Chapter 4: FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES BEHIND OUR MORAL DISPOSITIONS

Module 9: Virtue Ethics and Applied Ethics

Introduction

This module is concerned with developing your understanding of Virtue ethics and
Applied Ethics. It is hoped that the discussion, description and explanation in this module
will further help in your journey to the understanding of ethics, especially virtue and applied
ethics which are important in helping you to become responsible moral agent. Make use of
this module to provide you with insights and ideas to help you understand virtue ethics and
applied ethics.

Learning Objectives

1. 1. Demonstrate expanded knowledge and understanding of Virtue Ethics.

2. 2. Understand, articulate and present important principles relative to the applied ethics that
are important to everyday life

Content
Preparatory Activities

Exercise

Cite examples of virtues and share your thoughts on the virtues that you
possess.

Developmental Activities

VIRTUE ETHIICS

Virtue Ethics as a moral system, places emphasis on developing good habits of character,
like kindness and generosity, and avoiding bad character traits, or vices, such as greed or
hatred. Virtue-based theories give importance to moral education which molds individuals
to habitually act in a virtuous manner. Focusing on the character of the agent, virtue ethics
describes right actions as those chosen and performed by a suitably virtuous person.

Definition of Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics is a broad term for theories that emphasize the role of character and virtue in
moral philosophy rather than either doing one’s duty or acting in order to bring about good
consequences. A virtue ethicist is likely to give you this kind of moral advice: “Act as a
virtuous person would act in your situation.”

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Socrates and Plato's Moral Philosophy

Since Plato wrote down and essentially adhered to Socrates' philosophy, it is

practical for us to treat their ethical theories jointly here. In the dialogue "Gorgias" written
by Plato, Socrates indicates that pleasure and pain fail to provide an objective standard for
determining moral from immoral since they do not exist apart from one another, while good
and evil do. In Euthypro, Socrates asks Euthypro whether something is good because the
gods love it, or whether the gods love it because it is good. Socrates' point is that what is
good has a certain independence from the whims of the gods' determination of the
rightness of our actions and mores.

Central to Plato's Philosophy is his Theory of Forms - The objectively existing

immaterial entities that are the proper object of knowledge. Everything in the material world
is what it is by virtue of its resemblance to, or participation in, this universal form or Idea.
For Plato, those who comprehend the Good will always do good actions. Bad actions are
performed out of not knowing the Good. To know the Good, nonetheless, requires an
austere and intellectually meticulous way of life.

Aristotle’s Ethics
- Three general descriptions, which are interrelated, can be used to depict aristotle’s ethics.
1. Self Realizationism

2. Eudaimonistic

3. Aretaic

• Act Oriented Ethics

• Virtue Ethics

- A ‘Telos’ is an end or purpose. Aristotle believes that the essence or essential nature of
beings, including humans, lay not at their cause (or beginning) but at their end (‘telos’)

Happiness And Virtues

Aristotle believes that the ultimate human goal is self-realization. This entails achieving
one’s natural purpose by functioning or living consistently with human nature.
Accomplishing it, produces happiness; whereas inability to realize it leads to sadness,
frustration, and ultimately to poor life. It therefore behooves us to act in accordance with
our nature so as to be content and complete.

Aristotle identifies three natures of man: the vegetable or physical, animal or emotional,
and rational or mental. As previously explained, the thing that distinguishes humans from
all other creatures is the rational nature or the ability to reason. Rational development is
thus deemed the most important, as it is uniquely human. Accordingly, living in accordance
with reason is viewed as vital in self realization or developing one’s potential.

Ethics, for Aristotle, is the inquiry into the human good. This is to say that the purpose of
studying ethics is to make ourselves good, though Aristotle assumes that we already want
to become good. This human good is ‘eudaimonia’ or happiness.

Aristotle observed that wise persons seek an end that is self-sufficient, final, and attainable
over one’s life. This end is happiness which all human beings want. Aristotle also considers
happiness as the summum bonum – the greatest good of all human life. He adds that it is
the only intrinsic good, that is, the good that is pursued for it’s own sake. While all other
things, such as pleasure, wealth, and honor are merely means to an end, happiness is

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man’s ultimate goal as it is an end in itself.

Virtue as Habit
- Aristotle's idea of happiness should also be understood in the sense of human
flourishing. This flourishing is attained by the habitual practice of moral and
intellectual excellences or 'virtues’.

- Aristotle said your Character is developed through HABITUATION.

- Moral virtue is an expression of character, formed by habits reflecting repeated
choices.

- Moral virtue is the golden mean between the two less desirables extreme.
Deficiency Golden Mean Excess
*Cowardice *Courage *Tactless Rashness
*Stinginess *Generosity *Prodigality
*extreme frugality *Temperance *Gluttony

Phronesis And Practice

Phronesis or Practical wisdom is a grasp of appropriate way to respond, to feel and act in a
particular situation.

An Evaluation Of The Greek Philosophers' Ethical Theories

- We can say that Socrates and Plato, based on their ethical theory, advocate a positive
view of man. Their Philosophy implies that human beings who behave immorally do so out
of ignorance of the Good. And that no person is willingly bad.
► Concerning this, we can however comment that punishing bad deeds has no place in
their theory, since bad actions are not blameworthy in the strict sense, Perseverance is
encouraged in their view as it is held that knowing the Good-the key not to engage in bad
actions- demands an abstinent and intellectually painstaking way of life.
Being moral, virtuous and just is equated with being knowledgeable of the Good, as it is
claimed that those who know the right will act rightly, In addition, morality is essentially
linked to happiness.
“Why I should be moral?”
► The just person is said to be the truly happy one - far happier than the wicked, whatever
material advantages the unjust person enjoys, and no matter difficulties or poor status the
moral person suffers. This ethnical theory inspires people to be moral as it teaches that
morality is a recipe to real happiness.
► Against Plato’s Form, the usual comment is that there could be no such thing, and that
even if there were, It would be of no help in ethical inquiry into the good for human beings.
► Aristotle considers virtue not as innate or something taught by a teacher to a student,
but that which is acquired by practice and lost by disue.

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►Aristotle’s ethics therefore can be deemed better for it distinguishes “doing right” from
“knowing right”.
► Aristotle could also better explain accountability and responsibility. He believes that
when we do something we know to be wrong, we are held responsible for our actions.
Mistakes are anticipated in Aristotle’s view and acknowledged as learning opportunities.
► Aristotle’s doctrine of practical wisdom in determining what is good for someone in a
particular instance opens the door to bias, prejudice, and subjectivism
Being virtuous for Aristotle denotes doing what is right, to the right person, at the right
moment, in the appropriate amount, in the correct manner, for the right reason.

Thomas Aquinas' Ethics

5 Aquinas' Laws

Eternal Law - Rational plan of God by which all creation is ordered

► Human Law - The aspect of the Eternal law which is accessible to human reason
► Natural Law - Refers to positive laws, more exact and forceful provisions.
► Divine Law - Serves to complement the other types of law.
► Natural inclinations - (1) To survive (2) To reproduce and educate offspring (3) To love
► 3 Aspects
1. Species - What kind of an action it is. There ar 3 types. Good, Bad and Indifferent
Neutral.

2. Accidents - Simply refers to the circumstances surrounding the action.

3. End - Stands for the agents intention.

► Aquinas ethical theory states that for an action to be moral, the kinds it must belong to
must not be bad, the circumstances must be appropriate, and the intention must be
virtuous.

Happiness, Moral Virtues And Theological Virtues

► A habit is a "hard to eradicate" quality

2 types of Habits
1. Acquired - The autonomous will of the person plays a huge role in acquired habits.

2. Infused- Directly instilled by God in our faculties.

► 2 Types of Infused Virtues

1. Moral- Activities that are less virtuous and inferior to the final end.

To this kind belongs Prudence, Fortitude, Temperance and Justice

1. Theological- Are concerned directly with God.

The virtues of Faith, Hope and Love serve to attune us to our final end.

AN ANALYSIS OF THOMISTIC ETHICS

• Thomas Aquinas is a REALIST (Realism)
• Virtue Ethicist
• Definitely against contemporary moral philosophies
• Incompatible with Nihilism

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 • Irreconcilable with relativism and conventionalism
• Against with Absolute Skepticism
• He is more of Deontologist or Kantian than Utilitarianism
• “Do good, avoid evil, pursue knowledge, and live at peace with our neighbors”
• Aquinas is looking for middle ground.
• Trying to compromise.

Applied Ethics philosophically examines specific, controversial moral issues. Using

philosophical methods, this area of concern in Ethics attempts to determine the ethically
correct course of action in specific realms of human action.
For a subject to be considered as an applied ethical issue, not only must it be a
matter of moral judgment, but also it has to be controversial. That is, there must be
considerable groups of people both for and against the issue.
Applied ethical issues nowadays are classified into various subfields.

Bioethics

This concerns ethical issues pertaining to life, biomedical, researches, medicines,

health care, and medical profession. As such, it deals with controversies like those about
surrogate mothering, genetic manipulation of fetuses, stem cell research, using
human embryos in research, in-vitro fertilization, abortion, euthanasia, suicide, patient
rights, confidentiality of patient’s records, physician’s responsibilities and mandatory
medical screening.

Environmental Ethics

It deals with moral issues concerning nature, ecosystem and its nonhuman contents.
This includes issues such as animal rights, animal experimentation, endangered species
preservation, pollution control, and sustainable development.

Business Ethics
It examines moral principles concerning business environment which involves issues about
corporate practices, policies, business behaviors, and the conducts and relationships of
individuals in the organizations. It investigates ethical controversies such as those about
the social responsibility of business, employee rights, harassment, labor unions, misleading
advertising, job discrimination, and whistle blowing.

Sexual Ethics
It studies moral issues about sexuality and human sexual behavior. It examines topics like
homosexuality, lesbianism, polygamy, pre-marital sex, marital fidelity, extra-marital sex,
non-marital procreation, loveless sexual relations, safe sex, and contraceptive use.

Social Ethics
It deals with what is right for a society to do and how it should act as a whole. Its focus is
on what may be deemed as proper behavior for people as a whole. Some of the issues
under this are those about racial discrimination, death penalty, nuclear weapon production,
gun control, drug use for fun, and welfare rights.

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 Closure Activities (place your answer on p. 103

1. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this module.
2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you feel right now on
finishing this module.
3. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can contribute in developing
your moral behaviour.

Synthesis/Generalization

Virtue Ethics as a moral system, places emphasis on developing good habits of

character, like kindness and generosity, and avoiding bad character traits, or vices, such as
greed or hatred. Virtue-based theories give importance to moral education which molds
individuals to habitually act in a virtuous manner. Focusing on the character of the agent,
virtue ethics describes right actions as those chosen and performed by a suitably virtuous
person.

Applied Ethics philosophically examines specific, controversial moral issues.

Using philosophical methods, this area of concern in Ethics attempts to determine the
ethically correct course of action in specific realms of human action.

Assignment

Present an individual case for three of the applied ethics presented above and make your
reflections about them.

References:

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and Educators,
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Ardales, V. B.(1987) Introductory Text to Philosophy. Quezon City: Great Books

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Babor, E. R. (1999) Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action, 1 st ed. Manila,

Philippines, Rex
Book Store.

Cruz, C. C. (1995) Contemporary Ethics. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

De Guzman J.M et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern

Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, inc.

Dela Torre, J. (1993) Ethics: The man’s Tool for the Development of Sound
Professional and Civil Life. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc. `

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Dy Jr., M B. (1986) Philosophy of Man: Selected Readings. Manila: Goodwill
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Glen, Paul J. (1965) Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (reprint) Manila:
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Montemayor, F. M.(1994) Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila, Philippines:

National Book Store

____________.(1995) Introduction to Philosophy Through the Philosophy of Man.

2nd ed. Manila: National Book Store, Inc.

Panizo, A., O.P. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy. Manila: UST Textbook Series

Robles, G. S. (1994) Everyday Ethics. Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc.

http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/ethics/

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