Sociocultural Perspective

 Stresses the importance of social norms and culture.

 Proposes that children learn behavior through problem-solving interactions with other
children and adults. Through these interactions, they learn the values and norms of
their society.
 Social psychologists using this perspective might look at how cultural norms and
social influence impact social behavior. When considering something like aggression,
for example, a person taking this perspective would look at how people are socialized
to behave aggressively in certain situations.

Evolutionary Perspective
 Argues that social behaviors developed through genetics and inheritance.
 Emphasizes the role of biology and gene transmission across generations to explain
current behavior.
 When looking at a social problem such as aggression, a psychologist taking this
perspective would consider how genetics and evolutionary influences contributed to
the development of the behavior.

Social Learning Perspective

 Stresses the importance of unique experiences in family, school, community, etc.
 According to this viewpoint, we learn behaviors through observing and mimicking the
behavior of others.
 In our earlier example of aggression, someone taking the social learning perspective
would be interested in how people learn aggressive behaviors from parents, peers, and
even media influences.

Social-Cognitive Perspective
 Supports an information processing model of social behavior, where we notice,
interpret, and judge the behavior of others.
 New experiences can either be assimilated (using already held beliefs to interpret the
event) or accommodated (which involves changing existing beliefs in response to the
event.)
 By understanding how information is processed, we can better understand how
patterns of thoughts impact behavior.

Use of Perspectives
While some social psychologists tend to have a dominant perspective, many researchers draw
on a variety of theories when tackling a question or hypothesis. By understanding all of the
many influences that contribute to social behavior, including culture, social learning,
genetics, and individual differences, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the many
forces that influence how people think and act in social situations.
Assessment.

Clinical psychologists assess patients using a variety of method to collect

information about people. This information may be used to diagnose problematic
behaviour, to guide a client toward an optimal vocational choice, to facilitate
selection of job candidates, to describe a client’s personality characteristics, to
select treatment techniques, to guide legal decisions regarding the commitment of
individuals to institutions, to provide a more complete picture of a client’s problem, to screen
potential participants in psychological research projects, to establish pre-treatment
baseline levels of behaviour against which to measure post-treatment, and for literally
hundreds of other purposes.

(b) Provision of Treatment.

Clinical psychologists offer treatments designed to help people better understand and
solve distressing psychological problems. These interventions are known as
psychotherapy, behaviour modification, psychological counselling, or other terms,
depending on the theoretical orientation of the clinician
 (c) Conducting Research.

By training and by tradition, clinical psychologists are research oriented. For most of the
first half of its existence, the field was strongly dominated by research rather than by
application. Although that balance has changed, research continues to play a vital role in
clinical psychology. Examples of their research activities include; the development and
standardization of clinical tools for diagnostic assessment tests and examination of their
reliability and validity, adapting and testing the efficacy of both psychological and biological
interventions to promote health and overcome disorders, studies to reveal the cultural and
cross-cultural aspects of psychological abnormalities, ascertaining the impact of both positive
and negative human behaviour on the physical health, and supervising projects,
thesis and dissertations of candidates whose researchers have psychological
components.

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Chapter 1: Clinical Psychology Pages What is Clinical Psychology? Clinical psychologists are individual
trained in assessment and diagnosis, intervention or treatment, consultation, research, and the
application of ethical and professional principles Clinical psychologists work with a range of
individuals, from infants to the elderly. They work in a large range of settings, including universities,
hospitals, private practice Little medical training, extensive training in psychotherapy or talk therapy.
Focus on client autonomy and collaboration with patient Only New Mexico and Louisiana allow
trained clinical psychologists to prescribe medication Closely Related Mental Health Professions
Psychiatrists A physician rooted in medicine Regards psychopathology as an that is biologically based
and its causes can be treated with medicine. Complete four years of medical school (M.D.), general
medical internship, residency training in psychiatry. o Supervised work in clinical setting or
outpatient facility (supervised experienced psychiatrist) o May thus be better able to identify
medical problems for psychological distress. Blurred lines between clinical psych and psychiatrists.
Specialization is slowly impact, competition from other specialties like clinical psych. Brief sessions of
medication management not long psychotherapy sessions. Prescription privileges are being
allocated to other specialties as well and people no longer rely on psychiatrists for advice on
medication treatment. More authoritarian and focus on medication prescription. Counseling
Psychologists Work with moderately maladjusted individuals and use assessment methods, most
commonly interviews. Employed in educational settings, but also employed in hospitals, mental
health centers. Focused on: o Preventative treatment, consultation, development of outreach
programs, vocational counseling, therapy. Counseling psychology is a small field (the file of clinical is
bigger with 4x as many graduates from doctoral programs). Most counseling psychology programs
are in the School of Education. Counseling doctoral program acceptance rates are higher, greater
focus on issues. Only 70 Ph.D. programs are there for counseling psych but there are 360 for clinical
psych. Clinical Social Workers Work to improve social functioning of individuals, groups, or
communities. In the past social workers focused on external or social factors contributing to
difficulties, while the psychiatrist prescribed medication and the clinical psychologist tested them.
Today social workers are more likely to deal with psychological factors that play a role in individual
and family difficulties (more focus on familial factors). Requires only degree to practice (2 years).
More likely to engage in home visits, workplace role The social work field is rapidly growing as a
result of them being alternatives to psychiatrists and psychologists. School Psychologists Work with
students, educators and administrators to promote social and emotional growth of school age
children and adolescents. School psychologists are in as they conduct assessment for special
educational needs. Workplace include schools, nurseries, daycare, hospital, 60 APA programs for
doctoral degrees. Health and Rehabilitation Psychologists May have a doctorate in clinical, but this is
not required. This field is new and is rapidly growing. Through research and practice contribute to
the promotion of good health, involved with prevention and treatment of illness. o Ex: design
prevention programs to help quit smoking, reduce weight. Most likely to engage in consultation with
different organizations. Rehabilitation psychologists focus on physical or cognitive disability. o Help
with adjustment to physical, social, psychological barriers. Work at care facilities, medical centers,
rehabilitation facilities, Psychiatric Nurses Others Working alongside psychiatrists and clinical
psychologists They implement the therapeutic recommendations. Have prescriptive privileges in all
but a few states. model was like a scientist. Clinical work is enhanced knowledge of scientific
methods and exposure to clinical practice. Clinical psychologists have the ability to both consume
and produce knowledge. Consultation Consultation can occur on a case case basis with another
individual in the field or for an organization looking for help in a particular domain (ex: drug
addiction). Clinical psychologists also serve as consultants for advertising agencies. A large number
of consultants work for primary care services. Administration All clinical psychologists have to
engage in administrative duties like maintaining client record and filling out reports. Some are
drafted colleagues as a result of their skills to perform greater admin duties Ex: head of the
psychology department, vice president of a consulting firm, program director of a clinic. Employment
Sites Employment sites that are the biggest are: (1) private practice, (2) universities and (3) medical
schools. Other settings include: Psychiatric hospitals, outpatient Clinical psychologists tend to
engage in a diversity of both private practice and research. 2005 only of clinical psych doctoral
majors were women and only were racial is slowly increasing. Research and the Scientific Tradition
An Overview Clinical Psychology is based on research tradition and the quest to acquire new
knowledge Typically, a clinical doctorate student engages in assessment, research, diagnosis and
therapeutic skill development with an internship. Psychology programs offer a program that some
students pursue before doing the Ph.D. Master level students are viewed as less competent and
practice independently. Growing field with 3x as many Masters than being awarded. Coursework
and Practicum Work Students have to take a series of basic courses that help found their basic
knowledge of human behavior. Use model During the advance years of graduate school students are
exposed to practica work, that involves application of theories studied. o Acquisition of specific
clinical skills Practicums can be in assessment, therapy, interviewing methods or even in consulting
within specific Research Competence needs to be developed in computer software, technology and
research methods engaging in research projects. Different universities place different emphasis on
research o Completion of thesis the end of second year A research is required the end of year that
adds new information to the field. When entering grad school, a student joints a of faculty meets
hours per week. Qualifying Exam Preliminary or comprehensive examination, it is three written
exams each lasting over the span of or examinations. Often taken during the 3rd year or students
write an literature review or research grant. The Internship Provides experience to complete the
role, required of all clinical programs. Occurs at the end of graduate training, usually at an
independent facility off campus or at university counseling centers or medical schools. Allows the
student to work in a professional setting provides the students with skills that will mirror that of a
professional career. Women are increasingly growing in the field of clinical psych. Training Models
Professional clinical psych programs use the Ph.D. model focused on research but the Psy.D.
program is an alternative degree more focused on application. Professional schools award of
doctoral degrees for clinical psych. Combined on core of both knowledge and skills across applied
psychology skills. Model is focused on approaches. Clinical Practice Clinical psychologists are slowly
going into private practice and level individuals are being employed more in settings. Clinical
psychologists need to have a capacity to tolerate ambiguity Wechsler Intelligence Scale for to scale.
Clinical psychologists were viewed as experts of of interpretation of test scores as a basis of
diagnosis and treatment. Different nomothetic approach (empirically tested rules) vs. projective
idiographic approach (focused more on the individual and interpretations). Radical Behaviorism:
Only overt behavior can be measured and psychological trait measurement is not useful. It brought
the era of behavioral were understood in the context of the stimuli or situation in which they
occurred. First DSM appeared in 1952, focused mostly on adult psychopathology and symptoms.
Structured Diagnostic Interviews: Standard list of questions that are used as criteria to assess
different disorders. Health care insurers became more interested in managed health because it
controlled and reduced costs and required mental health professionals to be more efficient.
Interventions The Beginnings Jean Charcot focused on interventions for hysteria using hypnosis
Freud and Breuer collaborated on a patient Anna whose treatment was challenging o Psychoanalysis
(most influential theoretical and treatment development for clinical psychology) The Advent of the
Modern Era movement began with publication of The Interpretation of Dreams. o Terms like
Oedipus complex, ego, id began part of psychological terminology. establishment of the child
guidance center in Chicago in 1909 reflected a movement towards looking at juvenile offenders and
not simply learning problems of children. Between the Wars Psychoanalytic therapy was viewed as
being the sole right of a medical practitioner but psychologists soon began to use it in their work
with children (child guidance clinics). emphasis on family relationships instead of sexuality grew
prominent with practitioners. Play Therapy: Release of anxiety or hostility through expressive play
(Freudian Principle based). Behavior Therapy: Encompassing the works of Watson, Jones, Levy and
others it focused on conditioning. World War II and Beyond As psychiatrists and physicians were too
few to help WWII men, psychologists began to fill the role and aid with psychotherapy, assisting men
to return to combat and help with rehabilitation. Shifting away from intelligence and focusing on
personality, psychoanalytic intervention grew. Carl Rogers publication, Therapy was the first
alternative to psychoanalytic therapy. Therapy was a growing field with the introduction of therapy
(RET), therapy (CBT), and behavioral therapy work B.F. Skinner and Joseph Walope o Looked at
desensitization, operant principles and conditioning. Research The Beginnings and the Advent of the
Modern Era William Wundt and William James, both of whom formed research laboratories and
influenced the model. Ivan classical conditioning theories became important improved their
intelligence tests and in 1916 development of the Army Alpha and Beta tests appeared. Between the
Wars World War II and Beyond Behaviorism (power of conditioning) and Gestalt psychology
(emphasized unique perceptions) were prominent. the diagnosis and assessment were less
important, but in the it was largely hyped up. Focus on effectiveness of psychotherapy (Carl Rogers
and Dymond) Wolpe systematic desensitization published focused on reliability, validity of criteria
used for mental disorders in the DSM manual. Focus on etiological factors or causes for many mental
disorders. Behavioral Genetics: Both environmental and genetic factors influence development of
behavior. Brain imaging: Allows us to view both the structure and function of the brain. The 1988
Schism Many critics felt that the APA was being controlled practitioners that were using it for their
own no longer focused on scientific needs. Plan to reorganize APA so that it lessened the gap
between the clinical wing and wing failed a vote of membership. American Psychological Society of
Psychological on the scientific aspect of psychology. First conference held in June 1988. Chapter 3:
Current Issues in Clinical Psychology pages Models of Training in Clinical Psychology The Model
Boulder Model: Attempts to marry science and clinical practice and is the most popular model to this
day. Skilled practitioners that could produce own research and learn from others research. In the
past, training was not the focus of the clinical psychologists focused on research. The model sought
to aid students in thinking like a scientist in whatever activities they engaged in. Lake City, Utah:
Seeking a model that deemphasized research and placed greater emphasis in clinical skills The
Doctorate of Psychology Degree (Psy.D.) Emphasis on the development of clinical competence, on
research competence. Dissertation is about professional subject and not research contribution.
Increasing experience in therapeutic practice (3rd year divergence) Differences between Psy.D. and
Ph.D. o Great Psy.D. acceptance rate o Lower percent receive full financial assistance o Lower
percent of faculty with a orientation o Lower percentage obtain internships at o Shorter period to
complete degree (5.1 years). Professional Schools No affiliation with universities and they have their
own financial and organizational framework. Free standing or free for profit schools, mostly offer
Psy.D. degrees. There are 45 schools and they offer over of the clinical psychology doctorates.
Greater proportion of doctorates given professional schools today. Rely heavily on (so expensive) as
not and have only parttime faculty. Very rare that professional schools are APA accredited Clinical
Scientific and clinical psychology is the only acceptable form of clinical psychology Applicants for
licensure are required to take an exam (can be oral written) May require supervised experience
beyond doctorate Licensing boards are starting to become increasing picky about the requirements
and restrictions placed on those that qualify and those that can obtain licensure. Some argue that
both licensing and certification are invalid measures of competence, others say that regulating
licensing measures will ensure competence. Challenges include establishment of a national standard,
deciding between oral or written exams and licensing over the internet. Requirements for Licensure
Doctoral degree from APA accredited program (e.g. clinical) years of supervised clinical experience
Must bass Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology sometimes oral exam is needed. Must
practice within the scope of the knowledge and competence, training American Board of
Professional Psychology (ABPP) ABPP offers certification in the field of clinical child and adolescent
psychology, clinical psychology, clinical health psychology and other fields. Candidates are required
to submit practice sample (ex: videotape sessions), provide written statement regarding professional
expertise and complete a supervised oral exam. Provides increased mobility if one decides to move
states, greater respect and more reliability. Private Practice Clinical Psychology moving in the
direction of policies, legislation and greater emphasis on practice than on research. A fee for service
is now the past, and managed health care now dominates. The Costs of Health Care Predicted that
from 2009 to 2019 proportion of GDP costs devoted to health care will rise Managed Care: Profit
driven corporate approach to health care that attempts to contain costs controlling the length and
frequency of service utilization and restricting the types of services provided o Shift in control from
practitioners to those that pay the bills (employers) Three managed care types: 1. Health
Maintenance Organization restricted number of providers and serves those who enroll in the service
plan at a fixed cost for all services. 2. Preferred Provider Organization have contracts with outside
providers at a discounted rate for membership and in exchange providers get more referrals. 3.
Point of Service Plan managed members have more choices at their health care choices but may
more for features (incorporates HMO and PPO features) Two Models of Health Care o Health Care
Plan: Shift cost and responsibility to consumer o Performance Disease Management Models: Pay for
performance incentives to clinicians to provide effective services (fewer sessions). methods may
pamphlets, handouts, therapy. Prescription Privileges Background Argument that it will allow for
autonomy of clinical psychologists as health service providers Help with continuous care from one
physician Argument of professional boundaries and bridging the gap between psychology psychiatry.
Pro Arguments for Prescription Privileges Enable practitioners to provide a wider variety of
treatments to a wider number of people. Increase in efficiency and of care for patients who need
psychological treatment and medication. Provide clinical psychologists an advantage in the
marketplace (e.g. over social workers) May be more qualified to consider psychopharmacological
treatment due to them spending longer sessions with clients. Better able to offer combined
treatment (psychosocial psychopharmacological). Con Arguments for Prescription Privileges on
psychological forms of treatment as medication is faster and brings more money. May result in
conflict between members of the fields of psychology and psychiatry. May lead to more sponsored
research. Implications for Training Ad Hoc Task Force for levels of competence and training. o
Dynamic when to generalize vs. when to individualize o Culture specific have knowledge of the
groups that they work with Ethical Standards 1953: Publication of the Ethical Standards of
Psychologists General principles of ethical standards: o Beneficence and (strive to benefit others and
do not harm) o Fidelity and responsibility: professional and scientific responsibility to society o
Integrity: strive to accurate, honest and truthful o Justice: all people are entitled to access and to
benefit from knowledge generated psychology o Respect for rights and dignity: enact safeguards
and protection measures. Specific ethical standards underlined under APA membership are
enforceable rules, the general principles are not. Rule 1: Competence Clinicians must only provide
services within the boundaries of their training. Clinicians should not provide treatment for
assessment procedures of which they have no knowledge. Tool kits to ensure competence:
performance reviews, case presentation reviews, client outcome data. Privacy and Confidentiality
Respect and protect confidentiality of their patients. Clinicians should be clear about confidentiality
and the conditions under which it can be broken. Tasaroff Case: A 1976 case in which California
Supreme Court deemed that therapist was remiss for not informing all parties of the clients
intention to harm his girlfriend. Being aware that confidentiality may need to be broken in certain
instances (e.g. child abuse, potential suicide or murder). Jaffe vs. Redmond: 1996 Supreme Court
case that permits communication between licensed mental health professionals and individual adult
patients in psychotherapy. Human Relations The best interests of the client and as such this
condones relations of a sexual nature, relationships, sexual harassment. Most common ethical
dilemma for (breach of potential risk due to abuse or other reasons). Chapter and Classification of
Psychological Problems What is Abnormal Behavior? Psychopathologist: Scientist that studies the
cause of mental disorders and the factors that influence its development. Hard to define abnormal
no single descriptive feature is shared all abnormal behavior, no one criteria are sufficient to define
abnormal behavior and b. there is no discrete boundary between abnormal and normal behavior.
Definition 1 of Abnormal Psychology: Statistical Infrequency or Violation of Social Norms Person
whose behavior is deviant or is likely to be noted as Statistical from the norm in a very low IQ score
(ex: score of 64) Violation of social different from typical girls or women Definition 1: Advantages of
the Statistical Infrequency or Violation of Social Norms Definition 1. Cutoff Points: Has cutoff marks
that are quantitative (a low score can be compared to the cutoff point). Ex: Used to compare
psychological (above the cutoff is clinically significant). 2. Intuitive Appeal: Behaviors that we
consider abnormal would be judged as abnormal others. Definition 1: Problems of the Statistical
Infrequency or Violation of Social Norms Definition 1. Choice of Cutoff Point: Conformity criteria are
limited as it is difficult to establish cutoff points. Very few guidelines on how to form cutoff points.
categorize every abnormality as deviant. 2. The Number of Deviations: How many deviant behaviors
are needed to earn the label 3. Cultural and Developmental Relativity: What is classified as deviant
for one group, is not deviant for another. Also some behaviors that are appropriate at one
developmental stage may be inappropriate at another (focus on comparison to peers and not a.
Reducing cultural practices to the extreme (i.e. subcultures) is too much. Definition 2 of Abnormal
Psychology: Subjective Distress Subjective feelings and sense of of the individual (ex: feeling happy,
sad, Definition 2: Advantages and Problems of Subjective Distress Definition Individuals are aware of
their emotional experiences and can express harder for children. Labeling someone as maladjusted
only works if their behavior is specified and their behavioral manifestations are stated. How much
subjective distress is needed to be defined as Early Classification Systems of modern systems of
psychiatric diagnostic criteria of Mental Science adopted a classification system in Paris. Health
Organization developed a classification system. Psychiatric Association developed Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual (Major change in diagnostic criteria) o Explicit diagnostic criteria for mental
disorders was introduced o Use of a system of diagnosis o Descriptive diagnostic approach (neutral
to etiology theories) o Greater focus on clinical utility of diagnostic system published an additional
DSM for children aged The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Changes made in
was based far more on empirical data than was previous versions. Multiaxial Assessment: Complete
diagnostic clients are evaluated on 5 domains. Principal Diagnosis: Main diagnosis or condition for
which patient seeks treatment 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Axis I: Clinical Disorders or Other Conditions (except
personality disorder mental retardation) Axis II: Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation Axis
Medical Condition that are relevant to the treatment of Axis I and II Axis IV: Psychosocial and
Environmental Problems Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) score on scale General
Issues in Classification 8 Main Issues: Categories versus Dimensions, Bases of Categorization,
Pragmatics of Classification, Description, Reliability, Validity, Bias and Coverage. 1 This is called the
Diagnostic Classification System (DC Categories Versus present vs. absent appropriate or is a
dimensional model better? Based on symptoms a patient is placed within a category. Easy to
confuse categorization with explanation Abnormal behavior is not different from normal behavior
but it falls along a dimension (degree). Category implies an approach (present vs. absent) instead of
using a dimension. Bases of there be multiple ways to make a diagnosis? Does this create too much
heterogeneity within the diagnostic category? Diagnostic measures may be complicated requiring
the clinician to know a wide variety of techniques. Membership in any one area is most likely going
to be heterogeneous because there is multiple basis for diagnosis. Pragmatics of do we decide if a
condition is included in the diagnostic manual? Homosexuality was dropped from the DSM and
regarded as a lifestyle (dropping from DSM was done through a psychiatric membership vote). DSM
is crafted committees. Members are from different backgrounds and constituencies. diagnostic
category features properly described? Are diagnostic criteria specific and objective? provides
detailed information for Axis I and II. Also provides information about each diagnosis including age of
onset, course, prevalence, complications, family features enhance reliability and validity. diagnostic
judgements reliable can different clinicians agree on a diagnosis? Refers to the consistency of
diagnosis across DSM criteria attempted to increase reliability of diagnosis. Developed structured
diagnostic interviews that push clinicians to use specific DSM this had led to greater reliability. Even
with structured interviews, reliability is not guaranteed (e.g. generalized anxiety disorder). we make
meaningful predictions based on our knowledge of an diagnosis? If clinicians fail to agree on proper
classification of patients then it be demonstrated that the classification system has meaningful
correlates or has validity. Establishing validity of a diagnostic criteria involves 5 steps (Robbins Guze):
o Clinical description and features beyond the disorders symptoms (ex: demographic). o Laboratory
meaningful correlates of the diagnosis (ex: psych tests) o Delimitation from other among clinicians o
validity of diagnosis o Family if the disorder runs in the family.