VIRTUE ETHICS BEGAN WITH SOCRATES,

AND WAS SUBSEQUENTLY DEVELOPED

FURTHER BY PLATO, ARISTOTLE, AND THE
STOICS. VIRTUE ETHICS REFERS TO A
COLLECTION OF NORMATIVE ETHICAL
PHILOSOPHIES THAT PLACE AN
EMPHASIS ON BEING RATHER THAN
DOING. HOWEVER, MOST THEORISTS
AGREE THAT MORALITY COMES AS A
RESULT OF INTRINSIC VIRTUES
Virtue ethics (or aretaic ethics[1]
/ˌærəˈteɪ.ɪk/, from Greek ἀρετή (arete))
are normative ethical theories which
emphasize virtues of mind and character.
Virtue ethicists discuss the nature and
definition of virtues and other related
problems. These include how virtues are
acquired, how they are applied in various
real life contexts, and whether they are
rooted in a universal human nature or in a
plurality of cultures.
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KEY CONCEPTS

The western tradition's key concepts derive from

ancient Greek philosophy. These theories
include arete (excellence or virtue), phronesis
(practical or moral wisdom), and eudaimonia
(flourishing).
A virtue is generally agreed to be a
character trait, such as a habitual action or
settled sentiment. Specifically, a virtue is a
positive trait that makes its possessor a
good human being. A virtue is thus to be
distinguished from single actions or feelings
 ROSALIND HURSTHOUSE SAYS:
A virtue such as honesty or generosity is not just a tendency to do what is honest or generous,
nor is it to be helpfully specified as a “desirable” or “morally valuable” character trait. It is,
indeed a character trait—that is, a disposition which is well entrenched in its possessor,
something that, as we say “goes all the way down”, unlike a habit such as being a tea-
drinker—but the disposition in question, far from being a single track disposition to do honest
actions, or even honest actions for certain reasons, is multi-track. It is concerned with many
other actions as well, with emotions and emotional reactions, choices, values, desires,
perceptions, attitudes, interests, expectations and sensibilities. To possess a virtue is to be a
certain sort of person with a certain complex mindset. (Hence the extreme recklessness of
attributing a virtue on the basis of a single action.)
Eudemonia (εὐδαιμονία) is a state variously translated from Greek
as 'well-being', 'happiness', 'blessedness', and in the context of virtue
ethics, 'human flourishing'. Eudaimonia in this sense is not a subjective,
but an objective, state. It characterizes the well-lived life. According
to Aristotle, the most prominent exponent of eudaimonia in the
Western philosophical tradition, "eudaimonia" is the proper goal of
human life. It consists of exercising the characteristic human quality—
reason—as the soul's most proper and nourishing activity. In his
Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle, like Plato before him, argued that the
pursuit of eudaimonia is an "activity of the soul in accordance with
perfect virtue", which further could only properly be exercised in the
characteristic human community—the polis or city-state.
Although eudaimonia was first popularized by Aristotle, it
now belongs to the tradition of virtue theories generally. For
the virtue theorist, eudaimonia describes that state achieved
by the person who lives the proper human life, an outcome
that can be reached by practicing the virtues. A virtue is a
habit or quality that allows the bearer to succeed at his, her,
or its purpose. The virtue of a knife, for example, is
sharpness; among the virtues of a racehorse is speed. Thus,
to identify the virtues for human beings, one must have an
account of what the human purpose is.
HISTORY OF VIRTUE
Like much of the Western tradition, virtue theory seems to have
originated in ancient Greek philosophy.

Virtue ethics began with Socrates, and was subsequently developed

further by Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics. Virtue ethics refers to a
collection of normative ethical philosophies that place an emphasis
on being rather than doing. Another way to say this is that in virtue
ethics, morality stems from the identity or character of the individual,
rather than being a reflection of the actions (or consequences
thereof) of the individual.
Four cardinal virtues were recognized in classical antiquity and in traditional
Christian theology:
• Prudence (φρόνησις, phronēsis; Latin: prudentia; also Wisdom, Sophia,
sapientia), the to ability to discern the appropriate course of action to
be taken in a given situation at the appropriate time.
• Courage (ἀνδρεία, andreia; Latin: fortitudo): also termed fortitude,
forbearance, strength, endurance, and the ability to confront fear,
uncertainty, and intimidation
• Temperance (σωφροσύνη, sōphrosynē; Latin: temperantia): also known
as restraint, the practice of self-control, abstention, discretion, and
moderation tempering the appetition. Sōphrosynē can also be
translated as sound-mindedness.
• Justice (δικαιοσύνη, dikaiosynē; Latin: iustitia): also considered as
fairness, the most extensive and most important virtue;[1] the Greek
word also having the meaning righteousness.
LISTS OF VIRTUES
There are several different lists of particular virtues.
Socrates argued that virtue is knowledge, which suggests
that there is really only one virtue. The Stoics concurred,
claiming the four cardinal virtues were only aspects of true
virtue. John McDowell is a recent defender of this
conception. He argues that virtue is a "perceptual capacity"
to identify how one ought to act, and that all particular
virtues are merely "specialized sensitivities" to a range of
reasons for acting.
ARISTOTLE'S LIST
Aristotle identifies approximately eighteen virtues that enable a
person to perform their human function well. He distinguished
virtues pertaining to emotion and desire from those pertaining
to the mind. The first he calls "moral" virtues, and the second
intellectual virtues (though both are "moral" in the modern sense
of the word). Each moral virtue was a mean (see golden mean)
between two corresponding vices, one of excess and one of
deficiency. Each intellectual virtue is a mental skill or habit by
which the mind arrives at truth, affirming what is or denying
what is not. In the Nicomachean Ethics he discusses about 11
moral virtues:
MORAL VIRTUES
• 1. Courage in the face of fear
• 2. Temperance in the face of pleasure and pain
• 3. Liberality with wealth and possessions
• 4. Magnificence with great wealth and possessions
• 5. Magnanimity with great honors
• 6. Proper ambition with normal honors
• 7. Truthfulness with self-expression
• 8. Wittiness in conversation
• 9. Friendliness in social conduct
• 10. Modesty in the face of shame or shamelessness
• 11. Righteous indignation in the face of injury
INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES
1. Nous (intelligence), which apprehends fundamental
truths (such as definitions, self-evident principles)
2. Episteme (science), which is skill with inferential
reasoning (such as proofs, syllogisms, demonstrations)
3. Sophia (theoretical wisdom), which combines
fundamental truths with valid, necessary inferences to
reason well about unchanging truths.
ARISTOTLE ALSO MENTIONS SEVERAL OTHER TRAITS:
• Gnome (good sense) -- passing judgment, "sympathetic understanding"
• Synesis (understanding) -- comprehending what others say, does not issue
commands
• Phronesis(practical wisdom) -- knowledge of what to do, knowledge of
changing truths, issues commands
• Techne (art, craftsmanship)
Aristotle's list is not the only list, however. As Alasdair MacIntyre observed in
After Virtue, thinkers as diverse as: Homer; the authors of the New Testament;
Thomas Aquinas; and Benjamin Franklin; have all proposed lists.
Like most other ancient philosophers, Plato
maintains a virtue-based eudaemonistic
conception of ethics. That is to say, happiness or
well-being (eudaimonia) is the highest aim of
moral thought and conduct, and the virtues
(aretê: 'excellence') are the requisite skills and
dispositions needed to attain it.
WHAT IS ARISTOTLE VIRTUE ETHICS?
Virtue Ethics. A virtue ethicist is likely to give you this
kind of moral advice: “Act as a virtuous person would
act in your situation.” Most virtue ethics theories take
their inspiration from Aristotle who declared that a
virtuous person is someone who has ideal character
traits.
WHAT IS PLATO'S THEORY OF VIRTUE?
Like most other ancient philosophers, Plato
maintains a virtue-based eudaemonistic
conception of ethics. That is to say, happiness or
well-being (eudaimonia) is the highest aim of
moral thought and conduct, and the virtues
(aretê: 'excellence') are the requisite skills and
dispositions needed to attain it.
WHAT IS VIRTUE ACCORDING TO SOCRATES?
Socrates identifies knowledge with virtue. If
knowledge can be learned, so can virtue. Thus,
Socrates states virtue can be taught. He
believes “the unexamined life is not worth
living.” One must seek knowledge and wisdom
before private interests.
WHAT ARE PLATO'S FOUR VIRTUES?
In Plato's Republic, the four cardinal
virtues are wisdom, temperance,
courage and justice. These reflect the
nature of the soul. The soul has three
parts. Our reason thinks; when it does
this well, it has wisdom.
WHAT IS HAPPINESS ACCORDING TO SOCRATES?

Socrates* believed that only people with self-

knowledge could find true happiness. According
to Socrates: – Happiness flows not from physical
or external conditions, such as bodily pleasures
or wealth and power, but from living a life
that's right for your soul, your deepest good.
WHAT ARE THE ETHICS OF CONFUCIANISM?
Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue
in a morally organised world. Some of the basic
Confucian ethical concepts and practices include rén,
yì, and lǐ, and zhì. Rén (仁, "benevolence" or
"humaneness") is the essence of the human being
which manifests as compassion. It is the virtue-form of
Heaven.
 THE FIVE VIRTUES OF CONFUCIUS

1. Ren, , is the virtue of

benevolence, charity, and
humanity;
2. Yi, , of
honesty and
uprightness;
Yì may be broken down
into:
1. zhong, , doing one’s
best, conscientiousness,
loyalty
2. shù, , reciprocity,
altruism, consideration for
others, and Confucius’ early
version of the Golden Rule,
“what you don’t want
yourself, don’t do to
others.”
3. Zhi, ,
knowledge
4. Xin, , the
virtue of
faithfulness
and integrity
5. Li, , correct
behavior, or
propriety, good
manners, politeness,
ceremony, worship.