Chapter 8: Nervous System
● Our nervous system gathers
information about the environment
and help us respond appropriately to
a situation.
● The nervous system controls and
interprets all the activities that
happen within the body. It enables
us to move, think, laugh, feel pain or
enjoy the taste of food.
● It makes the body respond quickly to
changes in the environment.
4 Basic Functions
1. Gathers information both from the
outside world and from inside the
body.
2. Sends information to muscles,
glands and organs so they can
respond correctly.
3. Transmit information to the
processing areas in the brain and
spinal cord.
4. Processes information to determine
best response.
Neuron
● Message carrying unit of the
nervous system.
● Also called ​nerve cells.
● Neurons carry information called
nerve impulse ​to the brain.
● Is considered the basic structural
and functional unit of the nervous
system.
Parts of a Neuron
1. Dendrites
● Tiny branching threadlike structures.
● Receives and carry information
towards ​the ​cell body.
2. Cell Body
● Is the largest part of the neuron.
● It contains the nucleus.
3. Axon
● Single extension of the neuron.
● Is a long tail like fiber, extending
from the cell body.
● Carries messages ​away​ from the
cell body​.
● The axon splits into many featherlike
fibers called ​axon ends ​or
terminals, ​they pass on messages
to the dendrites of other neurons.
● sodium-potassium pump​ recreates
4. Myelin Sheath
● Covers the axon
● Speeds of travel of nerve impulses.
Each neuron has 1 axon, but can have
many dendrites.
Types of Neurons
1. Sensory Neurons
● Also called ​afferent neurons​.
● Carry impulses from inside and
outside the body.
2. Interneurons
● Also called ​association neurons.
● Are found within the ​brain​ and
spinal cord​, they process or read
incoming impulses and pass them
on to motor neurons.
● Determines what response should
be generated.
3. Motor neurons
● Carry impulses ​away​ from the brain
and spinal cord.
● Are also called ​efferent neurons.
● Transmit impulses from the brain
and spinal cord to the effector cells
in muscles, glands and organs.
● They stimulate effector cells to
create a reaction or response.
2 Major Functions of the Nervous
System
1. Irritability
● Ability to respond to a stimulus and
convert it to a nerve impulse.
2. Conductivity
● The ability to transmit the impulse to
other neurons, muscles and glands.
Irritability
● Voltage difference between the
inside and outside of the cell.
- Resting membrane potential:
● The concentration of K+ being
higher on the inside of the cell
membrane and the concentration of
Na+ being higher on the outside.
● The presence of many negatively
charged molecules such as proteins
inside the cell that are too large to
exit the cell.
● Presence of leak protein channels,
more permeable to K+ than to Na+.
● Na+ tends to diffuse into the cell and
K+ tends to diffuse out.
● In order to maintain the resting
membrane potential, the
the Na+ and K+ ion gradient by
 pumping Na+ out of the cell and K+
into the cell.
Conductivity
- Action Potential
1. When the action potential reaches
the end of the axon.
2. Axon releases a neurotransmitter
chemical.
3. The chemical binds to a receptor on
the cell membrane of the next
neuron.
4. Na+ enters the cell.
5. Depolarization
6. Generation of a nerve impulse in the
neuron beyond the synapse.
7. The neurotransmitter is quickly
removed from the synapse by
re-uptake into the axon terminal or
by enzymatic breakdown.
8. The electrical changes prompted by
neurotransmitter binding are very
brief.
Take note:
● Neurons do not touch each other.
The space between neurons is
called a ​synapse.
● Notice that the transmission of an
impulse is an ​electrochemical
event.
● Transmission down the length of an
axon is ​electrical, ​but the next
neuron is stimulated by a
neurotransmitter which is a
chemical​ event.
Responding to a Stimulus
● Chemical messengers help facilitate
the transfer of information across
neurons.
● Signals are important, they carry
information for us to listen, be alert,
etc.
● The nervous system consists of
thousands of signals from the body.
Nerve Impulse
● Waves of electrical and chemical
change conducted along the
membrane of a neuron.
● It travels from a sensory neuron --->
interneuron ---> motor neurons.
Reaction to Changes
● A stimulus excites sensory neurons.
● Depolarization ​(a change in charge
due to sodium ions) creates waves
of changing charges down the axon.
● Impulse moves across the ​synapse
(tiny spaces between one neuron
axon and another’s dendrites) with
the help of neurotransmitters.
Divisions of the Nervous System
● The nervous system is divided into
the ​central and peripheral nervous
system​, which work together to help
the body respond to stimulus.
Central Nervous System
● Made up of the ​brain ​and ​spinal
cord.
● Acts as the body’s ​control center​,
coordinates the body’s activities.
● Impulses travel through the neurons
in the body to reach the brain.
● Processes information, sends
instructions to other parts of the
body.
Brain
● Main control of the central nervous
system.
● Transmits and receives information
from the spinal cord.
● Is a delicate organ that is well
protected by the skull.
● Appears gray in color because of the
presence of cell bodies (100 billion
neurons).
● Has 3 layers of connective tissue
that nourishes and protects it.
● Mass: 1.4 kg.
3 Main Sections of the Brain
1. Cerebrum
● Comprises 85% of the human brain.
● Has 2 hemispheres.
● Controls memory, intelligence,
muscles.
● Cerebral cortex ​are the folds and
wrinkles of our brain. They shape
attitudes, emotions and personality.
2. Cerebellum
● The 2nd largest part of the brain.
● Controls balance, posture and
coordination.
3. Brainstem
● Controls involuntary activities such
as breathing, heart rate, sleep and
wakefulness.

Cerebrum
● Controls conscious activities.
● Has wrinkles with countless folds
and grooves
● Covered with an outer layer of ​gray
matter​ called the ​cerebral cortex.
● Has ​4 lobes:
○ Temporal ​- memory,
emotions, hearing language.
○ Frontal - ​decision making,
problem solving.
○ Parietal
○ Occipital - ​visual.
Cerebellum
● Muscle coordination and memory of
physical skills.
● If injured = movement becomes
jerky, uncoordinated movements.
Brainstem
● Made up of the medulla oblongata
and pons.
● Medulla oblongata
○ Controls involuntary actions
such as heart rate, breathing
and blood pressure.
● Pons
○ Controls respiratory function.
● Midbrain
○ Processes visual and
auditory reflexes.
● Thalamus
● Hypothalamus
Spinal Cord
● Tube-like organ of neurons and
blood vessels.
● Extends from the brainstem down to
the buttock region.
● Located inside the ​backbone or
spine.
● 1.8 cm wide.
● Has 3 membranes ​(meninges)
which are cushions of fluid that
protects the spinal cord layers.
Layers
1. Dura Mater
● Outermost layer covering the brain
and spinal cord.
2. Arachnoid mater
● Weblike meningeal layer.
● Had threadlike extensions that
crosses the subarachnoid space to
attach to the pia mater.
3. Pia Mater
● Mayer adherent to the surface of the
brain and spinal cord.
Spinal Cord
● Acts as connection between the
brain and other parts of the body.
● An impulse from the nerves first
enter the spinal cord before they are
carried to the brain for processing.
● Outgoing impulse from the brain
travels first to the spinal cord and out
to parts of the body along nerves.
Peripheral Nervous System
● Part of the nervous system outside
the central nervous system.
● Made up of all the nerves that carry
messages to and from the central
nervous system.
● Spinal nerves - ​carry impulses to
and from the spinal cord.
● Cranial nerves - ​carry impulses to
and from the brain.
● The CNS and PNS work together to
make rapid changes in the body in
response to stimuli.
● 43 pairs of nerves that arise from the
brain and spinal cord.
Nerves
● Bundle of axons (fibers).
● Usually myelinated.
1. Endoneurium
● Connective tissue sheath that
surrounds each axon.
2. Perineurium
● Connective tissue sheath that binds
groups of axons together into
bundles (fascicles).
3. Epineurium
● Connective tissue sheath that
encloses the whole nerve.
Somatic Nervous System
● Relays information between the skin,
skeletal muscles and CNS.
● You consciously control this pathway
by deciding whether or not to move
muscles. (except reflexes).
 ● Reflexes - ​automatic response to ● Regulate body functions: sweating,
stimulus. digestion, elimination and blood
pressure.
Autonomic Nervous System 2. Somatic Reflexes
● Relay information from the CNS to ● Stimulate skeletal muscles.
the organs.
● Involuntary: you do not consciously Terms in Neuroanatomy
control. ● Fasciculus -​ bundle of axons
● Sympathetic nervous system​ - (fibers) in CNS
controls in times of stress, flight or ● Nerve - ​bundle of axons (fibers) in
fight response. PNS.
● Parasympathetic nervous system ● Tract - ​a bundle of axons having
- ​control the body in time of rest. similar origin, termination and
function.
Reflex ● Funiculus - ​bundle of tracts in the
● Involuntary reaction in response to a spinal cord (optic nerve).
stimulus applied to a periphery and
transmitted to the cell.
● Allows a person to react to stimulus
more quickly that is possible if
conscious thoughts were involved.
● Most reflexes occur in the spinal
cord or brainstem rather than in the
higher brain center.
● A ​reflex arc - ​neuronal pathway by
which a reflex occurs and has ​5
basic components.

Reflex Arc Components

1. Sensory receptor
2. Sensory neuron
3. Interneurons ​located between and
communicating with two other
neurons.
4. Motor neurons
5. Effector organ ​(muscle or gland).

Reflex does not involve the brain - ​spinal

reflex - ​faster.

Sensory Receptor
● Vater pacinian corpuscle -
receptor for deep pressure.
● Meissner corpuscle - ​receptor for
touch. Found in the skin of the palm,
lips, digits and nipples.
● Krause - ​receptor for cold.
● Muscle spindle - ​receptors for
muscle sense.

Types of Reflexes
1. Autonomic reflexes
● Regulate actions of smooth muscles,
heart and glands.