Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2011) 1e12

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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Consequences of conquest? The analysis and interpretation of subadult trauma

at Puruchuco-Huaquerones, Peru
Catherine M. Gaither a, *, Melissa S. Murphy b
a
Sociology/Anthropology/Behavioral Science, Metropolitan State College of Denver, 1201 5th St., Campus Box 28, Denver, CO 80204, United States
b
University of Wyoming, WY, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper examines bioarchaeological evidence of violence and traumatic injury on subadult skeletal
Received 5 July 2011 remains from two Late Horizon (A.D. 1470e1540) cemeteries within the archaeological zone of
Received in revised form Puruchuco-Huaquerones, Peru. Here we present the frequency and types of traumatic lesions on the 242
1 October 2011
subadults analyzed. We observed significant increases in the frequency of subadult trauma, particularly
Accepted 3 October 2011
among the burials associated with Spanish Conquest. Specifically, we noted a statistically significant
increase in the frequency of cranial trauma in a subsample of individuals from one of two cemeteries at
Keywords:
the site, 57AS03. These perimortem cranial injuries suggest an intensification of violence and lethality
Peru
Bioarchaeology
that may have affected the children from this community. We then discuss the biocultural implications of
Subadults this analysis within the context of Spanish invasion and conquest.
Trauma Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Paleopathology
Spanish conquest

1. Introduction chores or work-related activities, physical abuse, warfare, and

Although children likely experienced trauma that broke their
bones, the identification of traumatic injuries on subadult skeletons
is extremely rare in the bioarchaeological record (Lewis, 2007).
Sample bias, poor preservation, and differential mortuary treat-
ment contribute to the dearth of complete subadults recovered
from archaeological samples of human skeletal remains. Also,
fractures on subadult skeletons behave differently because the
immature bone is highly elastic and heals quickly, incomplete
greenstick fractures are common and there may be little defor-
mation to the affected bone or fracture area (Adams and Hamblen,
1991; Beaty and Kasser, 2009; Currey and Butler, 1975; Frick and
Jones, 2009; Lewis, 2007; Salter, 1980; Swiontkowski and Green,
2009; Xian and Foster, 2009). Due to these differences, we may
overlook or misidentify traumatic injuries in archaeological
samples of subadult skeletal remains. Few studies detail numerous
cases of traumatic or violent injuries to subadults (Cohen et al.,
1994: 126; Dawson et al., 2003; Klaus et al., 2010; Thorpe, 2003;
Whittle, 1996). Obviously, the absence of evidence does not mean
that children did not suffer traumatic injuries in the prehistoric
past; we should expect to see injuries from birth trauma, daily play,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 303 556 2936.
E-mail addresses: gaither@mscd.edu, catgait@gmail.com (C.M. Gaither).
sacrifice.
Prior research at the cemetery of Puruchuco-Huauqerones
reports a higher frequency of perimortem injuries in adults from
early postcontact burials, as well as some possible injuries from
16th Century European weaponry (Murphy et al., 2010). Ethnohis-
torical and historical texts about Spanish conquest detail battles
and violence between the Spanish and indigenous groups, as well
as internecine violence between indigenous groups (Del Busto
Duthurburu, 1978a; Spalding, 1999; Vega, 1980). Additionally, the
Incas organized two uprisings against the Spanish and one of them
occurred in close proximity to the archaeological zone of
Puruchuco-Huaquerones. Based on this information, we hypothe-
size that the subadults from Puruchuco-Huaquerones also experi-
enced increasing levels of violence shortly after Spanish Conquest,
with higher frequencies of perimortem and lethal injures compared
to subadults from the Late Horizon. Therefore, we expect that the
Late Horizon subadults will possess fewer traumatic injuries and
most of the observed injuries will be antemortem injuries likely
caused by accidents and/or the daily hazards of childhood. In
contrast, we expect the early postcontact subadults to possess
higher frequencies of perimortem lethal injuries associated with
heightened violence. To test this hypothesis, we describe and
analyze the nature and frequency of traumatic injuries among the
242 subadults from the two cemeteries of Puruchuco-Huaquerones
on the central coast of Peru (Fig. 1) and we speculate about the

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doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.002

Please cite this article in press as: Gaither, C.M., Murphy, M.S., Consequences of conquest? The analysis and interpretation of subadult trauma at
Puruchuco-Huaquerones, Peru, Journal of Archaeological Science (2011), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.002
2 C.M. Gaither, M.S. Murphy / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2011) 1e12

Fig. 1. Map depicting the location of the site of Puruchuco-Huaquerones near Lima, Peru.

observed patterns within the context of Spanish invasion and the
subsequent conquest of the Inca Empire.
2. Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, AD 1532
Bioarchaeological investigations of the biocultural impact of
European contact in the Americas evince tremendous variability in
indigenous responses to the colonial enterprise (Baker, 1994; Baker
and Kealhofer, 1996; Cohen et al., 1994; Dobyns, 1992; Hutchinson,
1996, 2009; Jacobi, 2000; Klaus and Tam, 2010; Larsen and Milner,
1994; Larsen et al., 2001; Milner, 1996; Pfeiffer and Fairgrieve, 1994;
Preston, 2002; Radding, 2000; Ramenofsky et al., 2003; Spielmann
et al., 2009; Stodder and Martin, 1992; Stodder, 1996). Despite an
extensive historical record, the physical evidence of the historically
documented violence and warfare that accompanied the Spanish
into the Americas has proven somewhat elusive. Only a scant
number of studies possess evidence of violence and conflict asso-
ciated with conquest, either European versus indigenous violence
or violence between indigenous groups (for examples, see
Hutchinson, 1996; Larsen et al., 1996; Murphy et al., 2010; Stodder
and Martin, 1992; Stodder, 1996). Most of these studies have
focused on the violence experienced by indigenous adults after
Spanish Conquest (Steyn, 2003) and only a few studies documented
the presence of traumatic injuries on subadults (e.g. Cohen et al.,
1994).
The historical archaeology of contact and Spanish colonization
in Andean South America is a growing area of interest for
researchers (Klaus and Tam, 2010; Quilter, 2011; Wernke, 2011) and
currently historical and ethnohistorical accounts dominate the
narrative. While Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire is often
characterized as swift and inevitable, it took several decades for the
Spanish to fully control the territory of the Inca Empire and violence
and resistance continued for some time (Rowe, 1957, 2006). One of
the earliest violent encounters between the Spanish and the Incas
occurred in 1532 in Cajamarca, located in the northern highlands of
Andean South America, when the Spanish ambushed and captured
the Inca ruler, Atahualpa (Cieza de León, 1985; D’Altroy, 2008:
311e316; Del Busto Duthurburu, 1978a; Guaman Poma, 1980;
Rostworowski, 1999: 126e133). Two indigenous uprisings, the
Siege of Cusco and the Siege of Lima (1535e1536), posed early
challenges to Spanish domination, but in the end, the Incas could
not overcome Spanish military tactics and weapons and the
indigenous reinforcements that allied themselves with the Spanish
conquistadors (Cieza de León, 1985; D’Altroy, 2008: 311e325; Del
Busto Duthurburu, 1966: 204e217, 1978a,b: 189e195, 198e200;
Guaman Poma, 1980; Rostworowski, 1999: 67e68, 223; Vega, 1980:
108e114). The Siege of Lima is of particular importance for this
analysis because it occurred approximately 12 km from the
archaeological zone of Puruchuco-Huaquerones and ethnohisto-
rical documents describe how the rebellious Inca forces fled along
a route very close to the archaeological zone of Puruchuco-
Huaquerones.
The Incas did not possess a standing army, although all adult
males served in the Inca army as part of their service to the Inca
state (D’Altroy, 2008: 205e231; Rostworowski, 1999: 91e93).
Typical indigenous weapons in the coastal regions included various
clubs and maces, slingshots, slings and sling stones, wooden spears,
and tumi knives (Cobo, 1979 [1653]; D’Altroy, 2008: 226e229; Del
Busto Duthurburu, 1978b; Hemming, 1970; Himmerich and
Valencia, 1998; Rowe, 1946, 1957). Points and edges were usually

Please cite this article in press as: Gaither, C.M., Murphy, M.S., Consequences of conquest? The analysis and interpretation of subadult trauma at
Puruchuco-Huaquerones, Peru, Journal of Archaeological Science (2011), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.002
 C.M. Gaither, M.S. Murphy / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2011) 1e12 3

composed of animal bone, copper, or bronze, but steel weapons and
firearms were introduced with the Spanish invasion (D’Altroy,
2008: 218, 226e229; Hemming, 1970; Himmerich and Valencia,
1998; Pizarro, 1978; Rowe, 1946; Salas, 1950: 175e215). The
Spanish armament included firearms (e.g. the arquebus and the
falconet), piercing and slashing weapons, such as swords, pikes,
polearms (halberds) and lances, as well as clubs and maces with
metal heads (e.g. the flail) (Del Busto Duthurburu, 1978a: 441e482;
Guilmartin, 1991; Hemming, 1970; Lockhart, 1972; Salas, 1950:
175e215). Once Spanish weapons were introduced, indigenous
peoples likely armed themselves with these superior weapons if
they could acquire them.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Sample
The burials for the present study were excavated from the
archaeological zone of Puruchuco-Huaquerones, located on the
central coast of Peru on the outskirts of modern day Lima. The
presence of imperial Inca architectural influences and the recovery
of 21 khipus (knotted string devices) have led several archaeolo-
gists to suggest that Puruchuco may have been involved in Inca
administration of the region during the Late Horizon (Tabio, 1965;
Urton and Brezine, 2005; Villacorta, 2004: 553).
The burials in the study sample date from the Late Horizon until
shortly after Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire (circa AD
1470e1540) and were recovered from two spatially distinct
cemeteries (Fig. 2), Huaquerones and 57AS03 (Cock, 2002, 2006;
Cock and Goycochea, 2004). The human remains range in preser-
vation from complete, spontaneously mummified individuals
contained in large textile bundles to human skeletons without any
soft tissue preservation. While the majority of the burials exhibit
Late Horizon (Inca) mortuary treatment, which involves a flexed
skeleton elaborately bundled with several layers of textiles and
associated grave goods, Early Colonial burials are known from
Puruchuco-Huaquerones and they display Christian mortuary
treatment, with a supine and extended burial position and associ-
ated Early Colonial ceramics (Cock and Goycochea, 2004; Murphy
et al., 2011).
A subsample of burials from the 57AS03 cemetery is distinct
from the typical Late Horizon and Early Colonial burials recovered.
These unusual burials possess few, if any, mortuary offerings and
they lack the bundle fill encountered in the Late Horizon burials.
Typically, they possess a single textile layer or an outer textile layer
and an inner layer that surround the principal individual, usually

Fig. 2. Map demonstrating the location of the two cemetery areas, Huaquerones and 57A, and their location relative to one another.

Please cite this article in press as: Gaither, C.M., Murphy, M.S., Consequences of conquest? The analysis and interpretation of subadult trauma at
Puruchuco-Huaquerones, Peru, Journal of Archaeological Science (2011), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.002
4 C.M. Gaither, M.S. Murphy / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2011) 1e12

interred alone (Cock, 2006; Murphy et al., 2011). The burial posi-
tions and orientations of these atypical burials displayed consid-
erable variability and were often buried in the upper stratigraphic
layers of the cemetery. Many of the adult skeletons had perimortem
injuries (25%) and several of those were injuries consistent with
Spanish weaponry (Murphy et al., 2010, 2011). Murphy et al. (2010,
2011) interpreted the atypical mortuary behavior as evidence for
the social rupture and chaos that followed Spanish Conquest.
This study sample consists of 242 subadults from both ceme-
teries that were subsequently divided into two subsets on the basis
of spatial and temporal variables and archaeological contexts
(Table 1). The Huaquerones/Late Horizon burial sample contains
169 individuals dating to the Late Horizon, with 138 burials exca-
vated from Huaquerones and 31 burials excavated from 57AS03, all
of which exhibited typical Late Horizon mortuary treatment. The
57AS03 Early Postcontact sample consists of 73 individuals from
the 57AS03 cemetery, but they exhibited atypical mortuary treat-
ment, with little or no grave offerings or bundle fill, with atypical
body positions and orientation, and with only 1e2 textile layers,
often loosely or haphazardly wrapped around the body. Addition-
ally, they were buried at the peripheries and in the upper strati-
graphic layers of the cemetery. It is believed that their atypical
mortuary treatment and upper stratigraphic position in 57AS03
date them to shortly after Spanish conquest or the Early Colonial
Period.
3.2. Methods of osteological analysis
Age and sex estimation followed established standards (Buikstra
and Ubelaker, 1994). Subadult designation (0e18 years) was based
on the union of the spheno-occiptal synchondrosis and third molar
eruption. Subadult age estimation utilized dental and long bone
length standards and epiphyseal union (Gaither, 2004, 2007;
Scheuer and Black, 2000; Ubelaker, 1999). Sex was determined
only for those subadults whose skeletal maturation permitted
visual inspection of morphological changes associated with sexual
maturity (following Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994). Traumatic lesions
were recorded and analyzed in accordance with established
methodologies (Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994; Lovell, 2008).
Specifically, the location, side, and aspect of each lesion were
recorded by skeletal element, and the timing of the injuries was
conservatively determined by osseous evidence, burial context, and
taphonomy (Berryman and Haun, 1996; Berryman and Symes,
1998; Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994; Sauer, 1998; Sledzik, 1998;
Table 1
Sample sizes for each of the age groups.
Age group Subset #1, Subset #2
Late Horizon
Birth to 1 year 38 10
1 year 24 5 29
2 year 13 5 18
3 year 25 13
4 year 14 2 16
5 year 12 4 16
6 year 9 2
7 year 7 2
8 year 7 2
9 year 3 0
10 year 0 1
White, 2000). Antemortem trauma was diagnosed on the basis of
macroscopic evidence of healing, including porosity near the
breaks that indicate bone activity and resorption, rounding of the
edges of a break, and/or the presence of a callus (Sauer, 1998).
Perimortem traumatic injuries include such characteristics as
greenstick fractures, sharp edges without remodeling, radiating
and/or concentric fractures, hinge fracture(s), delamination, knap-
ping or flaking (Berryman and Symes, 1998; Sauer, 1998; Sledzik,
1998). Additionally, the color of the fracture must be consistent
with the color of adjacent bone (Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994; Sauer,
1998). In the interpretation and discussion of some of the injuries,
we followed the traditional definition of force (force equals mass
times acceleration (F ¼ M  A)), and note here that force is maxi-
mized in several different ways: 1) move heavy loads slowly
(weightlifting for example), 2) move light loads or no load at a high
rate of acceleration (a bullet or a punch are both good examples), or
3) move a moderate load with good acceleration (Hatfield, 1998;
Buchenholz, 2003; Siff and Verkhoshansky, 1999). Most blunt
force trauma (as with most athletic movements) represents the
second alternative, that is, moving a light load with a high accel-
eration. Boxers, for example can deliver a punch equal to approxi-
mately 3000 pounds of force (Hatfield, 1998; Buchenholz, 2003; Siff
and Verkhoshansky, 1999).
3.3. Traumatic injuries in subadults
In addition to the above characteristics, the distinct character-
istics of subadult bone and periosteum must be considered in the
study and analysis of traumatic injuries. Subadults possess a thick,
osteogenic periosteum that will affect fracture mechanics, healing,
and the rate of subperiosteal callus formation (Frick and Jones,
2009; Xian and Foster, 2009). Immature bone is more porous and
ductile and it is more heavily vascularized than adult bone (Beaty
and Kasser, 2009; Swiontkowski and Green, 2009). Therefore,
subadults have a lower modulus of elasticity, lower bending
strength, and a lower mineral content than adults, which results in
a longer elastic phase before complete failure (Frick and Jones,
2009: 12). Subadult bone is susceptible to fracture under both
tension and compression, but its porous nature likely dissipates the
forces, reducing the number of fracture lines around an impact, and
leading to greenstick fractures (Frick and Jones, 2009; Xian and
Foster, 2009). Modern clinical data indicate that elastic deforma-
tion, buckle (compression) fractures, greenstick fractures, and
physeal injuries are extremely common in children due to the
intrinsic characteristics of immature bone. Comminuted fractures
are relatively infrequent in most cases of childhood injury, but this
will depend on the rate at which loads are applied (Frick and Jones,
Total 2009). Under higher rates of loading (e.g. vehicular accident), it is
48
38
11
9
9
3
1

Total birth to 11 years 152 46 198

12 yeare15 year 5 6 11
15e18 year 12 21 33
Fig. 3. Polaroid radiograph of a clavicle of a child excavated from the Huaquerones
Total 12e18 years 17 27 44 cemetery. The top image is the superioreinferior view and the bottom image is the
anterioreposterior view. The clavicle demonstrates an antemortem fracture, marked
Grand total 169 73 242
with the letter a on both views.

Please cite this article in press as: Gaither, C.M., Murphy, M.S., Consequences of conquest? The analysis and interpretation of subadult trauma at
Puruchuco-Huaquerones, Peru, Journal of Archaeological Science (2011), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.002
 C.M. Gaither, M.S. Murphy / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2011) 1e12 5

Table 2
Summary of trauma cases.

ID # Age Pathology description Injury timing

Huaquerones/Late Horizon
S08E35 3 years  12 months Postcranial trauma: toe phalanx, healed fracture Antemortem
S08E60 4 years  12 months Postcranial trauma, fracture, right fibula Antemortem
S08E125 6 months  3 months Postcranial trauma: partially healed right clavicle fracture Antemortem
S08E140 2 years  8 months Postcranial trauma: left 10th rib, incomplete perimortem fracture Perimortem
S08E168 Birth  2 months Postcranial trauma: left femur, oblique fracture, primary callus formation Antemortem
S08E273 3 years  12 months Postcranial trauma: right 4th rib e healed fracture Antemortem
S15E44(2) 9 months  3 months Postcranial trauma: fracture left humerus Antemortem
S15E62B 4 years  12 months Cranial trauma: perimortem skull fracture Perimortem
57AS03E132 15e18 years Postcranial trauma: healed fracture of left 11th rib Antemortem
57AS03E332 15e20 yrs Healed fracture to left second rib, left ulna Antemortem

57AS03 Early Postcontact

57AS03E76A 7 years  20 months Cranial trauma: healed depressed fracture left frontal bone Antemortem
57AS03E201 2 years  6 months Postcranial trauma: clavicle fracture Antemortem
57AS03E260 12e15 years Cranial trauma: blunt force trauma Perimortem
57AS03E261 3 years  11 months Postcranial trauma: healed fracture left fibula, Antemortem and
partially healed fractures of 10th, 11th ribs near perimortem
sternal ends, perimortem fracture of the left
transverse process of the 5th thoracic vertebra
57AS03E310 17e20 years Cranial trauma: partially healed depressed fracture of occipital bone Antemortem
57AS03E48 15e20 years Cranial trauma: blunt force trauma Perimortem
57AS03E269 15e20 years Postcranial trauma: perimortem clavicle fracture Perimortem
57AS03E145 15e20 yrs Cranial trauma: blunt force trauma to right parietal, occipital Perimortem
57AS03E231 15e20 yrs Cranial trauma: blunt force trauma to cranium, ovoid defect to frontal Perimortem
57AS03E479 15e20 yrs Cranial trauma: blunt force trauma to cranium; healed fracture to right third rib Perimortem and
antemortem
57AS03E241 15e20 yrs Postcranial trauma: left proximal femur, right distal femur Perimortem
57AS03E474 15e20 yrs Postcranial trauma: multiple rib injuries, left and Perimortem and
right scapular bodies, right radius, healed fracture to left third metacarpal antemortem
57AS03E151 15e20 yrs Cranial trauma: healed fracture to left parietal Antemortem
57AS03E154B 4e6 yrs Postcranial trauma: healed fracture to right rib 11 Antemortem
57AS03E097 15e20 yrs Postcranial trauma: multiple rib fractures Perimortem

believed that subadult bone behaves more akin to adult bone reflects a natural grouping that distinguishes children from
(Beaty and Kasser, 2009; Frick and Jones, 2009; Swiontkowski and adolescents and is easily recognized by the eruption of the second
Green, 2009). Complications of these injuries include limb length molar.
discrepancy, physeal arrest, nonunion, cross union, malunion, and
osteonecrosis (Beaty and Kasser, 2009; Frick and Jones, 2009; 4. Results
Swiontkowski and Green, 2009).
We applied this clinical information in our examination of the Results of the analysis demonstrated significant differences in
subadults from Puruchuco-Huaquerones. Additionally, all cases of the frequency and nature of subadult trauma between the Hua-
subperiosteal bone formation were closely scrutinized and the querones/Late Horizon burial sample and the 57AS03 Early Post-
distribution was noted. If the subperiosteal bone formation was contact burial sample. Of the 169 Late Horizon subadult skeletons
localized to one bone, a fracture or discontinuity was not visible and examined (Huaquerones/Late Horizon burial sample), ten individ-
the bone formation could have been caused by trauma, then the uals possessed traumatic injuries and only one possessed a trau-
specimen was radiographed (Fig. 3) in order to detect any fracture matic injury to the cranium. Of the 73 Early Colonial subadult
lines or discontinuities present underneath the new bone forma- skeletons (57AS03 Early Postcontact burial sample), 15 individuals
tion. Limb lengths were measured and compared, and limb length presented evidence of trauma, and eight of these presented cranial
discrepancies were classified as potential antemortem injuries. We trauma. Traumatic injuries increased from 6% to 21% between the
examined all diaphyses, metaphyses, and physes for evidence of two subsets and cranial injuries increased from less than 1% to 11%
buckle fractures, physeal injuries, greenstick fractures, and elastic (Tables 2 and 3). These differences in frequency are statistically
deformation (without failure). Postmortem conditions can cause significant (Table 4). Of the eight cases of cranial trauma in the
warping, deformation, and fragmentation of immature cranial
elements (Crist et al., 1997; Snow and Luke, 1970), which was also Table 3
considered in this analysis. We caution that any analysis of subadult Summary statistics for traumatic injuries by individual.
trauma likely underestimates the total frequency of antemortem Huaquerones/Late Horizon 57AS03 Early Postcontact
traumatic injuries due to the rapid rate of healing of fractures and All trauma 10/169 (6%) 15/73 (21%)
elastic deformation in subadults.
Cranial trauma 1/169 (<1%) 8/73 (11%)
Statistical analysis of the frequencies of trauma was accom-
Perimortem injuries 1 5
plished using the Chi-Square distribution and compared the study Antemortem injuries 0 3
sample by subsets and by age (Siegel, 1956; Downie and Heath,
Postcranial trauma 9/169 (5%) 7/73 (10%)
1974; Agresti and Finlay, 1986). In order to assess the possibility Perimortem injuries 1 5
that older subadults would demonstrate higher frequencies of Antemortem injuries 8 4
traumatic injuries simply because they were living longer
Note that the number of perimortem and antemortem injuries total more than the
(Glencross and Sawchuk, 2003), we established two age groups for number of individuals with postcranial traumatic injuries because two individuals
comparison, birth to 11 years of age and 12e18 years of age. This possess both antemortem and perimortem injuries (57AS03261, 57AS03E474).

Please cite this article in press as: Gaither, C.M., Murphy, M.S., Consequences of conquest? The analysis and interpretation of subadult trauma at
Puruchuco-Huaquerones, Peru, Journal of Archaeological Science (2011), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.002
6 C.M. Gaither, M.S. Murphy / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2011) 1e12

Table 4 cases or 1%). In contrast 14% of the Early Postcontact sample (10 of
Statistical results of the comparison of the different frequencies of trauma between 73 individuals) had perimortem injuries (Table 4).
the two cemetery samples by age and trauma type.
The 57AS03 Early Postcontact burial sample demonstrated not
Age range Trauma type c2 statistic df P-value only a higher frequency of cranial traumatic injuries, but also
Birth to 11 years All 19.30016584 1 <.001 a dramatic change in the nature of that trauma. Some of these
Birth to 11 years Cranial 18.14814815 1 <.001 injuries suggest a high rate of loading or force. One example of
Birth to 11 years Postcranial 11.84507042 1 <.001
a high rate of force from the 57AS03 Early Postcontact burial sample
12e18 years All 22.65671642 1 <.001
12e18 years Cranial 7.777777778 1 .005 is the injuries to 57AS03E260 (12e15 years at death). This case had
12e18 years Postcranial 29 1 <.001 extensive perimortem fracturing to the cranium, including linear
radiating fractures, hinge fractures, several displaced bone frag-
57AS03 Early Postcontact burial sample, five were perimortem ments, and beveled (or delaminated) fracture edges (Fig. 4). It
injuries. The Huaquerones/Late Horizon burial sample only has one appears that a blow was delivered with high rate of force that
case of a perimortem injury to the cranium. A difference in the crushed the occipital bone, resulting in numerous fragments, and
frequency of postcranial traumatic injuries was also observed was closely followed by two small puncture wounds that present
between the two samples (5% in the Huaquerones/Late Horizon with elastic deformation (Fig. 5). A radiating fracture from one of
burial sample, 10% in 57AS03 Early Postcontact burial sample) and the puncture wounds crosses onto the squamous portion of the
in the two age groups (birth to 11 years old and 12e18 years) and temporal bone and then onto the pterygoid plate of the sphenoid.
these differences are statistically significant (Table 4). Interestingly, The right zygomatic bone and maxilla also present perimortem
in the Huaquerones/Late Horizon burial sample, all but two cases of trauma, evinced by the fragmentation of the bone with consistent
postcranial trauma and all of the cranial trauma occurred in indi- fracture line coloration and external delamination (Fig. 6).
viduals in the birth to 11 year age range. In contrast, the 57AS03 Four other crania from the 57AS03 Early Postcontact burial
Early Postcontact burial sample has a statistically significant sample (57AS03E48, 57AS03E145, 57AS03E231, and 57AS03E479)
increase in the frequency of both cranial and postcranial trauma also had perimortem traumatic injuries consistent with lethal blunt
with increased age, from 7% in the birth to 11 year age range to 15% force trauma. One of these, 57AS0E231, presented perimortem
in the 12e18 year age range (c2 ¼ 20.42, df ¼ 1, p < .001). Further- injuries on the left side of the face, which is consistent with face to
more, the majority of the injuries in the Late Horizon materials face combat involving a right-handed attacker (Fig. 7). The final
were antemortem (8 cases or 5%) as compared to perimortem (2 three cases of cranial trauma observed in the 57AS03 Early

Fig. 4. Traumatic injuries on burial 57AS03E260 demonstrating ‘fresh bone’ or perimortem characteristics e a marks hinge fractures (adherent fragments of bone), b marks
a fracture line with a beveled edge (delamination) and consistent color (as dark as or darker) as compared to the surrounding bone, and c marks linear radiating fractures. All of
these features indicate the bone behaved elastically when the trauma occurred.

Please cite this article in press as: Gaither, C.M., Murphy, M.S., Consequences of conquest? The analysis and interpretation of subadult trauma at
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 C.M. Gaither, M.S. Murphy / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2011) 1e12 7

Postcontact burial sample had depressed cranial fractures that
were either healed or in the process of healing at death (Fig. 8).
While both subsets demonstrated evidence of common acci-
dental injuries in childhood, such as fractures of the clavicle (Lewis,
2007), atypical injuries were also observed. The Late Horizon
sample (Huaquerones/Late Horizon burial sample) has a few
atypical fractures, including a partially healed oblique femoral
fracture in a child under 1-year-old (Fig. 9), a possible antemortem
humeral fracture, also in a child less than a year old, and a peri-
mortem rib fracture in a 2-year-old child. A subadult (approxi-
mately three years old at death) from the 57AS03 Early Postcontact
burial sample had numerous fractures in various stages of healing,
including a fibula with subperiosteal bone formation associated
with fracture repair, two partially healed incomplete rib fractures,
and a perimortem fracture of the transverse process of one of the
thoracic vertebrae. Additionally, a 10 year old with a cranial fracture
and a 4e6 year old with a healed rib fracture were also observed in
the 57AS03 Early Postcontact burial sample.
5. Discussion and conclusion: the impact of conquest
The frequency of all types of traumatic injuries (cranial, post-
cranial, perimortem, etc.) is significantly higher among the 57AS03
Early Postcontact burial sample than the frequency of traumatic
injuries observed in the subadults from the Huaquerones/Late
Horizon burial sample. These higher frequencies might have
resulted from the increase and intensification of violence that
accompanied Spanish invasion and conquest of the Inca Empire
during the early 16th Century. Furthermore, a notable shift in the
nature of these traumatic injuries is apparent in the individuals
from the Early Colonial Period (the 57AS03 Early Postcontact burial
sample), with a higher number of lethal perimortem injuries,
particularly to the cranium. These lethal perimortem injuries differ
markedly from the accidental injuries often observed in subadults,
as well as from the clinical cases of child abuse that present with
multiple injuries in various stages of healing, rib fractures, long
bone fractures in children under 1 year of age, and bilateral endo-
cranial bone deposition (Ayoub et al., 1983; Brogdon, 1998; Cadzow
and Armstrong, 2000; Hoskote et al., 2003; Lewis, 2004, 2007;
Pelczarski and Kemp, 2006; Resnick and Goergen, 2002; Schultz,
1993; Thomas et al., 1991; Tzioumi and Oates, 1998; Waldron,
2000; Walker, 1997). While some of the injuries seen in a few of
the younger subadults from both samples may have resulted from
physical abuse, the trauma patterns described, particularly in those
cases with lethal perimortem injuries, are not consistent with the
documented presentation of physical child abuse. These findings

Fig. 5. Traumatic injuries on burial 57AS03E260 include a crushed occipital bone (upper image) which produced numerous bone fragments (marked a-associated arrows indicate
several other fragments) and two separate puncture wounds (b and c).

Please cite this article in press as: Gaither, C.M., Murphy, M.S., Consequences of conquest? The analysis and interpretation of subadult trauma at
Puruchuco-Huaquerones, Peru, Journal of Archaeological Science (2011), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.002
8 C.M. Gaither, M.S. Murphy / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2011) 1e12

support our hypothesis that the postcontact subadults will possess
higher frequencies of lethal and perimortem traumatic injuries
than the Late Horizon subadults. Additionally, the frequency
differences between antemortem and perimortem trauma in these
two samples support our hypothesis that the Late Horizon mate-
rials would demonstrate mostly antemortem trauma. Indeed only
1% of trauma in the Late Horizon materials was perimortem as
compared to 14% in the Early Postcontact materials.
In a complementary, but separate study, the frequency and
nature of traumatic injuries among the adults from the cemeteries
of Huaquerones and 57AS03 were also analyzed and similar trends
were reported, with a higher frequency of lethal, perimortem
injuries observed among the adult Early Colonial period burials
(Murphy et al., 2010). Additionally, several of the adults possessed
injuries that may have been caused by Spanish weapons (Murphy
et al., 2010). It is possible that one or more of these subadults
also received injuries from European weapons, such as
57AS03E260, who may have received a blow (or blows) from a flail,
a medieval weapon that had at least one spiked or jagged metal ball
attached by a chain to a handle. The spikes of such a weapon could
have generated the puncture wounds to the cranium. However,
pinpointing the exact weapon that may have caused these lethal
perimortem injuries in the 57AS03 Early Postcontact burial sample
is difficult (Boylston, 2000), since many of them lack unique
features consistent with specific weapons (e.g. Humphrey and
Hutchinson, 2001; Novak, 2000; Symes et al., 2002). Since we
cannot specify a particular European weapon, we cannot say with
certainty whether or not these injuries were inflicted at the hands
of the Spanish or their indigenous allies, or at the hands of other
indigenous communities on the central coast of Peru.
What is clear, however, is that children were not immune from
the intensification of violence that followed Spanish invasion. The
relationship between children and the broader community in the
Andean region is often a complicated mixture of ancestral and
communal obligations, whereby children are viewed as funda-
mental to the well-being of the broader community (Arnold and
Yapita, 2006; Sillar, 1994). Terror, repression, persecution,
epidemic diseases, and religious conversion and evangelization
likely fundamentally altered the ways children were viewed and
treated. In the case of the community at Puruchuco-Huaquerones,
the increase in trauma and the dramatic change in the nature of
the trauma found on subadult remains indicate an escalation of
violence, and some might argue, represent a complete upheaval of
the social fabric. The Huaquerones/Late Horizon burials do not
demonstrate the same frequencies of trauma in general and cranial
trauma specifically as that which was observed in the 57AS03 Early
Postcontact burial sample, which suggests that children were not
participating in or subject to this level of violence prior to Spanish
conquest. All but two cases of subadult trauma in the Huaquerones/
Late Horizon materials occurred in the birth to 12-year-old age
range. The 57AS03 Early Postcontact burial sample, on the other
hand, demonstrates a statistically significant increase in subadult

Fig. 6. Zygomatic fracture, burial 57ASO3E260, demonstrating external delamination (beveling) and consistent coloration along the fracture line, suggesting ‘fresh bone’ or per-
imortem trauma.

Please cite this article in press as: Gaither, C.M., Murphy, M.S., Consequences of conquest? The analysis and interpretation of subadult trauma at
Puruchuco-Huaquerones, Peru, Journal of Archaeological Science (2011), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.002
 C.M. Gaither, M.S. Murphy / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2011) 1e12 9

Fig. 7. Perimortem cranial trauma, burial 57AS03E231, with several injuries to the left side of the skull, suggestive of face to face combat.

trauma in the 12e18 year age range, an age range that includes ages
at which young males might be expected to participate in combat
(i.e. 15e20 years old). The young males in this age range from the
Huaqerones/Late Horizon sample were not, however, participating
in activities that incurred these types of injuries.
Children have fought in every major war in the modern era
(Zack-Williams, 2006; Rosen, 2005), and therefore, it is not
surprising that older children from the 57AS03 Early Postcontact
burial sample (i.e.: 15e18 years of age) might have been recruited
by their own community to fight or might have been targeted by

Fig. 8. Partially healed cranial trauma (arrow), burial 57AS03E310.

Please cite this article in press as: Gaither, C.M., Murphy, M.S., Consequences of conquest? The analysis and interpretation of subadult trauma at
Puruchuco-Huaquerones, Peru, Journal of Archaeological Science (2011), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.002
10 C.M. Gaither, M.S. Murphy / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2011) 1e12
Fig. 9. Antemortem oblique femoral fracture (marked a) of burial S08E168, a subadult under 1 year of age at death. The fracture was only partially healed when the individual died.
enemies as potential combatants (Dawson et al., 2003). Five older
subadults in these materials (57AS03E260, 57AS03E48,
57AS03E145, 57AS03E231, and 57AS03E479) demonstrate injuries
suggestive of violent conflict and three of these individuals
(57AS03E260, 57AS03E231, and 57AS03E48) demonstrate injuries
to the facial skeleton and anterior vault, which are suggestive of
face-to-face combat. In the case of these individuals, there is no
evidence of healing, indicating that death resulted soon after the
blows were delivered.
It is also possible, however, that these children were simply
what would be called ‘collateral damage’ or that they were dis-
patched because they were perceived as potential future threats.
Some of these subadults could also have been killed without any
resistance on their part, as often occurs during times of war (Lewis,
2007; Whittle, 1996). Alternatively, these subadults may have been
the unfortunate victims of heightened violence within and
between indigenous groups on the heels of Spanish invasion, with
a concomitant increase in stress and internecine strife.
Cultural strife and chaos also appeared to affect the mortuary
practices of the individuals from the 57AS03 Early Postcontact
burial sample. Located in the superficial stratigraphic layers within
the cemetery, these individuals possess few, if any, mortuary
offerings and they were often found in unusual burial positions and
orientation. Atypical mortuary treatment among the adults was
interpreted as evidence for expediency and/or perhaps the cultural
rupture and chaos that followed Spanish Conquest, and this may
also be the case with the subadults (Cock and Goycochea, 2004;
Murphy et al., 2010, 2011).
The exceptional preservation and nearly complete condition of
subadults in this study permitted a thorough examination and
analysis of traumatic injuries among these children. While ante-
mortem injuries are fairly uncommon, it is also rare to observe
lethal perimortem injuries in children from non-sacrificial contexts.
Research in historical archaeology and historical bioarchaeology is
growing in the Central Andes (e.g. Klaus, 2008), but few studies
have been published and, of those published, none report the
observation of perimortem injuries in subadults (Klaus, 2008).
Other studies of violence in the prehispanic Central Andes report
lower trauma rates among adults than those observed in the early
postcontact adults from Puruchuco-Huaquerones and few exam-
ples of perimortem injuries to subadults (Andrushko, 2007; Kellner,
Please cite this article in press as: Gaither, C.M., Murphy, M.S., Consequences of conquest? The analysis and interpretation of subadult trauma at
Puruchuco-Huaquerones, Peru, Journal of Archaeological Science (2011), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.002
2002; Murphy et al., 2010; Torres-Rouff and Costa Junqueira, 2006;
Tung, 2007). Antemortem injuries are the injuries most frequently
observed in these comparatives studies (Andrushko, 2007; Kellner,
2002; Torres-Rouff and Costa Junqueira, 2006; Tung, 2007). The
results of this study indicate that children from Puruchuco-
Huaquerones community were subject to heightened levels of
violence following Spanish invasion. This study highlights the
importance of recording and analyzing evidence of traumatic
injuries in subadults as well as adults. As a particularly vulnerable
sector of any society, subadults are often the first segment of
a population to be impacted by change, and the fact that these
children were not shielded from violence by their families and
communities indicates that Spanish Conquest profoundly affected
the social fabric of the indigenous community at Puruchuco-
Huaquerones.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the editors and the anonymous
reviewers for their constructive criticism and insightful comments.
This investigation would not have been possible without the work
of Guillermo Cock, the director of the Puruchuco-Huaquerones
project, and Elena Goycochea. We would like to acknowledge the
following people and institutions for their invaluable assistance in
completing this study: John Verano, Tadini Bacigalupi, Jonathan
Kent, and Arthur Wiselogel. Funding was generously provided by
Metropolitan State College of Denver, Bryn Mawr College, Univer-
sity of Wyoming, the National Science Foundation (grant #
0618192) and The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological
Research (grant # 6791).
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