The fields of a charged particle in hyperbolic motion

Joel Franklina) and David J. Griffithsb)

Department of Physics, Reed College, Portland, Oregon 97202
(Received 13 February 2014; accepted 24 April 2014)
A particle in hyperbolic motion produces electric fields that appear to terminate in mid-air,
violating Gauss’s law. The resolution to this paradox has been known for sixty years but exactly
why the naive approach fails is not so clear. VC 2014 American Association of Physics Teachers.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.4875195]

I. INTRODUCTION 1
u ¼ c^r ' v ¼ ðcr ' rvÞ; (4)
r
In special relativity, a particle of mass m subject to a con-
c2 t r
stant force F undergoes “hyperbolic motion”: v ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ^z ; (5)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi b2 þ ðctr Þ2
zðtÞ ¼ b2 þ ðctÞ2 ; (1)
and
2
where b % mc =F. The particle flies in from infinity along ðbcÞ2
(say) the z-axis, comes to rest at z(0) ¼ b, and returns to infin- a ¼ $qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi%3 ^z : (6)
ity; its velocity approaches 6c asymptotically as t ! 61 2
b2 þ ðctr Þ
(Fig. 1).
Because information cannot travel faster than the speed of
light, the region below the main diagonal (z ¼ –ct) is igno- The retarded time tr is defined in general by
rant of the particle’s existence—the particle is “over the r ¼ cðt ' tr Þ; (7)
horizon.” For someone at the origin it first comes into view
at t ¼ 0. If the particle is electrically charged, its fields are but for the moment we’ll assume t ¼ 0 (so tr is negative). Then
necessarily zero for all z < 0, at time t ¼ 0. But the electric $ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi%2
field for z > 0 is not zero, and as we shall see the field lines ðctr Þ ¼ x þ z ' b2 þ ðctr Þ2
2 2
appear to terminate in mid-air at the xy-plane.1 This would
violate Gauss’s law; it cannot be true. Our task is to locate qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
the error and fix it.2 ¼ x2 þ z2 ' 2z b2 þ ðctr Þ2 þ b2 þ ðctr Þ2 ; (8)
In Sec. II, we calculate the electric field of a charge q in
hyperbolic motion, at time t ¼ 0. A plot of the field lines and hence
shows that they do not go continuously to zero at the xy-
plane. In Sec. III, we explore the case of “truncated” hyper-
bolic motion (hyperbolic motion back to time t ¼ –t0,
adjoined to constant velocity for earlier times). In this case,
the field lines make a sharp turn as they approach the
xy-plane, and there is no violation of Gauss’s law. In Sec.
IV, we work out the potentials for a charge in hyperbolic
motion, finding once again that we must adjoin “by hand” a
term inspired by the truncated case. In Sec. V, we ask how
the naive calculations missed the extra term, and conclude
with the puzzle unresolved. Appendices A and B supply
some algebraic details, and Appendix C examines the radia-
tion from a charge in hyperbolic motion; surprisingly, the
“extra” terms do not contribute.

II. ELECTRIC FIELD OF A CHARGE IN

HYPERBOLIC MOTION
We begin by calculating the electric field at the point
r ¼ (x, 0, z), with z > 0. According to the standard formula,3
q r " 2 #
Eðr; tÞ ¼ 3
ðc ' v2 Þu þ r ( ðu ( aÞ ; (2)
4p!0 ðr & uÞ

where
$ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi%
r ¼ x x^ þ z ' b2 þ ðctr Þ2 ^z ; (3)
Fig. 1. Hyperbolic motion.

755 Am. J. Phys. 82 (8), August 2014 http://aapt.org/ajp C 2014 American Association of Physics Teachers
V 755
 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 even though the pillbox encloses no charge. Something is
ctr ¼ ' ðx2 þ z2 þ b2 Þ2 ' ð2zbÞ2 : (9) obviously amiss—we appear to have lost a crucial piece of
2z
the field at z ¼ 0.
Putting all this together and simplifying gives
III. TRUNCATED HYPERBOLIC MOTION
qb2 ðz2 ' x2 ' b2 Þ ^z þ ð2xzÞ x ^
Eðx; 0; zÞ ¼ $qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi%3 : (10) Suppose the acceleration does not extend all the way back
p!0
ðz2 þ x2 þ b2 Þ2 ' ð2zbÞ2 to t ¼ '1 but begins at time t0 ¼ 'ab=c (for some a > 0),
when the particle was at
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
That is for z > 0, of course; for z < 0 the field is zero. In zðt0 Þ ¼ b 1 þ a2 ; (14)
cylindrical coordinates ðs; /; zÞ, then4
and its velocity was
qb2 ðz2 ' s2 ' b2 Þ ^z þ 2z s
Eðs; /; zÞ ¼ $qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi%3 hðzÞ; ac
p!0 vðt0 Þ ¼ ' pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ^z ; (15)
ðz2 þ s2 þ b2 Þ2 ' ð2zbÞ2 1 þ a2
(11) prior to t0 the velocity was constant. In other words, replace
Eq. (1) with
where hðzÞ is the step function (1 if z > 0, otherwise 0). This
8
field is plotted in Fig. 2; the field lines are circles, centered > 1
>
on the s axis and passing through the instantaneous position < pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2 ðb ' actÞ ðt < t0 ¼ 'ab=cÞ
>
1þa
of the charge. zðtÞ ¼ (16)
As required by Gauss’s law, r & E ¼ 0 for all z > 0 >
> qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
: b2 þ ðctÞ 2
(except at the point s ¼ 0, z ¼ b, where the charge is located). ðt ) t0 Þ:
However, E is plainly not divergenceless at the xy-plane,
where the field lines terminate in mid-air. Indeed, the field At time t ¼ 0, for all points outside a sphere of radius
immediately to the right of the z ¼ 0 plane is r ¼ 'ct0 ¼ ab, centered at z(t0), the field is that of a charge
moving at constant velocity—the “flattened” Heaviside field5
qb2 1 radiating from the place q would p have reached, had it contin-
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Eðs; /; 0þ Þ ¼ ' ^z ; (12)
p!0 ðs2 þ b2 Þ2 ued on its original flight plan ðb= 1 þ a2 Þ:

and the flux of E through a cylindrical Gaussian “pillbox” of q 1 ' ðv=cÞ2 R

E¼ : (17)
radius r, centered at the origin and straddling the plane, with 4p!0 ½1 ' ðv=cÞ2 sin2 h+3=2 R3
infinitesimal thickness, is 'pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (
ð ð $ 2 % The left edge of the sphere is at 1 þ a2 ' a b (which is
qb2 r 1 q r always positive, but goes to zero as a ! 1). Inside the
E & da ¼ ' 2ps ds ¼ ' ;
p!0 0 ðs2 þ b2 Þ2 !0 r 2 þ b2 sphere, where news of the acceleration has been received,
(13) the field is given by Eq. (11) (Fig. 3). The field lines

Fig. 2. Field of a charged particle in hyperbolic motion at t ¼ 0 (particle at

z ¼ b). Fig. 3. Field lines for truncated hyperbolic motion (b ¼ 1, a ¼ 12=5).

756 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 82, No. 8, August 2014 Joel Franklin and David J. Griffiths 756
evidently join up in a thin layer at the surface of the sphere, sum of these fields that gives Eq. (20). The true field of a
representing the brief interval during which the motion charge in hyperbolic motion is evidently7
switches from uniform to hyperbolic.
As alpha increases (that is, as t0 recedes into the more dis- qb2 ðz2 ' s2 ' b2 Þ ^z þ 2z s
tant past), the radius of the sphere increases, and its left sur- Eðs; /; zÞ ¼ $qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi%3 hðzÞ
p!0
face flattens out against the xy-plane. Meanwhile, the ðz2 þ s2 þ b2 Þ2 ' ð2zbÞ2
“outside” field compresses into a disk perpendicular to the
motion, and squeezes also onto the xy-plane. The complete q s
þ dðzÞ;
field lines now execute a 908 turn at z ¼ 0, as required to res- 2p!0 s2 þ b2
cue Gauss’s law. Indeed, for a ! 1 the constant velocity (21)
portion of the field approaches that of a point charge moving
at speed c:6 and it does not look like Fig. 2, but rather Fig. 5.
q s As a check, let’s calculate the divergence of E. Writing
E0 ðs; /; zÞ ¼ dðzÞ: (18) E ¼ Eh hðzÞ þ Ed (in an obvious notation), we have
2p!0 s2
r & ½Eh hðzÞ+ ¼ ðr & Eh ÞhðzÞ þ Eh & ½rðhÞ+: (22)
Using the same Gaussian pillbox as before, this field yields
ð ð The first term gives q=!0 , for the point charge q at z ¼ b; as
q r q
E0 & da ¼ ð2prÞ dðzÞ dz ¼ : (19) for the second term,
2p!0 r 2 !0
@h
rhðzÞ ¼ ^z ¼ dðzÞ ^z ; (23)
This is appropriate, of course—had the particle continued at @z
its original velocity (c), it would now be inside the box (at
the origin). so
Awkwardly, however, this is not what was needed to can- r & ½Eh hðzÞ+
cel the flux from the hyperbolic part of the field [Eq. (13)].
For that purpose the field on the xy-plane should have been q qb2 ðz2 ' s2 ' b2 Þ
¼ þ h i3=2 dðzÞ
!0 p!0
q s ðz2 þ s2 þ b2 Þ2 ' ð2zbÞ2
Eðs; /; zÞ ¼ dðzÞ: (20)
2p!0 s2 þ b2 q qb2 1
¼ ' dðzÞ: (24)
It must be that the “connecting” field in the spherical shell !0 p!0 ðs2 þ b2 Þ2
(the field produced during the transition from uniform to
Meanwhile,
hyperbolic motion), which (in the limit) coincides with the xy-
plane and which we have ignored, accounts for the difference, ) *
q s
as suggested in Fig. 4. The net field in the xy-plane consists of r & Ed ¼ r& 2 dðzÞ
two parts: the field E0 due to the portion of the motion at con- 2p!0 s þ b2
) 2 *
stant velocity, given (in the limit a ! 1) by Eq. (18), and the q 1@ s
connecting field that joins it to the hyperbolic part. It is the ¼ dðzÞ (25)
2p!0 s @s s2 þ b2

so

Fig. 4. Truncated hyperbolic motion for large a, showing the “connecting”

field. Fig. 5. Field of a particle in hyperbolic motion (corrected).

757 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 82, No. 8, August 2014 Joel Franklin and David J. Griffiths 757
 q b2 q 1 v
r & Ed ¼ dðzÞ: (26) Vðr; tÞ ¼ ; Aðr; tÞ ¼ Vðr; tÞ;
p!0 ðs2 þ b2 Þ2 4p!0 ½r ' ðr & vÞ=c+ c2
(28)
This is just right to cancel the extra term in r & ½Eh hðzÞ+, and
Gauss’s law is sustained: where r and v are evaluated at the retarded time tr. For the
q point r ¼ (s, z),
r&E¼ : (27)
!0
'1
Tr ¼ ½Tðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ
IV. POTENTIAL FORMULATION 2ðT 2 ' z2 Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A. Li!enard-Wiechert potentials ' z 4b2 ðT 2 ' z2 Þ þ ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ2 + (29)
The truncated hyperbolic problem guided us to the “extra”
(delta-function) term in Eq. (21), but it does not explain how we (T % ct and Tr % ctr ).9 This is for z > 'T; as we approach
missed that term in the first place. Did it perhaps get lost in going the horizon ðz ! 'TÞ, the retarded time goes to '1, and
from the potentials to the fields? Let’s work out the Li!enard- for z < 'T there is no solution with T > Tr .
Wiechert potentials,8 and calculate the field more carefully: The scalar potential is

2 3
q 1 zðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ
V¼ 4 T ' q ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi 5hðT þ zÞ; (30)
4p!0 ðT 2 ' z2 Þ
4b2 ðT 2 ' z2 Þ þ ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ2

and the vector potential is

2 3
q 1 Tðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ
A¼ 4z ' qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi5hðT þ zÞ ^z : (31)
4p!0 c ðT 2 ' z2 Þ
4b2 ðT 2 ' z2 Þ þ ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ2

The electric field is

8 9
@A qb2 < 2z s ' ðs2 ' z2 þ b2 þ T 2 Þ ^z =
E ¼ 'rV ' ¼ h i3=2 hðT þ zÞ (32)
@t p!0 : ;
4b2 ðT 2 ' z2 Þ þ ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ2

which reduces to Eq. (21)—without the extra term—when t ¼ 0. Notice that the derivatives of the theta function contribute
nothing (we use an overbar to denote the potentials shorn of their h’s):

2 3
" " q 1 ðT þ zÞðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ
'dðT þ zÞðV þ cA z Þ ¼ ' dðT þ zÞ 2 4ðT þ zÞ ' qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi5
4p!0 ðT ' z2 Þ
4b2 ðT 2 ' z2 Þ þ ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ2
" #
q dðT þ zÞ ðs2 þ b2 Þ
¼' 1' 2 ¼ 0: (33)
4p!0 ðT ' zÞ ðs þ b2 Þ

Evidently there is something wrong with the Li!enard- q s

VI0 ¼ 0; A0I ¼ ' hðz þ TÞ; (34)
Wiechert potentials themselves; they too are missing a 2p!0 c s2
critical term. To fix them, we play the same game as before:
truncate the hyperbolic motion. We might as well go straight $ %
to the limit, with the truncation receding to '1; we need q s
the potentials of a point charge moving at speed c. There are VII0 ¼ ' ln dðz þ TÞ;
2p!0 b
two candidates in the literature10 [which differ by a gauge $ % (35)
q s
transformation, though both satisfy the Lorenz condition, A0II ¼ ln dðz þ TÞ ^z
@V=@t ¼ 'c2 ðr & AÞ]: 2p!0 c b

758 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 82, No. 8, August 2014 Joel Franklin and David J. Griffiths 758
 $ %
(in the second case b could actually be any constant with the q s2 þ b 2
VII ¼ ' ln dðz þ TÞ;
dimensions of length, but we might as well use a parameter 4p!0 b2
that is already on the table). $ % (37)
q s2 þ b2
We also need the “connecting” potentials; our experience AII ¼ ln dðz þ TÞ ^z :
with the fields [going from Eq. (18) to Eq. (20)] suggests the 4p!0 c b2
following ansatz It is easy to check, in either case, that we recover the correct
“extra” term in the field [Eq. (21)]. However, we prefer VII
and AII because they preserve the Lorenz gauge.11
q s The correct potentials for a point charge in hyperbolic
VI ¼ 0; AI ¼ ' hðz þ TÞ; (36)
2p!0 c ðs2 þ b2 Þ motion are thus12

8 2 3 9
>
< $ % >
=
2 2 2 2 2 2
q 1 6 zðs þ z þ b ' T Þ 7 s þb
V¼ 4 T ' q ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi 5hðT þ zÞ' ln dðz þ TÞ ; (38)
4p!0 > 2 2
: ðT ' z Þ b2 >
;
4b2 ðT 2 ' z2 Þ þ ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ2

8 2 3 9
>
< $ % >
=
2 2 2 2 2 2
q 1 6 Tðs þ z þ b ' T Þ 7 s þb
A¼ 2 ' z2 Þ 4
z ' qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi5hðT þ zÞþ ln dðz þ TÞ ^z : (39)
4p!0 c >
: ðT b2 >
;
4b2 ðT 2 ' z2 Þ þ ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ2

How did the standard Li!enard-Wiechert construction miss and we need qðr0 ; tr Þ, where (for t ¼ 0)
the extra (delta function) terms? Was it perhaps in the deri- qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
vation of the Li!enard-Wiechert potentials from the retarded 'ctr ¼ jr ' r0 j ¼ ðx ' x0 Þ2 þ ðy ' y0 Þ2 þ ðz ' z0 Þ2 :
potentials?
(42)
B. Retarded potentials Thus
$
Let’s take a further step back, then, and examine the qðr0 ; tr Þ ¼ qd3 x0 x
^ þ y0 y
^ þ z0 ^z
retarded potential13
ð qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi %
1 qðr0 ; tr Þ 3 0 ' b2 þ ðx ' x0 Þ2 þ ðy ' y0 Þ2 þ ðz ' z0 Þ2 ^z :
Vðs; zÞ ¼ d r: (40)
4p!0 r
(43)
In this case Because of the delta function, the denominator ðr ¼
$ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi % jr ' r0 jÞ in Eq. (40) comes outside the integral—with r0 ,
now, at the retarded point (where the argument of the delta-
qðr; tÞ ¼ qd3 r ' b2 þ ðctÞ2 ^z (41)
function vanishes). What remains is

ð ð $ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi%
qðr ; tr Þ d r ¼ q dðx Þdðy Þd z ' b2 þ ðx ' x0 Þ2 þ ðy ' y0 Þ2 þ ðz ' z0 Þ2 dx0 dy0 dz0
0 3 0 0 0 0

ð $ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi% ð
' (
¼ q d z ' b2 þ s2 þ ðz ' z0 Þ2 dz0 ¼ q d f ðz0 Þ dz0 % Q;
0
(44)

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where s2 ¼ x2 þ y2 and
z0 ¼ b2 þ s2 þ ðz ' z0 Þ2 ; (46)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi or
f ðz0 Þ % z0 ' b2 þ s2 þ ðz ' z0 Þ2 : (45) 1 2
z0 ¼ ðs þ z2 þ b2 Þ: (47)
2z
The argument of the delta function vanishes when z0 ¼ z0 , Note that z0 is non-negative, so there is no solution when
given by f(z0) ¼ 0: z < 0. Now

759 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 82, No. 8, August 2014 Joel Franklin and David J. Griffiths 759
 df ðz ' z0 Þ hyperbolic case?16 Zangwill17 offers a careful, step-by-step
¼ 1 þ q ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi; (48) derivation of the retarded potentials; one of those steps must
dz0
b2 þ s2 þ ðz ' z0 Þ2 fail, but we have been unsuccessful in identifying the guilty
party. And although it is easy to construct configurations for
so which the retarded potentials break down, we know of no
other case for which the field formula [Eq. (2)] fails.
ðz ' z0 Þ z 2z2
f 0 ðz0 Þ ¼ 1 þ ¼ ¼ 2 ; (49)
z0 z0 s þ z2 þ b2 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
and hence The authors thank Colin LaMont for introducing us to this
problem.18
' ( 1
d f ðz0 Þ ¼ dðz0 ' z0 Þ
jf 0 ðz0 Þj
$ % APPENDIX A: RETARDED TIME FOR POINTS ON
s2 þ z2 þ b2 THE xy-PLANE
¼ dðz0 ' z0 Þ: (50)
2z2 The retarded time for a point in the xy-plane, at time t, is
Thus given by
$ % qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s2 þ z2 þ b2 cðt ' tr Þ ¼ x2 þ y2 þ zðtr Þ2 ¼ x2 þ y2 þ b2 þ c2 t2r ;
Q¼q hðzÞ: (51)
2z2 (A1)
The retarded potential is or
1 Q
V¼ ; (52) c2 t2 ' 2c2 ttr þ c2 t2r ¼ x2 þ y2 þ b2 þ c2 t2r ; (A2)
4p!0 r
so
and from Eq. (29) (with t ¼ 0)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi c2 t2 ' x2 ' y2 ' b2 t2 ' a2
1 tr ¼ ¼ ; (A3)
r ¼ 'ctr ¼ 'Tr ¼ ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 Þ2 ' ð2bzÞ2 ; (53) 2c2 t 2t
2z
so where

q ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 Þ x2 þ y2 þ b2
V¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi hðzÞ; (54) a2 % : (A4)
4p!0 c2
z ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 Þ2 ' ð2bzÞ2
In Fig. 6, tr is plotted (as a function of t) for a ¼ 1. It is clear
and we recover Eq. (30) (for t ¼ 0). Still no sign of the extra that tr < t for all positive t, but tr > t for all negative t. The
term in Eq. (38); evidently the retarded potentials themselves latter is no good, of course, but we do get an acceptable solu-
are incorrect, in this case. tion for all t ) 0. For t ¼ 0 the retarded time is (minus) infin-
ity, regardless of the values of x and y.

V. WHAT WENT WRONG?

Straightforward application of the standard formulas for
the field [Eq. (2)], the Li!enard-Weichert potentials [Eq.
(28)], and the retarded potential [Eq. (40)], yield incorrect
results (inconsistent with Maxwell’s equations) in the case of
a charged particle in hyperbolic motion—they all miss an
essential delta-function contribution. How did this happen?
Bondi and Gold14 write,

“The failure of the method of retarded potentials to

give the correct field is hardly surprising. The
solution of the wave equation by retarded potentials
is valid only if the contributions due to distant
regions fall off sufficiently rapidly with distance.”
Fulton and Rohrlich15 write,
“The Li!enard/Wiechert potentials are not valid in the
present case at T þ z ¼ 0, because their derivation
assumes that the source is not at infinity.”
But where, exactly, do the standard derivations make these
assumptions, and how can they be generalized to cover the Fig. 6. Graph of the retarded time, as a function of t, for points in the xy-plane.

760 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 82, No. 8, August 2014 Joel Franklin and David J. Griffiths 760
 $
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi%
APPENDIX B: POTENTIALS r&v Tr
d %r' ¼ ðT ' Tr Þ ' z ' b2 þ Tr2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
The vector from the (retarded) position of the charge to c b þ Tr2
2

the point r ¼ (s, z), is zTr

¼ T ' pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : (B3)
$ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi% b2 þ Tr2
r ¼ s þ z ' b2 þ Tr2 ^z : (B1)
It pays to use Eq. (B2) to eliminate the radical:
The retarded time is given by qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2z b2 þ Tr2 ¼ ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ þ 2TTr ; (B4)
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
$ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi%2
T ' Tr ¼ r ¼ s þ z ' b2 þ Tr2 :
2 (B2) so

2z2 Tr
Squaring twice and solving the resulting quadratic yields Eq. d¼T' : (B5)
ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ þ 2TTr
(29).19
Referring back to Eqs. (3) and (5), the denominator in Eq. Putting in Eq. (29), and simplifying,
(28) is

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðT 2 ' z2 Þ ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ2 þ 4b2 ðT 2 ' z2 Þ
d ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; (B6)
T ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ2 þ 4b2 ðT 2 ' z2 Þ ' zðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ

so
2 3
q 1 q 1 zðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ
V¼ ¼ 4T ' qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi5 (B7)
4p!0 d 4p!0 ðT 2 ' z2 Þ
4b2 ðT 2 ' z2 Þ þ ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ2

[Eq. (30)].
Meanwhile, the vector potential [Eq. (28)] is
$ %
v Tr 2zTr q
A¼ V ¼ p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi V ^
z ¼ ^z
c2 c b2 þ Tr2 c½ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ þ 2TTr + 4p!0 d
$ %
q 2zTr
¼ ^z
4p!0 c T½ðs þ z þ b ' T 2 Þ þ 2TTr + ' 2z2 Tr
2 2 2 (B8)
2 3
q 1 ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ
¼ 4z ' T qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi5 ^z
4p!0 c ðT 2 ' z2 Þ
4b2 ðT 2 ' z2 Þ þ ðs2 þ z2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ2

[Eq. (31)].

APPENDIX C: RADIATION
From the potentials [Eqs. (38) and (39)], we obtain the fields:20

8 9
qb2 < ðz2 ' s2 ' b2 ' T 2 Þ ^z þ 2z s = q s
Eðs; /; z; tÞ ¼ h i3=2 hðz þ TÞ þ dðz þ TÞ; (C1)
p!0 : ; 2p! 0 s 2 þ b2
ðz2 þ s2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ2 ' 4b2 ðz2 ' T 2 Þ

8 9
< qb2 2Ts q s =^ 1
Bðs; /; z; tÞ ¼ h i3=2 hðz þ TÞ ' dðz þ TÞ / ¼ ð^r ( EÞ:
: p!0 c
2
2p!0 c s þ b 2 c
ðz2 þ s2 þ b2 ' T 2 Þ2 ' 4b2 ðz2 ' T 2 Þ ;

(C2)

761 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 82, No. 8, August 2014 Joel Franklin and David J. Griffiths 761
 The power radiated is21
+ ð$ % ,
1 r&v 2 2
P ¼ lim 1' ½E r ' ðr & EÞ2 + sinh dh d/ :
r!1 l 0 c rc
(C6)

Using the relevant fields [Eq. (C1)], we find

($ %2 )
r þ Tr cq2 cq2
P ¼ lim ¼ : (C7)
r!1 r 6p!0 b2 6p!0 b2

Perhaps surprisingly, it is constant (independent of Tr, and

hence the same for all points on the trajectory),22 and it
agrees with the Li!enard formula23 (for collinear v and a)
q2
P¼ c6 a2 : (C8)
6p!0 c3

a)
Electronic mail: jfrankli@reed.edu
b)
Electronic mail: griffith@reed.edu
1
The entire xy-plane first “sees” the charge at time t ¼ 0. If this seems sur-
prising, refer to Appendix A.
2
The fields of a point charge in hyperbolic motion were first considered by
M. Born, “Die Theorie des starren Elektrons in der Kinematik des
Relativit€atsprinzips,” Ann. Phys. 30, 1–56 (1909). For the early history of
the problem see W. Pauli, Theory of Relativity (reprint by Dover, New
York, 1981), Section 32(c). For a comprehensive history see E. Eriksen
and Ø. Grøn, “Electrodynamics of Hyperbolically Accelerated Charges. I.
The Electromagnetic Field of a Charged Particle with Hyperbolic
Motion,” Ann. Phys. 286, 320–342 (2000). See also S. Lyle, Uniformly
Accelerating Charged Particles: A Threat to the Equivalence Principle
(Springer, Berlin, 2008).
Fig. 7. Radiation from the charge at time zero (for b ¼ 1), showing the 3
See, for example, D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, 4th ed.
spherical surface and the delta-fields at: (a) T ¼ 0, (b) T ¼ 1/2, (c) T ¼ 1. (Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2013), Eq. (10.72.)
4
This field was first obtained by G. A. Schott, Electromagnetic Radiation
(Cambridge U.P., Cambridge, UK, 1912), pp. 63–69.
To calculate the power radiated by the ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiat a time tr
pcharge 5
E. M. Purcell and D. J. Morin, Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd ed.
(when it is located at the point zðtr Þ ¼ b2 ' Tr2 ), we inte-
(Cambridge U.P., Cambridge, UK, 2013), Section 5.6.
grate the Poynting vector 6
J. M. Aguirregabiria, A. Hern!andez, and M. Rivas, “d-function converging
1 sequences,” Am. J. Phys. 70, 180–185 (2002), Eq. (50). The fields of a
S¼ ðE ( BÞ (C3) massless point charge are considered also in J. D. Jackson, Classical
l0 Electrodynamics, 3rd ed. (Wiley, New York, 1999), Prob. 11.18, W.
Thirring Classical Mathematical Physics: Dynamical Systems and Field
over a sphere of radius r ¼ T ' Tr centered at z(tr), and take Theories (Springer-Verlag, New York, 1997), pp. 367–368 and M. V.
the limit as r ! 1 with Tr ¼ ctr held constant. (That is, we Kozyulin and Z. K. Silagadze, “Light bending by a Coulomb field and the
track the energy as it flows outward at the speed of light; Aichelburg-Sexl ultraboost,” Eur. J. Phys. 32, 1357–1365 (2011), Eq. (20).
7
“radiation” is the portion that makes it “all the way to infin- H. Bondi and T. Gold, “The field of a uniformly accelerated charge, with
ity.”) We need the fields, then, at later and later times, as the special reference to the problem of gravitational acceleration,” Proc. R.
sphere expands. Now, the delta-function term is confined to the Soc. London Ser. A 229, 416–424 (1955). D. G. Boulware, “Radiation
from a uniformly accelerated charge,” Ann. Phys. 124, 169–188 (1980)
plane z ¼ –T, which recedes farther and farther to the left as obtained Eq. (21) using the truncated hyperbolic model. The latter was
time goes on (Fig. 7), and the expanding sphere never catches also explored by W. Thirring A Course in Mathematical Physics:
up. Curiously, then, the delta-function term does not contribute Classical Field Theory, 2nd ed. (Springer-Verlag, New York, 1992), p. 78.
to the power radiated by the charge at any (finite) point on its See also Lyle, ref. 2, Section 15.9.
8
trajectory. By the same token, the spherical surface is always in Reference 3, Eqs. (10.46) and (10.47).
9
the region where z þ T > 0, so we can drop the theta functions. See Appendix B for details of these calculations. Equation (29) reduces to
Eq. (9), of course, when t ¼ 0 and s ¼ x.
Now, 10
R. Jackiw, D. Kabat, and M. Ortiz, “Electromagnetic fields of a massless
particle and the eikonal,” Phys. Lett. B 277, 148–152 (1992).
1 1 11
S¼ ðE ( BÞ ¼ ½E ( ð^r ( EÞ+ Potentials (30) and (31) satisfy the Lorenz gauge condition, as does Eq.
l0 l 0c (37), but Eq. (36) does not.
12
The delta-function terms in the potentials were first obtained by T. Fulton
1
¼ ½E2^r ' ð^r & EÞE+; (C4) and F. Rohrlich, “Classical radiation from a uniformly accelerated
l 0c charge,” Ann. Phys. 9, 499–517 (1960).
13
Reference 3, Eq. (10.19). Since all we’re doing is searching for a missing
and on the surface of the sphere da ¼ r2 sinh dh d/ ^r , giving 14
term, we may as well concentrate on V, and set t ¼ 0.
Reference 7, quoted in Eriksen and Grøn, Ref. 2.
15
1 Reference 12, quoted in Eriksen and Grøn, Ref. 2.
S & da ¼ ½E2 r2 ' ðr & EÞ2 + sinh dh d/: (C5) 16
Lyle (Ref. 2, page 216) thinks it “likely” that the extra terms could in fact
l 0c be obtained at the level of the Li!enard-Wiechert potentials “if we were

762 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 82, No. 8, August 2014 Joel Franklin and David J. Griffiths 762
 more careful about the step function,” but he offers no justification for this 21
The factor ð1 ' r & v=rcÞ accounts for the fact that the rate at which energy
conjecture. leaves a (moving) charge is not the same as the rate at which it (later)
17
A. Zangwill, Modern Electrodynamics (Cambridge U.P., Cambridge, crosses a patch of area on the sphere. See Ref. 3, page 485.
22
2013), Sec. 20.3. The fact that a charged particle in hyperbolic motion radiates has interest-
18
C. LaMont, “Relativistic direct interaction electrodynamics: Theory and ing implications for the equivalence principle—in fact, it is this aspect of
computation,” Reed College senior thesis, 2011. the problem that has attracted the attention of most of the authors cited
19
The sign of the radical is enforced by the condition T > Tr . here. Incidentally, the particle experiences no radiation reaction force—
20
Any reader with lingering doubts is invited to check that these fields sat- see R. Peierls, Surprises in Theoretical Physics (Princeton U.P., Princeton,
isfy all of Maxwell’s equations. Note the critical role of the delta functions NJ, 1979, Chapter 8.)
23
in Gauss’s law and the Ampère-Maxwell law. Reference 3, Eq. (11.73).

763 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 82, No. 8, August 2014 Joel Franklin and David J. Griffiths 763