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Cross Cultural Understanding A Handbook PDF
Cross Cultural Understanding A Handbook PDF
A HANDBOOK TO UNDERSTAND
OTHERS’ CULTURES
CV. Hidayah
Yogyakarta
CROSS CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING :
A HANDBOOK TO UNDERSTAND OTHERS’ CULTURES
Penulis
Umi Pujiyanti & Fatkhunaimah Rhina Zuliani
Copyright@2014, Umi Pujiyanti & Fatkhunaimah Rhina Zuliani
Hak Cipta dilindungi undang-undang. Dilarang mengutip,
memperbanyak dan menerjemahkan sebagian atau seluruh isi
buku ini tanpa izin tertulis dari penerbit. All right reserved
Tata Letak
SketZ
Penerbit
CV. Hidayah
Jl. Nagan Lor no. 14 Yogyakarta 55133
Telp. 0274 584227, 7830011
Email : info@sketz.co.id | info.sketz@yahoo.com
Cetakan pertama, 2014
Dimensi buku A5, 21 x 15
ix, 166 halaman
Softcover
ISBN 978-602-1230-55-8
Regards,
Umi Pujiyanti dan Fatkhunaimah Rhina
CHAPTER IV INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION ........................................................ 43
A. Barriers to Intercultural Communication ........................ 48
1. Attitude ................................................................... 48
2. Perception ............................................................... 50
3. Stereotype ............................................................... 50
4. Interpretation .......................................................... 51
5. Culture Shock ......................................................... 53
6. Non-Verbal Behavior .............................................. 53
B. Cultural Learning ........................................................... 55
C. Dealing with Difference .................................................. 56
A. Culture
1. Definition of Culture
Culture comes from Latin cultura, means cultivation.
British anthropologist Edward Tylor first gave the
definition of culture which is widely quoted: ―Culture is
that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs,
2. Cultural Universal
Cultural universals are elements common to all
human cultures, regardless of historical moment,
geography, or cultural origin. There is a tension in cultural
anthropology and cultural sociology between the claim
that culture is a universal (the fact that all human societies
have culture), and that it is also particular (culture takes a
tremendous variety of forms around the world).
Koentjoroningrat (1990) categorizes cultural universal
into seven, namely:
1. Language
2. Knowledge system
B. Language
According to Sapir (1921), ―language is a purely human
and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions
and desire by means of voluntarily produced symbols.‖
Language is a part of culture and a part of human behavior. It
is often held that the function of language is to express thought
and to communicate information. Language also fulfills many
other tasks such as greeting people, conducting religious
service, etc.
Language and culture are intertwined because language is
an outcome or result of a culture as a whole and also a vehicle
by which the other aspects of culture are shaped and
communicate.
Three major functions of language are:
1. Language is the primary vehicle of communication;
EXERCISES
1. What is culture according to:
a. Larson & Smalley
b. Condon
c. Edward Taylor
A. Freedom
Americans commonly regard their society as the freest
and best in the world. Americans‘ understanding of freedom is
shaped by the Founding Fathers‘ belief that all people are
equal and that the role of the government is to protect each
person‘s basic ―inalienable‖ rights. The U.S. Constitution‘s
Bill of Rights assures individual rights, including provisions
for freedom of speech, press and religion. No one single
church dominates or controls in the US, there is a religious
diversity.
C. Punctuality
Punctuality is the characteristic of being able to complete
a required task or fulfill an obligation before or at a previously
designated time. "Punctual" is often used synonymously with
"on time." It is a common misconception that punctual can
also, when talking about grammar, mean "to be accurate."
According to each culture, there is often an understanding
about what is considered an acceptable degree of punctuality.
Usually, a small amount of lateness is acceptable; this is
commonly about ten or fifteen minutes in Western cultures,
D. Volunteerism
Volunteering is generally considered an altruistic activity,
and is intended to promote good or improve human quality of
life, which in return produces a feeling of self-worth and
respect, but no financial gain. Volunteering is also famous for
E. Equality
The Declaration of Independence states that "all men are
created equal". In many ways people believe this; we can see
equality in such common practices as "waiting in line". When
we go to the bank, to the post office, or to immigration, we
will be asked to take a number and wait. Regardless of how
important or trivial our need is, we will be treated like
everyone else; first come, first served.
F. Informality
Although equality is ignored in some parts of life, it is
followed closely in others. For example, people treat one
another very informally, even in the presence of great
differences in age or social status. This is not a "lack of
respect," this is the custom in the United States.
Informality is right understood as idealism in practice, or
democracy in action, the right of the individual balanced by
his responsibilities, in the basic unit is the family.
The American visiting Indonesia on the other hand might
be surprised to see that in Indonesia, the parent-children
relationship is rather formal, where children have to respect
their parents, parents still have the authority, and there is no
‗equality‘ at home.
H. Mobility
As a nation of immigrants, Americans have shared from
the beginning the assumption that the practical solution to a
problem is to move elsewhere and make a fresh start. Mobility
in America is not a sign of aimlessness but optimism. Moving
about from place to place is such a common and accepted
practice that most Americans take it for granted that they may
live in four or fife cities during their lifetime. Americans hate
to feel that buying a house might immobilize them forever.
I. Progress
It is associated with the idea of freedom is the ideal of
progress. The nation‘s progress has been measured by the
taming of the frontier and industrial expansion. The desire to
progress by making use of opportunities is important to
Americans. In this immigrant society, progress is personally
measured as family progress over generations. Many
Americans can boast that with each succeeding generation
since their first ancestors arrived, the family‘s status has
EXERCISE 1
Read this following conversation. Chintya Phelly, an
African exchange student, is visiting a radio station in
Minneapolis. Analyze and discuss the American values
implied in the conversation.
Erica : Welcome to America Chintya. How‘s it going?
I‘m Erica Kay.
Chintya : How do you do, madam Erica. Thank you for
showing me your station. Im studying radio
broadcasting at the University of Minnesota. I
look forward to meet your staff.
Erica : Just call me Erica…
(A man enters a room)
Erica : Hi Fred! How‘s it going! Glad you‘re back from
vacation. We missed you here.
EXERCISE 2:
Discuss a Western movie you’ve watched before and find
the American values, belief, and norms on it!
Personality
Culture
Human nature
most people
2. Racial stereotypes
There are examples of racial stereotypes too. For
instance, the Asians are stereotyped to be good at
mathematics; the blacks are stereotyped to be good at
athletics and dancing. These can be regarded as positive
stereotypes. Other stereotype like "All Muslims are
terrorists" is a negative stereotype, and many more.
4. Gender stereotypes
The depiction of men in media strongly suggests
that they are strong, adventurous and active paving way
for them to be stereotyped in that manner. On the other
hand, the depiction of women suggests that they are
good at performing household chores and taking care of
their appearances and they are eventually stereotyped by
these traits. Examples of gender stereotypes are ‗Men are
masculine‖, ―Women are good cooks‖, ―Men are strong,
adventurous and brave‖, ―Women are in charge of the
house and Men are in charge of finances‖ etc.
B. Stereotypes in Media
Many films, advertisements and television programs show
men engaged in physically demanding pursuits such as sport,
rock-climbing, and beach surfing or canoeing. They also
show young boys playing with action toys such as trucks,
robots and super-hero figures. On the other hand, the same
media shows young girls putting on make-up, brushing their
hair and generally worrying about their overall appearance.
1. Between Individuals.
Once people get to know a person from "the other
side," they often will determine that the other is not
2. In the Media
The media also plays an important role in both
perpetuating and in breaking down stereotypes. If they
characterize particular groups of people in certain ways,
their viewers (or readers) are likely to do the same. So if a
movie -- or the motion picture industry in general --
characterizes a group of people negatively, they are likely
to be perpetuating negative stereotypes and making
conflicts worse. If they emphasize the positive aspects of
3. In Education
Educational institutions and teaching materials also
have the opportunity to affect stereotypes, and hence
influence inter-group relations. Efforts to teach about
different cultures, and the history of different racial or
ethnic groups can help build inter-group understanding if
it is done in an effective and sympathetic way.
Educational system (teachers, schools, textbooks)
needs to also try to paint a fair and accurate picture of the
conflict and the different people involved, being aware
that different sides of a conflict will view what is
happening very differently. Through stories, discussions,
and exercises, teachers can help students (of all ages and
levels) understand the complexity of the conflicts that
surround them, and develop age- and situation-
appropriate responses to the current conflicts in their
homes, communities, and nations. To the extent that
classrooms contain students from both sides of the
conflict, teachers can help students learn to understand
and appreciate each other better, while protecting the
safety (physical and emotional) of those on both sides. If
the classroom only contains one group, reaching such
EXERCISE 1:
What do you think is happening here?
Debbie : You’re more than just brother and sister, aren’t you?
Maria : Yes, we’re twins. I was born first, my brother came few
minutes later. My mom says it’s because I’m a girl, and girls
should go first.
Mario : I let her go first. Italian boys are always polite.
Debbie : Ok..now I have a riddle for you both to solve.
Mario : I love riddles!
Debbie : A boy and his father were badly injured in an accident. The
child needed an immediate operation. He was wheeled into
the operating room. The surgeon entered and said, “ Sorry, I
cant operate this child. He is my son”. So, who is the
surgeon?
Maria : How can that be? Didn’t you say that the father also badly
injured?
Debbie : Yes. Badly injured.
Mario : Maybe the surgeon was his step father.
Debbie : Nice try, but that’s not it.
Mario : Well, I give up.
EXERCISE 2:
In a group of 4, choose a novel or a movie. Enlist and explain
the samples of stereotype in it. It can be gender, race,
nationality, and other kinds of stereotypes!
C C
O O
N Source-> Encoding-> Message-> Channel -> Receiver -> Decoding -> Receiver Response N
T T
E E
X X
T T
Feedback
2. Perception
The fact that people perceive the same thing in
different ways is particularly important in intercultural
communication. The way we perceive is culturally
determined, and the general lack of awareness of this is
another barrier to intercultural communication.
3. Stereotype
A stereotype is a fixed idea or image that many
people have a particular type of person, thing, or event,
but sometimes it is not true in reality. Generalization and
4. Interpretation
What is the problem in this situation?
A Japanese businessman is negotiating with an Australian
partner.
Chan : The deal will be very difficult…
Andrew : Well, what can I help to solve the problems, Chan?
Chan : ….
This is the case of misinterpretation, in which two
people have interpreted the same statement in completely
different ways.
For the Japanese (Chan), the message was quite
clear. For him, the statement that it would be very
difficult means there would be no deal. He expresses this
INDIRECTLY, to be polite, and to avoid ‗loss of face‖.
The Australian, not being aware of this, thought that
there were some problems that could be resolved.
Gudykunst (in Gibson, 2000) suggests three ways of
checking our interpretation of other people‘s behavior:
5. Culture Shock
Culture shock is precipitated by the anxiety that
result from losing all our familiar signs and symbols of
social intercourse. These signs are cues include the
thousand and one ways in which we orient ourselves to
the situations of daily life.
Further discussion about culture shock will be in the next
chapter.
6. Non-Verbal Behavior
While language is the primary means of
communication, nonverbal behavior also communicates.
Nonverbal patterns include gestures, facial expression,
2. Empathise
In order to come to appreciate and understand people
from different cultures, empathy is vital. Through putting
yourself in someone else's shoes you come to see or appreciate
their point of view.
6. When the sender and receiver are from the same culture, the
receiver is likely to interpret the message the way the sender
intends, because they share similar values, beliefs,
expectations, etc.
11. When there are different expectations for behavior, there can
be difficulties between people of different cultures.
12. Families in the United States and Japan are very different in
the way they communicate.
13. The family and the school are both important social
institutions for passing along culture.
3. Facial Expressions
Facial expressions usually communicate emotions.
The expressions tell the attitudes of the communicator. It
b. Mouth
The mouth can be touched or obscured by a
person's own hands or fingers, and is a tremendously
flexible and expressive part of the body too,
performing a central role in facial expressions.
c. Head
The head is very significant in body language. The
head tends to lead and determine general body
direction, but it is also vital and vulnerable being
where our brain is, so the head is used a lot in
directional (likes and dislikes) body language, and in
defensive (self-protection) body language too.
Possible
Signal Detailed Explanation
Meaning(s)
head nodding agreement Head nodding can occur
when invited for a response,
or voluntarily while listening.
Nodding is confusingly and
rather daftly also referred to
as 'head shaking up and
down'. Head nodding when
talking face-to-face one-to-
Possible
Signal Detailed Explanation
Meaning(s)
crossed arms defensiveness, Crossed arms represent a
(folded arms) reluctance protective or separating barrier.
This can be due to various causes,
ranging from severe animosity or
concern to mild boredom or being
too tired to be interested and
attentive. Crossed arms is a
commonly exhibited signal by
subordinates feeling threatened by
bosses and figures of authority.
People also cross arms when they
are feeling cold, so be careful not
to misread this signal.
crossed arms hostile Clenched fists reinforce
with clenched defensiveness stubbornness, aggression or the
fists lack of empathy indicated by
crossed arms.
one arm across nervousness Women use this gesture. Men
body clasping tend not to. It's a 'barrier'
other arm by protective signal, and also self-
side (female) hugging.
arms held confidence, As demonstrated by members of
behind body authority the royal family, armed forces
with hands officers, teachers, policemen, etc.
clasped
holding papers nervousness Another 'barrier' protective signal,
across chest especially when arm is across
chest.
adjusting cuff, nervousness Another 'barrier' protective signal.
watchstrap,
tie, etc., using
an arm across
the body
seated, holding nervousness One arm rests on the table across
e. Hands
Hands contain many more nerve connections (to
the brain) than most if not all other body parts. They
are extremely expressive and flexible tools, so it is
natural for hands to be used a lot in signalling
consciously - as with emphasizing gestures - or
unconsciously - as in a wide range of unintentional
movements which indicate otherwise hidden feelings
and thoughts.
Hand is used for various purposes, notably:
Possible
Signal Detailed Explanation
Meaning(s)
palm(s) up or submissive, Said to evolve from when open
open truthful, honesty, upward palms showed no
appealing weapon was held. A common
gesture with various meanings
around a main theme of
openness. Can also mean "I
don't have the answer," or an
appeal. In some situations this
can indicate confidence (such
as to enable openness), or
F. Turn - taking
In normal, civilized Western-type of conversation,
speakers do not speak all the time; they wait for their ‗ turn‘.
But, how do people go about allocating turns to each other or
themselves? This is the mechanism of turn taking. On the one
hand, there are natural breaks in every conversation; a speaker
has to pause for breath, or runs out things to say, or simply
declares his or her contribution to be finished.
What do you think is happening here?
Researchers looking into intercultural communication asked and
Italian and a Japanese to find out particular information from each
other. They interviewed them separately after the conversation. The
Italian said, “ He seemed like a nice guy, but he never really said
EXERCISE 1:
1. Answer the following questions
(a) What is non-verbal communication?
(b) The smile has many function. Explain.
(c) Why is eye contact important?
2. Answer the following questions about your own culture
(a) Are there any non-verbal communications in your
culture?
(b) What kind of impression do people form of one another
based in non-verbal communication?
(c) What should a foreigner learn about non-verbal
communication in your culture?
EXERCISE 4:
Analyze this situation!
Li, is a Japanese student in a sixth grade math class.
Teacher : okay, class. Please take out the homework. I
want to review the answer to the problems
you did. Li, what‘s the answer to number
one?
Li : (looks down his paper)
Teacher : Li, please look at me when you‘re called on.
Did you do the assignment?
Li : (shyly) Yes, Ms. Davidson. The answer is 31.
I always do my homework.
Teacher : Good! Now remember, I want you to speak
up when you know the answer. We‘re all take
part in this class.
Later, after the class.
Li : is Ms. Davidson angry at me? She always
seems to call me.
EXERCISE
1. When does shock culture happen?
2. What is meant by honeymoon period?
3. How might people decrease the impact of culture shock ?
4. What happen to people who cannot adjust themselves to the
new culture?
5. What is the best way to prepare for life in another country?
EXERCISE 1:
1. How could misunderstanding create negative feelings and
confusion?
2. What is meant by cultural conflict?
3. What kinds of cultural conflicts exist in a heterogeneous
society?
4. Find the examples where stereotypes turned to hatred that
cause cultural conflict!
5. In your opinion, in what areas of culture create the most
serious problems in intercultural communication?
Explain!
EXERCISE 2:
Choose:
A, if only 1 and 2 are correct
B, if only 1 and 3 are correct
C, if only 3 and 2 are correct
D, if 1, 2, and 3 are correct
1. Ethnocentrism attitudes cause…
1) People become critical of individual from different
cultures
2) Negative judgement toward foreigners
C. Women Liberation
The term ‗women liberation‘ refers to collection of
opinions and developments that seek to end discrimination
against women. Equal right for women is the goal. Adherent
of the women‘s liberation movement urge that school
textbooks and teachers take note of women contributions to
history, science, and other fields. They argue for an end to
what they see as stereotyping of women on television and
other media. They seek to raise the consciousness of all
2. Single parent
The single parent family in the United States is
increasing markedly. According to U.S census
information, the number of families headed by a single
parent has more than doubled in the past 20 years. Most
single-parent households are headed by women. Most of
these women were once married, although an increasing
number of American women are deliberately having
children with no intention of having husband.
―The dinner table is the center for the teaching and practicing not just of
table manners but of conversation, consideration, tolerance, family
feeling, and just about all the other accomplishments of polite society
except the minuet.” -Judith Martin
1. Starting to eat
If you are eating out, you should wait until all the
members of your group have been served before picking
2. Napkin
The basic function of the napkin is to wipe your
fingers and blot the mouth.
After sitting, unfold your napkin (do not open your
napkin by shaking it; open it discreetly under the
table. and place it in your lap and don't tuck it in
your collar) after the host or hostess has placed his or
her napkin in their lap.
Place your napkin in your chair if leaving the table
during the meal.
Don‘t use napkin as a handkerchief
When the meal is completed, the napkin is folded
loosely and placed to the left of your plate (or in the
center of your place setting if your plate has been
cleared).
3. Fork
Tables are often set with two or more forks, meant
to be used for different courses; for example, a salad fork,
a meat fork, and a dessert fork. It should not be necessary
1. United kingdom
In the UK, the host or hostess takes the first bite
unless he or she instructs otherwise. The host begins after
all food is served and everyone is seated. Food should
always be tasted before salt and pepper are added.
Applying condiments or seasoning before the food is
tasted is viewed as an insult to the cook, as it shows a lack
of faith in his/her ability to prepare a meal. In religious
households, a family meal may commence with saying
Grace, or at dinner parties the guests might begin the
meal by offering some favourable comments on the food
and thanks to the host. In a group dining situation it is
considered impolite to begin eating before all the group
have been served their food and are ready to start.
2. India
In formal settings, the host requests the guest to
start the meals. Similarly, one should not leave the table
before the host or the eldest person finishes his or her
4. South Korea
In formal settings, a meal is commenced when the
eldest/most senior diner at the table partakes of any of the
foods on the table. Before partaking, intention to enjoy
their meal should be expressed. Similarly, satisfaction or
enjoyment of that meal should be expressed at its
completion. On occasion, there are some dishes which
require additional cooking or serving at the table. In this
case, the youngest/lowest-ranked (non-child) diner should
perform this task. When serving, diners are served the
meal (including and beverages: water, tea, or alcohol) in
descending order starting with the eldest/highest-ranked
diner to the youngest/lowest-ranked.
Usually, diners will have 1 bowl of soup on the right
with 1 bowl of rice to its left. Alternatively, soup may be
served in 1 large communal pot to be consumed directly
or ladled into individual bowls. Dining utensils will
A. Loby
Lobby is a large open area inside and near the entrance of
a public building (such as a hotel or theater). Sometimes it
referred to as a foyer or an entrance hall. Many office
buildings, hotels and skyscrapers go to great lengths to
decorate their lobbies to create the right impression and
convey an image, or "power lobby".
In these types of lobbies it is common for there to be
comfortable furniture, such as couches and lounge chairs, so
that the customer will be able to wait in comfort. Also, there
may be television sets, books, and/or magazines to help the
customer pass time as they wait to be served.
D. Hotel rooms
Hotel rooms are classified by the number of beds in them,
the size and the amenities that they offer, and their rates vary
accordingly. There are some basic room categories for a
hotel:
2. Double
4. Triple room
6. Suite room
cultural relativism - the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values
are dependent on their cultural context, and should not be used in
the study or description of another culture.
index finger - first finger of the hand - usually the most dominant
and dexterous finger, hence used mostly in pointing gestures.
Proxemics - the study of the way that people use physical space
to convey messages
Verbal - words