Aristotle's Ethics

VIRTUE AND THE GOLDEN MEAN

Virtue refers to the excellence of moral or intellect character
The golden mean is a tool to gauge where virtue falls between two vices, excess and deficiency.
Virtue of Intellect - It is the first that corresponds to the fully rational part of the soul.
Moral Virtue - It pertains to the part of the rational soul which obey reason.
Four Basic Moral Virtues
COURAGE The golden mean between cowardice
(deficiency) and tactless rashness (excess).

TEMPERANCE Is the mean between gluttony (excess) and

extreme frugality (deficiency).

JUSTICE Is the virtue of giving others right what they

deserve neither more nor less.

PRUDENCE Is the intellectual virtue that guides the choice

of means to achieve good ends.

Why we should be moral?

 generosity
 honesty
 kindness
 sincerity
 empathy
 trustworthy
Phronesis and Practice
 Phronesis is the intellectual virtue of practical wisdom, is the kind of moral knowledge that
guides us to what is appropriate in conjunction with moral virtue.
 It is a grasp of the appropriate way to respond to feel and to act in a practical situation.
 But acting appropriately to the right prescription should be understood in terms of practice,
training, or cultivation.
Virtue refers to the excellence of moral or intellect character which has two kinds such as the
virtue of intellect and moral virtue wherein there are four basic moral virtues and these are
courage, temperance, justice, and prudence. Moreover, the golden mean is defined as the ideal
middle ground between two extremes, which are excess and deficiency. Furthermore, phronesis
or also known as practical wisdom is the kind of moral understanding that directs us to act in
accordance with moral virtue. Lastly, being virtuous one is that we can learn and practice this until
we adopt and become a habit of our own nature.
Aristotle’s Ethics
 At least two of Aristotle’s works specifically concern morality, the Eudemian Ethics, and
Nicomachean Ethics. Since only a few have studied the former, the Nicomachean Ethics has
been regarded as the Ethics of Aristotle since the beginning of the Christian era.
3 General Description which can be used to depict Aristotle’s Ethics
1. Self-realizationism -in his philosophy, when someone acts in line with his nature or end
(‘telos’) and thus realizes his full potential, he does moral and will be happy.
2. Eudaimonistic - In Aristotle’s view it is a type of known as “eudaimonistic” It focuses on
happiness (eudaimonia).
3. Aretaic - A virtue-based
Aristotle’s Telos
Telos - in Greek word means an end, purpose or goal.
Aristotle believes that the essential nature of beings, including humans, lay not at their cause or
beginning but rather at their end or telos.
Happiness and Virtue
 Aristotle believes that the ultimate human goal is self-realization.
 Aristotle connects happiness to virtues, as he explained in terms of activities manifesting the
virtues. Human good is the activity of the soul in accordance with excellence or virtue.
Aristotle’s happiness, therefore, is not much of a subjective feeling of well-being but human
well-being itself, being the human good.
 Aristotle identifies three natures of man: the vegetable or physical, animal or emotional,
rational or mental
 Aristotle observed that wise persons seek an end that is self-sufficient, final, and attainable
over one’s life. This end is happiness which all human beings want. Aristotle also considers
happiness at the summum buonum - the greatest good of all human life. He adds that it is the
only intrinsic good that is the good pursued for its own sake.
Virtue and Habit
 Aristotle’s idea of happiness should also be understood in the sense of human flourishing. This
flourishing is attained by the habitual practice of moral and intellectual excellences, or virtues.
 Related to self-realization, acting in line with virtues is acting in accordance with reason. The
function of human being, accordingly consists in activities which manifest the best states of
his rational aspect that is the virtues.
 Moral virtue for Aristotle, is the only practical road to effective action. The virtues person,
who has a good character, sees truly, judges rightly and acts morally.
An Evaluation of Greek Philosophers' Ethical Theories
3 Main Philosophers
1. Socrates
2. Plato
3. Aristotle
Ethical Theories
Socrates: Self-knowledge is a sufficient condition to the good life. Socrates identifies knowledge
with virtue. If knowledge can be learned, so can virtue. Thus, Socrates states virtue can be taught.
Plato: Happiness or well-being is the highest aim of moral thought & conduct. Virtues are the
requisite skills & dispositions needed to attain it.
Socrates and Plato’s Ethical Theory
Socrates and Plato's philosophy implies that human beings who behave immorally do so out of
ignorance of the good.
Aristotle’s Ethical Theory
Aristotle considers virtue not as something taught by a teacher to a student, but that which is
acquired by practice and lost by disuse.
Defect Mean Excess
Cowardliness Courage Rashness
Frugal Giving Liberal

Thomas Aquinas' Ethics (The Natural Law)

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
 Angelic Doctor and the Prince of Scholastics
 Depends heavily on Aristotle.
 Believes that all actions are directed towards ends and that happiness is the final end.
"Everything in nature was constantly changing and moving. This movement was all towards its
specific purpose." (Aristotle)
"God created world in goal-driven manner where everything was following strict natural laws to
fulfill its specific purpose." (Aquinas)
What is Law?
An ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by someone who has care of the
community.
Four Primary Types of Law
1. Eternal Law - refers to the rational plan of God by which all is ordered
2. Natural Law - accessible to human reason
3. Human Law - refers to the positive laws
4. Divine Law - focused on man can be inwardly holy and eventually attain salvation
The closer an action approaches our end, the more moral it is; the further it departs, the more
immoral.
Features of Human Action according to Thomas Aquinas
 Species of an action refers to its kind. It is also called the object of the action. Human deeds
divided into kinds.
 Accidents - refers to the circumstances surrounding the action.
 End - the agent’s intention.
Aquinas believes that all action are directed towards end and that happiness is the final ends.
Habit
1. Acquired Habits – The autonomous will of a person plays.
2. Infused Habits – directly instilled by our God in our faculties. These virtues are divine
gifts and there are two kinds of infused habits:
1. Moral Virtues – Prudence, Fortitude, Temperance, and Justice
2. Theological Virtues – Faith, Hope, and Love
Analysis of Thomistic Ethics
The goodness or badness of an action lies in the interior act of will, in the external bodily act, in
the very nature of the act, and even in its consequences. Moreover, morality is not only what one
actually does but also his intention in doing the act.
Being relatively complex but generally sensible, Thomistic ethics, does not fall into just one neat
contemporary category of moral theory.
DEONTOLOGIST OR KANTIAN - He did not give emphasis on the result of actions in his so-
called features of actions. Thus, we can say that he is a deontologist or Kantian.
UTILITARIANISM - his basic tenet that actions must be directed to what is good somehow
relates his theory to utilitarianism and consequentialism in general.
VIRTUE ETHICIST
- Aquinas advocate the roles played by virtues in morality like Aristotle
- But while Aquinas is in many ways Aristotelian, he rejects the belief normally ascribed to
Aristotle that there are no universally true general principles of morality. Aquinas' doctrine
of natural law categorically discards wholesale particularism.
UNIVERSALIST - Aquinas believes that some basic principles about morality are in fact
knowable by all.
Some Contemporary Moral Philosophies against Aquinas' Notion of the Natural Law
 Nihilism - view that denies the existence of values. Relativism - state that values are
completely relative to one's culture.
 Conventionalism - state that values are determined completely by mere convention.
Absolute skepticism refers to the notion that we cannot absolutely know anything to be
either true or false
Kantian Ethics
Immanuel Kant
- Is an avid defender of deontological theory.
- He is regarded as among the greatest and most influential of Western philosophers.
“Moral acts are either right or wrong on principle, and we have a duty to do good no matter
the circumstance.”
 Kant categorically rejects those ethical judgments are based on feelings.
 His ethical theory instead bases moral judgments on reason alone.
 Reason, for him is what deems an action ethical or otherwise.
 Lies are morally wrong
Good Will
 Kant believes that when we wish to determine the moral status of an action, we would
consult reason. An act either accords with reason or it does not. If it accords with reason,
we must do it, if not we must not do it.
 Kant does not agree with many ethicists that happiness is the summum bonum or the
highest good.
 Happiness, for him can be corrupting and may be worthless or even positively evil when
not combined with a good will.
 Inclination refers to the feeling that pushes us to select a particular option or make a
particular decision. It is our liking or tendency to do, favor, or want something.
 A duty or obligation on the other hand is that which we ought to do despite our inclination
or taste to do otherwise.
 Kant believes that we act morally only when we restrain our feelings and inclinations and
do that which we obliged to do. Morality as Kant sees, it is essentially connected with
duties and obligations. For Kant, these actions determined by wishers, passions, appetites,
desires and the like have no moral worth.
Categorical Imperatives
It is one's duty as a rational being to act on principle or maxim, as contrasted to simply acting on
impulse.
1. action on maxim
2. action on impulse
TWO KINDS OF IMPERATIVE
1. Hypothetical imperatives identify actions we ought to take, but only if we have some particular
goal. Kant means that the commands depend upon the goals to be fulfilled. They are contingent
and derivative.
2. Categorical imperatives specify actions we ought to take regardless of whether doing so would
enable us to get anything we want. It commands a person to act in particular ways regardless of
what goals one looks for or what one's ends may be. Kant provides various formulations: the
universalizability and end in itself formulations.
RIGHTS THEORY
IMMANUEL KANT - proposed the principle of rights.
PRINCIPLE OF RIGHTS THEORY
The idea is that in order for a society to be efficacious, government must approach the making and
enforcement of laws with the right intentions in respect to the end goals of the society that it
governs.
RIGHTS BASED ETHICS
There are some rights, both positive and negative, that all humans have based only on the fact that
they are human. It can be natural or conventional.
EXAMPLES OF RIGHTS BASED ETHICS SYSTEM
The right ….
 to life
 to liberty
 to pursue happiness
 to a jury trial
 to a lawyer
 to freely practice a religion of choice
Legal Right
It denote to all the rights found within existing legal codes. They enjoy the recognition and
protection of the law.
I.e. Right to an adequate education, right to vote, right to equal protection of the laws
Moral Rights
Exist prior to and independently from their legal counterparts. Its existence and validity is not
deemed dependent upon actions of jurists and legislators.
I.e. Right not to be discriminated against on grounds of colour, race, sex, or religion.
Rights theory states that the rights of the society are protected and given the highest priority.

John Stuart Mill's Utilitarianism

 Famous Proponent of Utilitarianism
 Student of Bentham
 He made the doctrine the subject of his philosophical treatise, published in 1863
 'Greatest happiness principle'. It is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the
measure of right or wrong.
 It opposes the Moral Rule Book
"It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied
than a fool satisfied.”
Qualitative Hedonist
He opposes Bentham's quantitative hedonist because according to Mill, there is happiness that is
made up principally of higher pleasures and it has a deeper, truer and more meaningful. He believe
Epicurus who explained that while the good or happy life is the life of pleasure, it doesn't only
means sensual pleasure.
 LOWER PLEASURE - These are physical pleasure which includes pleasant experiences
from food, drink or those which animals can experience as well.
 HIGHER PLEASURE – These are the intellectual pleasure such as artistic, political, and
spiritual pleasures.
Secondary Principle
Past experiences teaches us which kinds of action promote happiness and which do not. These
principles, which are based on the history of human experience, would save us from doing taxing
utilitarian calculations every time we act. Secondary serves as practical rules, giving knowledge
about the tendencies of actions when no better information is available.
Analysis of Utilitarianism
 It appears to be a negative reaction against Kantian ethics.
 It inspires and encourages people to act morally, even if one doesn't believe in an afterlife.
 It allows for exceptions to the rule if justified by the consequences.
 People doesn't have time to compute pleasure or pain in an immediate decision.
 Secondary Principle doesn't guarantee to produce the same out come from the past experiences.
 People will do everything to gain pleasure even if it is wrong.
 Act is right even if it is done from evil motives as long as it brings about advantages effect.
Business Fascination with Utilitarianism
In an organizational context, utilitarianism basically teaches that a decision regarding business
conduct is proper if and only if that decision generates the greatest good for the greatest number
of persons. Good is typically defined as the net benefits that accrue to those parties affected by the
choice. Moral choice must be evaluated by calculating the net benefits of each available alternative
action.
MAXIMIZE HAPPINESS = MAXIMIZE PROFIT
GREATEST GOOD = HIGHEST PROFITABILITY
WIN-LOSE SITUATION

Utilitarianism
Adheres to the belief that "an act is good or morally right if it promotes happiness, and bad
or immoral if it tends to produce pain.”
- Derived from Latin word term Utilize which mean Useful
- State that what is useful is good and that moral value of actions is determined by the utility
of their consequence
- The most influential consequentialist theory.
- Known as a consequentialist theory, a subclass of teleological moral theory.
- A teleological ethical system judges the rightness of an act in terms of an external goal or
purpose.
- To do rests exclusively on the consequences of the act, not the nature of the act nor the
traditional moral rules
- Explains that actions that bring about favorable effects are moral while those that produce
damaging results are immoral.
- The conscience, to be the final arbiter of morality.
Rule Utilitarianism
 The principle of utility is used to decide the validity of rules of conduct (moral standard or
principles).
 Rule utilitarianism explains that following a moral code of principles is the most efficient
way to create greater good to humanity.
Act Utilitarianism
 The principle of utility is applied directly to every alternative act in situation of choice.
 Act utilitarianism emphasizes the consequences/results
Utilitarianism determines the moral value of an act by calculating the sum of pleasure it caused,
and the amount of pain generated. Remember that a moral deed is that which maximizes benefits
and minimizes damages or costs. Therefore, the one moral act to carry out, in any case, is that
which can be sensibly seen to afford the greatest net benefit, when the projected costs are deducted
from the anticipated benefits.

ANALYSIS OF UTILITARIANISM
WHAT IS UTILITARIANISM?
 Theory in the field of ethics which contends that moral actions are those which produce
the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
 Allows exceptions to the rule if justified by the consequences.
 Indicates that an act is right even if it is done from an evil motive as long as it brings about
advantageous effects.
ACTIONS ARE EVALUATED THROUGH THEIR CONSEQUENCES
BENTHAM THEORY - AN ACT IS WARRANTED IF THAT COURSE OF ACTION WILL
GENERATE THE GREATEST PLEASURE FOR THE GREATEST NUMBER
MILL’S THEORY - AN ACT IS WARRANTED IF THAT COURSE OF ACTION WILL
GENERATE THE GREATEST HAPPINESS FOR THE GREATEST NUMBER
IMMANUEL KANT ETHICS
CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
 organized around the notion of a “categorical imperative,” which is a universal ethical
principle stating that one should always respect the humanity in others, and that one should
only act in accordance with rules that could hold for everyone.
 An act is justified by the person’s motive to perform his duty
 Act is transgressing an exception less rule.
NEGATIVE CRITICISM OF UTILITARIANISM:
 It is not easy to foresee with certainty the consequences of actions.
 An act may have an advantageous immediate effects, yet its long-range effects may be
extremely detrimental/complicated.
 May also bring about complications or self-interest by giving moral importance exclusively to
the consequences of actions.
“A RIGHT ACTION IS ONE THAT YIELDS FAVORABLE OUTCOMES” Utilitarianism
Core Dictum
“A SOCIETY IN WHICH ALL PEOPLE FROM EVIL MOTIVES IS CREEPY PLACE TO LIVE
IN REGARDLESS OF THE CONSEQUENCES OF THEIR ACTION” topic insight.