QUESTION 1: DESCRIBE HOW THE FOLLOWING IS PRODUCED ON A LARGE SCALE

STARTING FROM IRON ORE

a) CAST IRON
b) STEEL

Iron is a hard-grey metal, and heavier than any of the other elements found on Earth. During a
process, impurities or slag is removed from iron, and it is turned into a steel alloy.

To make steel, iron ore is first mined from the ground. It is then smelted in blast furnaces where
the impurities are removed, and carbon is added.

1
The main difference between the two elements is that steel is produced from iron ore and scrap
metals, and is called an alloy of iron, with controlled carbon. Whereas, around 4% of carbon in
iron makes it cast iron, and less than 2% of carbon makes it steel.

2
QUESTION 2: EXPLAIN THE VARIOUS MICROSTRUCTURE OF STEEL USING THE IRON-
CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM.

Critical temperatures
 Upper critical temperature (point): Temperature at which internal structure is complete.

 A3 is the temperature, below which ferrite starts to form as a result of ejection from
austenite in the hypoeutectoid alloys.
 ACM is the temperature; below which cementite starts to form as a result of ejection
from austenite in the hypereutectoid alloys.

 Lower critical temperature (point): Temperature at which internal structure of the metal
begins to transform from one state to another.

 A1 is the temperature of the austenite-to-pearlite eutectoid transformation. Below

this temperature austenite does not exist.

 Magnetic transformation temperature A2 is the temperature below which α-ferrite is

ferromagnetic.

3
Phase compositions of the iron-carbon alloys at room temperature
 Hypoeutectoid steels (carbon content from 0 to 0.83%) consist of primary (proeutectoid) ferrite
(according to the curve A3) and pearlite.
 Eutectoid steel (carbon content 0.83%) entirely consists of pearlite.
 Hypereutectoid steels (carbon content from 0.83 to 2.06%) consist of primary
(proeutectoid)cementite (according to the curve ACM) and pearlite.
 Cast irons (carbon content from 2.06% to 4.3%) consist of proeutectoid cementite C2 ejected
from austenite according to the curve ACM, pearlite and transformed ledeburite (ledeburite in
which austenite transformed to pearlite).

Ferrite is simple iron having very small carbon concentration of 0.02%.

Cementite is with higher carbon concentration.

Austenite is phase which happens to be at higher temperature having higher carbon

concentration.

Pearlite is microstructure when iron carbon is slowly cold in between 800 to 500°C.

4
QUESTION 3: EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES:
i. HARDENING
ii. CASE HARDENING
AND WHERE THEY ARE
iii. TEMPERING
USED?
iv. ANNEALING

HEAT TREATMENT OF METALS

It is an operation or combination involving the controlled heating and cooling of metals or alloy
in the solid state to produce certain desired properties. The improvements resulting from the heat
treatments are mainly due to the development of certain micro-constituents which have the
desired qualities.

i. HARDENING

The process involves

 Heating the metal to temperatures within the hardening range, which is 30-50°C above
the UCT.
 Soaking at this temperature for considerable time to ensure a thorough penetration of the
temperature inside the component.
 Quenching that is sudden cooling of the steel.

Aims of Hardening

 To harden the steel to resist wear.

 To enable it to cut other metals.

Used for

 Machine cutting tools, Knife blades

ii. CASE HARDENING

The process involves the hardening the surface of a metal object while the metal deeper
underneath to remain soft.

Aims of Case hardening

 To harden the steel to resist wear of surface layer.

Used for

 Bearing on the shaft, fuel injector pump.

5
 iii. TEMPERING

The process involves reheating the steel within the temperature range 200-700°C (below the
LCT) followed by any desired rate of cooling. The tempering temperature depends upon the
purpose for which the article is to be used.

Aims of Tempering

 To reduce some of the hardness produced during hardening;

 To remove the strains produced during previous heating.
 To give the steel right structural condition combined with toughness and shock
resistance.

Used mainly for steels.

iv. ANNEALING

The process consists of heating the metal to temperatures less than 30°C above the UCT for the
hypoeutectoid steel and to temperatures less than 30°C above the LCT for hypereutectoid steels.

Aims of Annealing

 To reduce hardness
 To relieve internal stresses which may have been caused by working or by contraction in
casting due to unequal rate of cooling in different parts.
 To improve machinability.

Used to soften metals and to obtain desired chemical and physical properties such as stability,
machinability.