1 d
Z Z Z
3
d r∇ 3
d r Si + d3 r ρ Ei + J~ × B
~
V c2 dt V V i
~ · ~σ (i) = 1 d
I Z Z
da 3
d r Si + d3 r ρ Ei + J~ × B
~
S(V ) c2 dt V V i
1 d
I Z Z
daj σji = 2 3
d r Si + d3 r ρ Ei + J~ × B
~ . (36)
S(V ) c dt V V i
Ja proqwr soume t¸ra sthn ermhneÐa kje ìrou aut c thc exÐswshc. H er-
mhneÐa tou deutèrou ìrou tou dexioÔ mèlouc mporeÐ na gÐnei eÔkola katanoht
J~ =
X X
qa~v (a) δ(~r − ~ra ), ρ = qa δ(~r − ~ra ) .
a a
~ ra ) + ~va × B(~
~ ra )
X
qa E(~ ,
a
pou sumpÐptei me thn dÔnamh Lorentz . Epomènwc, eÐnai fanerì ìti o ìroc
ρ Ei + J~ × B
~
i
ermhneÔetai wc
h
{Puknìthta DÔnamhc}.
∂ Si
O ìroc afor apokleistik to hlektromagnhtikì pedÐo kai uprqei
∂t c2
akìma kai ìtan apousizoun ta fortismèna swmatÐdia. Mia kai o deÔteroc ìroc
tou dexioÔ mèlouc, ìpwc diapist¸same, eÐnai puknìthta dÔnamhc, eÐnai eÔlogo
~
S
~ ≡
$ (37)
c2
23
eÐnai Puknìthta Orm c tou HM pedÐou.
H
Tèloc, dedomènou ìti o ìroc
S(V ) daj σji èqei diastseic dÔnamhc, eÐnai
fanerì ìti h fusik ermhneÐa tou megèjouc σij eÐnai DÔnamh an Monda
Tshc.
~ · ~σ (i) = 1 ∂Si + ρ Ei + J~ × B
∇ ~ (38)
c2 ∂t i
PedÐou/'Ulhc. Sto dexÔ mèloc èqoume to jroisma tou rujmoÔ metabol c thc
puknìthtac orm c, pediak c kai swmatidiak c, en¸ sto aristerì mèloc èqoume
to gradient thc dÔnamhc an monda epifneiac , isodÔnama, thc ro c thc
puknìthtac orm c
5
1 0 2 B2
σij ≡ 0 Ei Ej + µ0 Bi Bj − δij 2E + 2µ0
S~
$
~ = c2
f~ = ρE
~ + J~ × B
~
Puknìthta DÔnamhc
d$i
∇j σij = dt + fi
5
Apì poyh diastsewn to dexÔ mèloc èqei diastseic kai autì ([p]/[L]3 )(1/[T ]) =
[F ]/[L]3 .
24
EFARMOGH. JewreÐste dÔo ìmoia shmeiak fortÐa Q, ta opoÐa apèqoun apìstash 2a. UpologÐste thn
dÔnamh pou askeÐtai sto epÐpedo to kjeto sthn metaxÔ touc apìstash.
x, y
Q Q
0
−a 01 1
0a z
!
Q xx̂ + y ŷ + aẑ xx̂ + y ŷ − aẑ Q ρ(cos φx̂ + sin φŷ)
~ =
E + = .
4π0
3/2 3/2 2π0 (ρ2 + a2 )3/2
x2 + y 2 + a2 x2 + y 2 + a2
Q ρ cos φ
Ex = 2π
0 (ρ2 +a2 )3/2
~
E(z = 0) = Q ρ sin φ .
Ey = 2π
0 (ρ2 +a2 )3/2
Ez = 0
Apì ton orismì tou tanust hlektromagnhtik c tshc gnwrÐzoume ìti h dÔnamh aut eÐnai
Z Z Z
(i) (i)
Fi = a·~
d~ σ = − da ẑ · ~
σ = − da σiz
Z ∞ Z 2π
0 2
= − dρ ρ dφ 0 Ei Ez − δij E
2
0 0 z=0
R∞ R 2π
Fx = −0 dρ ρ dφ Ex Ez
0 0
0
R∞ R 2π 0
= Fy = −0 dρ ρ dφ Ey Ez =
0 0
Q2 ρ2
R 2π R∞
dφ dρρ
R∞ R 2π
8π 2 0 (ρ2 +a2 )3
2 2 2
Fz = −0 dρ ρ dφ 1
2
(Ez − Ex − Ey ) 0 0
0 0
Z ∞ Z ∞
Q2 ρ2 a2
2 Q 1
~ = ẑ
F d(ρ ) = ẑ dξ −
8π0 (ρ2 + a2 )3 8π0 ξ2 ξ3
0 a2
Q2
~ = ẑ
F . (39)
4π0 (2a)2
To apotèlesma autì sumpÐptei me thn dÔnamh Coulomb, h opoÐa askeÐtai metaxÔ twn dÔo fortÐwn. Autì den
I Z
(i) 3
a·~
d~ σ = d r ρ Ei (40)
efarmozìmenhc gia èna hmisfaÐrio aktÐnac R → ∞ me bsh to mèso epÐpedo. Dedomènou ìti sthn epifneia
tou hmisfairÐou èqoume σ∼ 1 , h monadik suneisfor sto aristerì mèloc èrqetai apì thn bsh kai eÐnai ìsh
R4
upologÐsame pio pnw sthn ( {refSX-1). To dexÔ mèloc eÐnai
Z Z
3 3 Q2 ẑ
d r ( Qδ(~
r + aẑ) + Qδ(~ ~ r) = Q
r − aẑ) ) E(~ d r δ(~ ~ r ) = Q E(aẑ)
r − aẑ) E(~ ~ = ,
4π0 (2a)2
25