Conveyed Material Influences: 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Conveyed Material Influences
1 INTRODUCTION
Although the performance of a pipeline with air only can be predicted reliably, the
addition of material to the flow of air changes the situation entirely. This was illus-
trated in Chapter 5 where the conveying characteristics of a number of different
materials were presented. These were used to illustrate the differences in convey-
ing capability between different materials, and the very wide differences that can
exist between materials that can be conveyed in dense phase and those that can
not.
In this chapter these conveying characteristics are developed further to illus-
trate the influence of conveying air velocity, and hence air flow rate, in more de-
tail. Power requirements and specific energy are also considered, so that the influ-
ence of velocity can be considered in more meaningful terms. This will also pro-
vide a better basis for comparison between dilute and dense phase conveying ca-
pability and provide a basis on which pneumatic conveying can be compared with
alternative methods of conveying.
Pipeline bore and conveying distance are then considered. Pipeline bore is
important because of the major influence that it has on the conveying capability of
a pipeline. Conveying distance is generally the most problematical of all the vari-
ables. Conveying distance will nearly always be different from one situation to the
next, and hence the pressure gradient will also be different. It is essentially the
Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

210 Chapter 7
pressure gradient that will dictate the solids loading ratio at which a material can
be conveyed through a pipeline, as was illustrated in Figures 4.23 and 24. Then for
materials that have very good air retention properties, such as cement, the mini-
mum conveying air velocity varies with solids loading ratio, as was illustrated in
Figure 4.6.
2 MATERIAL COMPARISONS
Various materials were compared in Chapter 4 in terms of their conveying capabil-

ity and the broad divisions that result between materials that can be conveyed in
dense phase and those that can not. In this section the differences are examined in
terms of conveying air velocities, power requirements and specific energy. For
continuity the three materials considered earlier are examined further. The materi-
als were cement, sandy alumina and polyethylene pellets. Conveying characteris-
tics for cement were presented in Figure 4.5b and are reproduced here in Figure
7.1 for reference.
All three materials were conveyed through the Figure 4.2 pipeline which
was 165 ft long of two inch nominal bore and included nine 90° bends. Similar
data for the alumina and polyethylene pellets from Figures 4.8b and 12b are simi-
larly reproduced in Figures 7.2 and 3. To allow visual comparisons to be made the
same axes have been used for all three materials and conveying line pressure drop
values up to 25 lbf/in2 have been considered in each case.
Pressure Drop 160 120
Solids Loading
Ratio
20
10
40 80 120 160
Free Air Flow Rate - itVmin
Figure 7.1 Conveying characteristics for cement.

Material Conveying 211
30 Solids Loading
Ratio
Conveying Line Pressure
Drop - lbf/in 2
20
NO GO AREA
t-
3 10
Conveying
Limit
40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - ft/min
Figure 7.2 Conveying characteristics for sandy alumina.
The data, therefore, relates to positive pressure conveying. A relatively high

pressure has been used in order to accentuate the differences between the materials
considered. The same differences, however, will exist in negative pressure con-
veying and so the analysis undertaken, and the results obtained, will differ little
between positive pressure and vacuum conveying.
Solids Loading
30 Ratio
o 30
o
o
Drop - lbf/in 2
20
cd NO GO AREA
Oi
o
Conveying
g 10 Limit
'C
<D
ta
40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - ft'/min
Figure 7.3 Conveying characteristics for polyethylene pellets.

212 Chapter 7
2.1 Conveying Air Velocity

Since conveying air velocity is such an important parameter this is considered
first. Conveying line inlet air velocity is one of the basic design parameters for a
pneumatic conveying system and so it is this value that is plotted. This is purely a
mathematical process.
The relevant model for plotting velocity on the conveying characteristics
was developed in Chapter 5 at Equation 10 and is re-presented here:
pd2C
F = 0-1925 ftVmin (1)
where Vn = volumetric flow rate of free air - ftVmin

p = conveying air pressure - lbf/in 2 absolute
d = pipeline bore - in
C = conveying air velocity - ft/min
and T = absolute temperature of air -R
Pipeline bore and air temperature will be known, and so for a given value of
conveying air velocity, the corresponding value of free air flow rate for given val-
ues of conveying line inlet air pressure can be evaluated. By this means lines of
constant value of conveying line inlet air velocity can be plotted. Such a plot for
cement is presented in Figure 7.4.
160 120 Solids Loading

,100 Ratio
Conveying Line Inlet
Air Velocity - ft/min
40 /
,3000
40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - ft3/min
Figure 7.4 Conveying air velocity data for cement.

At high values of solids loading ratio the minimum conveying air velocity
for the cement is about 600 ft/min. For dilute phase, suspension flow, the mini-
mum velocity is about 2000 ft/min. Between these two extremes the conveying
limit is dictated by the relationship between minimum conveying air velocity and
solids loading ratio presented in Figure 4.7. An extremely wide range of convey-
ing conditions, therefore, are available for cement. To help in the decision making
process, power requirements and specific energy are developed in a similar man-
ner below.
The lines of constant conveying air velocity help to illustrate the problems
of compressibility with air. As conveying air pressure increases, the value of the
free air flow rate must increase in order to maintain the same value of velocity. In
many pneumatic conveying systems there is a limit on the volumetric flow rate of
air available and so great care must be taken if material feed rate into the pipeline
is increased since this will require an increase in pressure for conveying.
Because exit from the pipeline in this case is always at atmospheric pres-
sure, the conveying line exit air velocity only varies with air flow rate. Conveying
line exit air velocity can be determined simply by putting p = 14-7 lbf/in 2 into
Equation 7.1 to determine this value. Similar data for the sandy alumina is pre-
sented in Figure 7.5.
The range of conveying conditions for this material are very limited since it
is only capable of being conveyed in dilute phase, suspension flow. The conveying
limit, dictated by the combination of a fixed value of minimum conveying air ve-
locity and the compressibility of the air, significantly reduces the operating enve-
lope for this type of material.
Solids Loading
Conveying Line Inlet Air Ratio
30
o
o Velocity - ft/min
o

drop - ibfin
B!c5
_o
3 to
.x>*^->Cl' ^—~'
..•'5000
..6000
0 40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - fVVrnin
Figure 7.5 Conveying air velocity data for sandy alumina.

214 Chapter 7
Solids Loading
Conveying Line Inlet Air / Ratio
g30
o Velocity - ft/min
30
Drop - Ibf/in
o
10
O
03
40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
Figure 7.6 Conveying air velocity data for polyethylene pellets.
As a consequence, changes in material feed rate, and hence pressure, have a

much greater effect in dilute phase conveying than they do in dense phase. Similar
data for the polyethylene pellets is presented in Figure 7.6.
Although this material is capable of being conveyed at very low velocity,
and hence in dense phase, the operating area available for dense phase conveying
is also very limited. The minimum conveying air velocity for this material for di-
lute phase conveying will be about 3000 ft/min. Because of the positive slope to
the conveying limit curve only a narrow band, at low material flow rates, is avail-
able for operation between these two limits. It is interesting that the 3000 ft/min
velocity curve approximately passes through the maximum value point on each
constant pressure drop line.
2.2 Power Requirements

Pneumatic conveying has a certain reputation for high power requirements, cer-
tainly with regard to dilute phase conveying, and so this is explored with regard to
the three materials being investigated. The relevant model for plotting power re-
quirements on the conveying characteristics was developed in Chapter 3 at Equa-
tion 6 and is re-presented here:
Power = 0-128 V hp (2)
where VQ = air flow rate at free air conditions - ftVmin

p2 = compressor delivery pressure - Ibf/in abs
and pi = compressor inlet pressure - Ibf/in 2 abs

In order to plot lines of constant power, P, it is the volumetric flow rate of

free air, Va, that needs to be the subject of the equation and so a re-arrangement
gives:
• 7-81 P ,
V0 = —, r ft3/min (3)
where P = power - hp
For a given value of power, P, the corresponding value of free air flow rate
for given values of conveying line inlet air pressure can be evaluated. By this
means lines of constant value of power required can be plotted. Such a plot for
cement is presented in Figure 7.7.
Power requirements for the cement on Figure 7.7 vary from a minimum of
about 2 hp to a maximum of 25 hp. This shows the influence of air flow rate, and
hence conveying air velocity very well. With a conveying line pressure drop of 25
Ibf7in2, for example, 34,000 Ib/h of cement can be conveyed with 5 hp and 20,000
Ib/h can be conveyed with the same 25 lbf/in2, but 25 hp. This represents a five
fold increase in power for a 40% reduction in cement flow rate. It is generally rec-
ommended that a system be designed with a conveying line inlet air velocity about
20% greater than the minimum conveying air velocity value.
Solids Loading Ratio
Power Required
-hp
40 80 120 160 200

Figure 7.7 Power requirements data for cement.

216 Chapter?
This is usually a sufficient margin to allow for pulsations in material flow

rate, compressor characteristics and compressibility effects. Although cement can
be conveyed at any point on the performance map it is clearly inefficient to do so
at unnecessarily high air flow rates.
It is obviously necessary to know the value of the minimum conveying air
velocity and this is why conveying trials with a material are so important, particu-
larly if previous experience with a material is not available. Similar data for the
sandy alumina is presented in Figure 7.8.
Because of the very much higher minimum conveying air velocity with this
material only the bottom right hand corner exists, but it is essentially the same
pattern of curves.
There is no longer any scope for the 5 hp curve to convey any substantial
amount of material and capabilities are in a more ordered fashion. The slope of the
constant power curves is the same and so with 10 hp, for example, 10,000 Ib/h can
be conveyed with 140 ftVmin of free air and 2,500 Ib/h can be conveyed with 200
ft3/min of free air. This represents a four-fold reduction in conveying capability for
a 40% increase in air flow rate.
The 10 hp curve will ultimately reach the horizontal axis and convey noth-
ing when the power is entirely taken up by transporting the air through the pipe-
line. An explanation for this comes the pressure drop model for air only that was
first presented in a simplified form in Chapter 4 at Equation 1 and is re-presented
below for reference:

30
o Power Required - hp
o
o

£ 20 Drop - lbf/in 2
s
E
.2 10
80 120 160 200
Free Air Flow Rate - If/min
Figure 7.8 Power requirements for sandy alumina.

f LpC2
Ap lbf/in 2 (4)
d
It is the velocity term, C2, that dominates in this situation and is one of the
main reasons why the constant power lines slope so steeply in this region. To con-
vey more material the air flow rate needs to be reduced, but there is a conveying
limit in the way to prevent this.
To convey more material the air pressure can be increased, provided that the
air mover has the necessary capability and power, but if this is at the same air flow
rate, the conveying limit is in the way once again. This is why a performance map
for a material is so important, for it provides all the information necessary to make
all the decisions required for a successful system design. Similar data for the poly-
ethylene pellets is presented in Figure 7.9.
There is little difference between the power requirements data for the poly-
ethylene pellets and that for the sandy alumina. This is mainly because the operat-
ing envelope for dense phase conveying with the polyethylene pellets is so small.
Most of the performance data is in the dilute phase conveying region and this dif-
fers little with regard to the properties of the material, regardless of whether the
material can be conveyed in dense phase or not.
The main difference between the pellets and the alumina comes in system
operation. If air flow rate is reduced, or pressure increased, with the pellets the
conveying system will simply stall, and if the conveying conditions are changed it
should be possible to re-start with little problem.

30 Power Required - hp \
o 30
o 25
o

I 20 Drop - Ibf/irv
80 120 160 200

Figure 7.9 Power requirements data for polyethylene pellets.

218 Chapter 7
The conveying limit for the alumina, and other similar materials that can
only be conveyed in dilute phase, suspension flow, is that the conveying limit gen-
erally represent pipeline blockage, and once blocked it is often a time consuming
process to clear the pipeline and re-start.
2.3 Specific Energy

In the above examples specific cases have been taken to illustrate particular points,
such as the effect of air flow rate on performance. A problem with this is that
many other parameters change and so global comparisons are difficult to make. A
basis on which direct comparison can be made is that of specific energy. This will
provide a reliable basis for comparing different materials, such as those being il-
lustrated here, and with alternative mechanical conveying systems for the given
duty.
The units of specific energy are horsepower-hour per ton of material con-
veyed or hp h/ton. Specific energy data superimposed on the conveying character-
istics for the cement is presented in Figure 7.10.
Specific energy, E, is simply the ratio of power required, P, in hp, to material
flow rate, m „ , in ton/h:
8 = hp h/ton (5)
0-5 Solids Loading

160 120
/, 100 80 /Ratio
25
30
;, so
1
b.
"3 10
1 10
40 80 120 160 200
Figure 7.10 Specific energy data for cement.

Power requirement data was presented in Figures 7.7 to 7.9. To plot lines of
constant specific energy simply divide power required by material flow rate and
mark points on the graph that give rounded values of 0-5, 1-0, 1-5, etc. These
points can then be joined to provide lines of constant specific energy. Such data
for the cement from Figure 7.7 is presented in Figure 7.10.
For the cement the specific energy data clearly identifies low velocity con-
veying as being the most efficient. A wide range of specific energy values appear
on Figure 7.10 but this is only because air flow rates up to 200 fWmin have been
included, to be consistent with the other materials being considered. For normal
purposes, and certainly for conveying, air flow rates above 80 ft3/min need not be
considered for cement in the pipeline used. Similar data for the sandy alumina is
presented in Figure 7.11.
Specific energy data for alumina follows a similar pattern to that for the ce-
ment. Values, however, are generally about five times higher and this typifies the
difference between dilute and dense phase conveying capability. The influence of
pressure is a little difficult to isolate.
Constant specific energy lines tend to run approximately parallel to the con-
veying limit and so at first sight it would appear to have little effect. With high
pressure air for conveying, however, stepping of the pipeline to a larger bore
would be recommended.
All the data presented in this chapter is for the Figure 4.2 pipeline which is
single bore. At higher pressures, and with stepped bore pipelines, an improvement
in performance would be expected.
30 Solids Loading Ratio

o Specific Energy
o
o
80 120 160 200
Free Air Flow Rate - fVVmin
Figure 7.11 Specific energy data for sandy alumina.

220 Chapter 7
30
Specific Energy - hp h/ton I
Conveying Line
Pressure Drop - Ibf7in
20
_o
10
0 40 80 120 160 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ft7min

Figure 7.12 Specific energy data for polyethylene pellets.
With regard to pressure, comparisons across a given set of conveying char-

acteristics are not likely to be made. They can certainly be used to investigate the
improvement in performance for a given system, but the alternative influence of
pipeline bore is more likely to be considered when designing a new system. Pipe-
line bore will be considered as a separate issue later in this chapter.
Similar specific energy data for the polyethylene pellets is presented in Fig-
ure 7.12. This follows a similar pattern to that of the alumina once again. At very
low values of air flow rate specific energy values are low, but material flow rates
are also low and so a much larger bore pipeline would probably be needed to
achieve the desired material flow rate.
3 INFLUENCE OF PIPELINE BORE
Pipeline bore has a major influence on conveying capacity, as has been mentioned
before. The influence of pipeline bore on conveying rate is reasonably predictable
and so to illustrate the influence that pipeline bore can have two further materials
have been selected for this purpose. One is a very fine grade of dicalcium phos-
phate, which is capable of being conveyed in dense phase. The other is a coarse
grade of magnesium sulfate which can only be conveyed in dilute phase in a con-
ventional conveying system. Both materials were conveyed through a 310 ft long
pipeline of three inch nominal bore having nine 90° bends. A sketch of the pipe-
line is given in Figure 7.13 for reference.

Pipeline:
Length 310ft
Bore 3 in nominal
Bends 9x90°
D/d = 16
Figure 7.13 Sketch of three inch bore pipeline.
Conveying data for the dicalcium phosphate and the magnesium sulfate con-
veyed through the above pipeline are presented in Figure 7.14.
Solids Loading
Ratio
Conveying Line
Pressure Drop
- lbf/in 2
NO GO AREA 25^*^, ]0
20-
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin Free Air Flow Rate - ft3 / min
(a) (b)
Figure 7.14 Conveying characteristics for materials conveyed through the pipeline
shown in figure 7.13. (a) Dicalcium phosphate and (b) magnesium sulfate.

222 Chapter 7
From Figure 7.14a it will be seen that the dicalcium phosphate could be con-
veyed in dense phase and solids loading ratios up to about 120 were achieved. The
magnesium sulfate, however, had no dense conveying capability, the maximum
value of solids loading ratio achieved was about 12, and the minimum value of
conveying air velocity was about 2500 ft/min.
It will also be noticed that conveying line inlet air pressures up to 30 lbf/in2
were used for both materials. The material flow rates achieved, however, were
very different and so a reduced scale has been used for the magnesium sulfate. 400
fWmin of free air was available for conveying and it will be seen that within this
limit the maximum pressure that could be used for conveying was about 30 IbfVin2.
Although the same horizontal axis has been used for both materials, it could well
have been halved for the dicalcium phosphate.
3.1 Scaling Parameters

To illustrate the influence of pipeline bore on conveying capability, the conveying
data presented in Figures 7.14a and b will be scaled to larger bore pipelines. To
isolate the influence of pipeline bore the length and geometry of the pipeline will
remain the same in each case considered.
For the scale up of the conveying characteristics in respect of pipeline bore,
the change in datum for the empty line will have to be taken into account. This
process was considered earlier in Chapter 6 with Figure 6.5. For reference pur-
poses a similar plot is presented in Figure 7.15, specifically for the Figure 7.13
pipeline.
10
Pipeline
Bore - i
^ 8
<4-
£
I
Q
JJ3
c/s A
Cu
1 2
l-
<
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
2
Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin x (d,/3)
Figure 7.15 Influence of pipeline bore and air flow rate on empty pipeline pressure
drop for figure 7.13 pipeline.

The variation of pressure drop with air flow rate for the three inch bore pipe-
line is included and so the change in datum can be obtained by taking the differ-
ence between the three inch and the required bore of pipeline. It will be seen from
this that the air only pressure drop element reduces significantly with increase in
pipeline bore. For a given conveying line inlet air pressure this means that the
pressure drop available for conveying material will increase slightly with increase
in pipeline bore, and so it will be possible to convey more material as a conse-
quence.
3.1.1 Scaling Model

Scale up of material flow rate, m „ , with respect to pipeline bore, d, can be carried
out with a reasonable degree of accuracy, if the extrapolation is not too great, on
the basis of pipe cross-sectional area, A:
mp x A oc d2 - - - - (6)
or alternatively:
m , m i
const (7)
---
3.1.1.1 Working Model
The working form of this scaling model is:
2
x - Ib/h --- ..... (8)
where subscripts 1 and 2 relate to the appropriate

pipe bores of the two pipelines
It is for this reason that the air flow rate axis on Figure 7.15 is in terms of air
required for the three inch bore pipeline x (d2/3) . Conveying air velocities scale
up exactly and so a common axis can be used. For scaling up of the characteristics
in Figures 7.14a and b to larger bore pipelines the datum pressure drop should first
be changed throughout by the appropriate values obtained from Figure 7.15. Mate-
rial flow rates for a given air flow rate and pressure drop are then scaled in the
ratio of (d2/3)2.
The results of scaling the data in Figures 7.14a and b to larger bore pipelines
are presented in Figure 7.16 and 7.17. Scaling in each case has been carried out for
4, 5, 6 and 8 inch bore pipelines.

224 Chapter 7
.100 200 80 60
40
200 400 600 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Free Air Flow Rate - ft/min Free Air Flow Rate - ft'/min
(a) (b)
100
30-^ -80 60
40
20
0 0 - , , , . ' , , , , , ,
0 400 800 1200 1600 0 1000 2000
Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin Free Air Flow Rate - ft3/min
(c) (d)
Figure 7.16 Conveying characteristics for dicalcium phosphate in various bore pipe-
lines relating to figure 7.13. (a) 4 inch bore, (b) 5 inch bore, (c) 6 inch bore, and (d) 8 inch
bore pipeline.

100
,, § 80
14 o
200 400 600 200 400 600 800 1000

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
(a) (b)
250
200
150
100
800 1200 1600 1000 2000
Free Air Flow Rate - ft/min Free Air Flow Rate - ft/min
(C) (d)
Figure 7.17 Conveying characteristics for magnesium sulfate in various bore pipelines
relating to figure 7.13. (a) 4 inch bore, (b) 5 inch bore, (c) 6 inch bore, and (d) 8 inch bore
pipeline.

226 Chapter 7
3.2 Scaling to Larger Bores

The scale up in terms of pipeline bore produces a set of curves that are basically
geometrically similar for both materials, apart from the slight change due to the
shift in datum for the empty line pressure drop relationship. There is, therefore,
little difference in minimum conveying conditions for different pipeline bores,
since similar solids loading ratios result. Air flow rates are totally different, of
course, as these have been scaled up in proportion to the pipeline cross-sectional
area.
As pipeline bore increases there will be a need to increase the minimum
value of conveying air velocity slightly because of the boundary layer effect. As
the pipeline bore increases, the low velocity area in the boundary layer also in-
creases and an increase in conveying air velocity is required to compensate and so
prevent saltation.
The design department of a company installing a pneumatic conveying sys-
tem are unlikely to go through this detailed process of scaling. They will know
what type of system they wish to supply and so will scale one or two data points
only. The detail is included here to illustrate the global changes, and to show how
pipeline bore can influence the design and specification decisions.
If a range of pipeline bores is considered for a given material flow rate, the
conveying line pressure drop required will decrease, and the air flow rate will in-
crease, with increase in pipeline bore. This means that the pressure capability of
the feeding device will reduce, but the size of the filtration plant will increase.
To illustrate the influence of pipeline bore on system design parameters, ma-
terial flow rates of 80,000 Ib/h for the dicalcium phosphate and 25,000 Ib/h for the
magnesium sulfate have been considered. Data has been taken from the various
sets of conveying characteristics presented and that for the dicalcium phosphate is
presented in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Conveying Parameters for 80,000 Ib/h of Dicalcium Phosphate
Pipeline Air Inlet Free Air Solids Conveying Air Velocity Power
Bore Pressure Flow Rate Loading Required
Ratio At Inlet At Outlet
in Psig cfm - ft/min ft/min hp
3 33 145 110 800 2610 22

4 21 170 102 800 1950 19
5 13 205 85 800 1500 17
6 9 290 60 900 1480 18
8 6 740 24 1500 2120 32

Table 7.2 Conveying Parameters for 25,000 Ib/h of Magnesium Sulfate
Pipeline Air Inlet Free Air Solids Conveying Air Velocity Power
Bore Pressure Flow Rate Loading Required
Ratio At Inlet At Outlet
in psig cfm - ft/min ft/min hp
3 31 520 10-5 3000 9370 75

4 19 600 9-1 3000 6870 64
5 12 740 7-4 3000 5420 57
6 8 930 5-9 3000 4730 54
8 5 1400 3-9 3000 4010 52
Similar data for the magnesium sulfate is presented in Table 7.2.
3.2.1 Influence on Pressure

These tables show that there is a wide range of air supply pressure and pipeline
bore combinations that are capable of meeting any given duty for a material. To
illustrate the point with regard to the influence of pipeline bore on air supply pres-
sure, the data from Tables 7.1 and 7.2 is presented graphically in Figure 7.18.
30
I
01
80,000 Ib/h of
Dicalcium Phosphate
* 20
25,000 Ib/h of
Magnesium Sulfate
•3 10
5 6
Pipeline Bore - inch
Figure 7.18 Typical air pressure - pipeline bore relationships for conveying duties.

228 Chapter 7
Figure 7.18 clearly shows that there is generally no one specific set of de-
sign parameters for a pneumatic conveying system. With a wide range of pipeline
bore and air supply pressure combinations being capable of achieving a given ma-
terial flow rate, the obvious question is which pipeline bore or air supply pressure
results in the most economical design? Plant capital costs could vary considerably,
for with different pipeline bore and air supply pressures there are corresponding
differences in feeder types, filtration requirements and air mover types, apart from
widely different pipeline costs, and so a major case study would need to be carried
out. Power requirements, and hence operating costs, however, are largely depend-
ent upon the air mover specification and so these can be determined quite easily by
using Equation 3.6.
3.2.2 Power Requirements

The approximate power requirements for the cases considered are given in Tables
7.1 and 7.2, and they are presented graphically in Figure 7.19. In most cases the
power required for the air mover represents the major part of the total system
power requirements, although for screw pumps a major allowance must be made
for the screw drive.
Figure 7.19 presents interesting trends for both materials considered. This is
apart from the displacement of the curves, for very different conveying duties, but
this is primarily due to the fact that the magnesium sulfate could not be conveyed
in dense phase.
80 I-
25,000 Ib/h of
Magnesium Sulfate
60
3
cr
e* 40
o
80,000 Ib/h of
Dicalcium Phosphate
20
5 6
Pipeline Bore- inch
Figure 7.19 Influence of pipeline bore on power requirements for given conveying
duties.

For the dicalcium phosphate all of the smaller bore pipelines give reasona-
bly low values of power requirement. This is because the material is conveyed in
dense phase in each case. It is only with the eight inch bore pipeline that there is a
marked reduction in solids loading ratio and the power requirements start to rise
steeply.
For the magnesium sulfate there is a gradual reduction in power require-
ments with increase in pipeline bore. This is essentially due to the change in con-
veying line exit air velocity. The minimum conveying air velocity for this material
is about 2500 ft/min and so a conveying line inlet air velocity of 3000 ft/min has
been taken in every case.
The minor influence of pipeline bore on minimum conveying air velocity
has not been taken into account in this case. Since all the pipelines considered are
single bore, the conveying line exit air velocity is extremely high for the small
bore pipeline options, and this has a significant effect on pressure drop and hence
conveying capability.
3.2.2.1 Stepped Pipelines
For the small bore pipeline/high pressure cases considered, stepped pipelines
would generally be recommended for both the dicalcium phosphate and the mag-
nesium sulfate. This would have the effect of reducing the air supply pressure
needed, and hence the power required, for the smaller bore pipeline options.
In the case of the magnesium sulfate it would have the effect of making the
power requirement curve almost into a horizontal line at about 55 hp. For the di-
calcium phosphate it would probably reduce the power requirements for all the
small bore pipelines to about 15 hp. Chapter 9 of this Handbook is devoted en-
tirely to stepped pipeline systems
4 INFLUENCE OF CONVEYING DISTANCE
Conveying distance also has a major influence on conveying capacity. If convey-

ing distance is increased, the material flow rate will decrease, for the same convey-
ing line inlet air pressure. If the air supply pressure is increased, and the air flow
rate is also increased, to cater for the compressibility effect, it will be possible to
achieve the same material flow rate. Increasing the air supply pressure, however, is
rarely an option.
The influence of conveying distance on conveying rate is reasonably pre-
dictable and so to illustrate the influence that pipeline length can have, the data
presented in Figures 7.16d and 7.17d have been selected for this purpose. These
are the conveying characteristics for the dicalcium phosphate and the magnesium
sulfate conveyed over 310 feet. This relates to the Figure 7.13 pipeline but having
a bore of eight inches. These two materials have been chosen once again because
the influence of conveying distance is different between materials that are capable
of being conveyed in dense phase and those that can only be conveyed in dilute
phase.

230 Chapter 7
4.1 Scaling Parameters

To illustrate the influence of conveying distance on conveying capability the sets
of conveying data presented in Figures 7.17d and 7.18d are taken as the reference
points and are scaled to longer length pipelines. For the scale up of the conveying
characteristics in respect of pipeline length, the change in datum for the empty line
will have to be taken into account.
This process was considered in Chapter 6 with Figure 6.4. For references
purposes a similar plot is presented in Figure 7.20 for the conveying distances to
be considered.
The variation of pressure drop with air flow rate for the 310 ft long pipeline
is included so that the change in datum can be obtained by taking the difference
between the 310 ft and the required length of pipeline. It will be seen from this that
the air only pressure drop element increases with increase in pipeline length. For a
given conveying line inlet air pressure this means that the pressure drop available
for conveying material will reduce slightly with increase in pipeline length. This
must be taken into account, as well as the influence of conveying distance on con-
veying capability.
4.1.1 Scaling Model

Scale up of material flow rate, mp , with respect to conveying distance, L, can be
carried out with a reasonable degree of accuracy, if the extrapolation is not too
great, on the basis of a reciprocal law model:
2500 1500
10 Pipeline Length -
a. 1000
o
o 310
2
1000 2000 3000 4000
Free Air Flow Rate - frVmin
Figure 7.20 Influence of pipeline length and air flow rate on empty pipeline pressure
drop for 8 inch bore pipeline.

m oc — - - (9)
P T
A
or alternatively:
mplLc] = mp2Le2 = Const. . . . . . . . . (io)
For a constant air flow rate and pressure drop

due to the conveyed material.
where /»„ = mass flow rate of material
and Le = equivalent length of pipeline
Conveying distance, L, is expressed in terms of an equivalent length, Le, of

the total pipeline. This comprises the three main elements of the pipeline routing
and geometry. One is the length of the horizontal sections of pipeline, the second
is the length of vertically up or down sections of pipeline, and the third relates to
the bends in the pipeline. Horizontal pipeline is taken as the reference for equiva-
lent length. The influence of distance, therefore, will ultimately depend upon the
routing of the pipeline. For this exercise, to illustrate the typical influence of con-
veying distance as a variable, the pipeline geometry in Figure 7.13 has been used.
4.1.1.1 Working Model
The working form of this scaling model is:
m -, = mp]x-^ Ib/h - - - - - - - - (ii)

A2
where subscripts 1 and 2 relate to the appropriate
lengths of the two pipelines
4.2 Scaling to Longer Distances

In this exercise the two materials are considered separately. With pipeline bore
both the air flow rate and material flow rate axes were scaled by the same parame-
ter and so the results were approximately geometrically similar. For conveying
distance only one of the axes has to be changed and this has a considerable distort-
ing effect with regard to materials capable of dense phase conveying.
4.2.1 Magnesium Sulfate

The conveying characteristics for the sodium sulfate conveyed through the 310 ft
long pipeline of 8 in bore were presented in Figure 7.17d. Results of scaling to
longer length pipelines of 8 in bore are presented in Figure 7.21.

232 Chapter 7
0 1000 2000 0 1000 2000
Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin Free Air Flow Rate - ftYmin
(a) (b)
1000 2000 1000 2000
Free Air Flow Rate - ft/min Free Air Flow Rate - ft/min
(C) (a)
Figure 7.21 Conveying characteristics for magnesium sulfate in pipelines of increasing
length, (a) 600 foot, (b) 1000 foot, (c) 1500 foot, and (d) 2500 foot pipeline.
Since there is no change in pipeline bore, and the same range of air supply
pressures is considered, there is no change in the air flow rate axis for any of the
four conveying characteristics presented in Figure 7.21. The changes all relate to
the material flow rate axis, and hence also to the solids loading ratio values.

Over 310 ft, in Figure 7.17d, 180,000 Ib/h of material would be conveyed
and the solids loading ratio would be about 15, with a conveying line pressure
drop of 30 lbf/in2. This is entirely dilute phase, suspension flow, as explained ear-
lier, and the minimum conveying air velocity is about 2500 ft/min, almost regard-
less of air supply pressure and conveying distance.
With the distance almost doubled to 600 ft in Figure 7.2la, and the scaling
model being an inverse law relationship, it would be expected that the material
flow rate would drop to about half, for the same air supply pressure. It will be seen
that the material flow rate has, in fact, dropped to about 88,000 Ib/h. This slight
reduction on half is mostly due to the increase in air only pressure drop, which
leaves less pressure available for the conveying of material.
If the conveying line pressure drop had been doubled to about 60 lbf/in 2 , in
order to compensate, and so maintain the same pressure gradient, a material flow
rate close to 180,000 Ib/h would have been achieved. This is provided that the air
flow rate was also increased in order to compensate for the compressibility effect
of the air and thereby maintain 2500 ft/min as the minimum velocity.
It must be emphasized that if the conveying distance is doubled, the material
flow rate must be halved for the system to work within the capability of the same
air supply pressure, as illustrated with Equation 10. Double the distance for the
same material flow rate equates to double the energy required. This applies to both
dilute and dense phase conveying.
If a conveying system is extended to supply a storage silo that is further
away, a lower material flow rate must be expected. If a system has to supply a
number of silos at varying distances, by means of diverter valves, it is most impor-
tant that this fact is taken into account. If there is no control over material feed
rate, therefore, all silos will have to be fed at the lowest flow rate, corresponding to
the furthest silo, and so conveying to the nearest silo will be very inefficient.
With an extension in conveying distance to 1000 ft the maximum value of
material flow rate drops further to about 52,000 Ib/h. If a much higher flow rate
were to be required over this distance there would be little option but to increase
the pipeline bore. Over a distance of 2500 ft the material flow rate drops to about
18,000 Ib/h and it will be seen that the solids loading ratio is now only about l'/2
which is very dilute phase. Conveying over this and very much longer distances,
however, is possible and very much higher material flow rates can be achieved,
but power requirements are relatively high.
4.2.2 Dicalcium Phosphate

Because of the changes that occur with materials capable of dense phase convey-
ing, the reference conveying characteristics for the dicalcium phosphate conveyed
over 310 ft from Figure 7.16d have been reproduced in landscape form in Figure
7.22 in order to illustrate the nature of the changes more clearly for this type of
material. Because the pipeline bore and air supply pressures remain the same in
this procedure there is essentially no change in air flow rate needed to maintain the
same conveying line inlet air velocity.

234 Chapter 7
Conveying Line Pressure Solids Loading

Drop - lbf/in 2 Ratio
\
100
500
30.'.
400
20 1
~ 300
200
100
1000 2000 3000
Free Air Flow Rale - ftVmin
Figure 7.22 Conveying characteristics for dicalcium phosphate conveyed over 310 ft
in 8 in bore pipeline.
With a reduction in material flow rate, however, there will be a change in

solids loading ratio, as was clearly illustrated in Figure 7.21 with the magnesium
sulfate. For powdered materials that can be conveyed in dense phase, however, the
minimum value of conveying air velocity is influenced quite significantly by the
value of the solids loading ratio. This concept was introduced in Chapter 4 with
Figure 4.6.
The relationship between minimum conveying air velocity and solids load-
ing ratio for dicalcium phosphate is presented on Figure 7.23. That for the magne-
sium sulfate is also included on Figure 7.23 for reference and comparison. From
Figure 7.22 it will be seen that very high values of solids loading ratio were
achieved, and because the conveying distance was relatively short, solids loading
ratios of almost 100 were achieved with a conveying line pressure drop of only 10
lbf/in 2 . As conveying distance increases, however, and material flow rate de-
creases according to an inverse law relationship, solids loading ratios reduce quite
dramatically.

3000 h
.Magnesium Sulfate
Dicalcium Phosphate
0 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 7.23 Minimum conveying air velocity relationships for materials used.
Conveying characteristics for the Dicalcium Phosphate conveyed over a dis-

tance of 600 ft through the 8 inch bore pipeline are presented in Figure 7.24.
80 60 40
250
so;
200
100
50
0
0 1000 2000 3000
Free Air Flow Rate - fiVmin
Figure 7.24 Conveying characteristics for dicalcium phosphate over 600 feet.

236 Chapter 7
With an almost doubling in conveying distance to 600 ft there is a corre-

sponding halving in material flow rate capability, and hence a similar reduction in
solids loading ratio. The maximum value of solids loading ratio is now well below
100 and only with a conveying line pressure drop of 20 lbf/in 2 is the solids loading
ratio above a value of about 70. For pressures below 20 lbf/in 2 there is a dramatic
change in the conveying characteristics.
In this region the pressure gradient available is not high enough to support
high solids loading ratio conveying and much of the area around a pressure drop of
10 lbf/in2 has changed entirely to dilute phase suspension flow. As a consequence
the air flow rate required to convey with a conveying line pressure drop of 10
lbf/in2 changes from about 400 ftVmin over a distance of 310 ft to about 1200
ftVmin over a distance of 600 ft.
It is the relationship between minimum conveying air velocity and solids
loading ratio in Figure 7.23 that dictates these changes. As the distance increases,
the material flow rate decreases and hence the solids loading ratio also decreases.
With a decrease in solids loading ratio below about 90 there will have to be an
increase in conveying air velocity. In order to increase velocity there must be an
increase in air flow rate. If there is an increase in air flow rate there will be a corre-
sponding reduction in solids loading ratio.
This is a slowly converging cycle and explains why, for a pressure drop of
10 lbf/in2, the air flow rate required can increase by a factor of three for a doubling
in conveying distance. Extreme caution must be exercised in the design of dense
phase conveying systems in the region where conveying line pressure gradients
are in the region of 4 to 8 lbf/in2 per 100 ft of pipeline, particularly if operating
close to the minimum value of conveying air velocity, for a reduction in material
flow rate could result in pipeline blockage. This aspect of system operation is con-
sidered in more detail in Chapter 19.
This entire process is repeated, but at higher values of air supply pressure,
with the extension of the pipeline to 1000 ft in Figure 7.25. From Figure 7.25 it
will be seen that there is no dense phase conveying capability over this distance at
all. The minimum conveying air velocity is about 2100 ft/min for all pressures
considered. The transition is still there, but at higher pressures. At a pressure of
about 45 lbf/in2 the material could be conveyed with a very low air flow rate and
at low velocity. In this case the transition to dilute phase at 30 lbf/in 2 would be
even more dramatic, but in terms of ratios of air flow rates it would be about three
to one again.
With further increase in conveying distance the changes are no different
from those for the magnesium sulfate in Figure 7.21. Conveying is only in dilute
phase and so there are no further changes in air flow rate. Conveying characteris-
tics for the dicalcium phosphate conveyed over 1500 ft are given in Figure 7.26.
The influence of conveying distance on material flow rate is illustrated in
Figure 7.27. The maximum material flow rate achieved through an eight inch bore
pipeline with a conveying line pressure drop of 30 lbf/in 2 has been taken as the
basis for both the dicalcium phosphate and the magnesium sulfate. The difference
in conveying capability between the two materials is typical of the differences that
can exist between different materials, as discussed in Chapter 4.

160
o
§ 120
I 80
_g
E
C3
40
I I I 4 I I I I I I I I
0 1000 2000 3000

100
80 30
60
40
20 •
0 I I I f I I ! I I I I
0 1000 2000 3000

Free Air Flow Rate - ft3/min

238 Chapter 7
500 Dicalcium
o
o
o Phosphate
400 Air Supply Pressure = 301bf/in 2 |
Pipeline Bore = 8 inch
I
300
a!
_o 200
u,
."§
100
500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Conveying Distance - feet
Figure 7.27 Influence of conveying distance on material flow rate for materials and
conveying conditions considered.
This is approximately an inverse law relationship for both materials and so it

will be seen that changes are particularly pronounced over shorter conveying dis-
tances. Conveying distance, therefore, is an important parameter to take into ac-
count when designing a conveying system. It is even more important if materials
are required to be conveyed over a range of distances with a common conveying
system.
For the dilute phase conveying of materials little change in conveying air ve-
locity is required with change in distance. For materials capable of being conveyed
in dense phase, however, the specification of air flow rate is particularly important.
Because low velocity dense phase conveying requires a relatively high pressure
gradient, and because high pressure air is not convenient to use in systems that
exhaust to atmospheric pressure, the possibility of dense phase conveying rapidly
reduces with increase in distance.
This transition from dense phase to dilute phase conveying is illustrated for
the dicalcium phosphate in an eight inch bore pipeline in Figure 7.28. The vertical
axis is that of material flow rate, but scaled by the inverse law relationship with
respect to conveying distance. The horizontal axis is that of free air flow rate in an
eight inch bore pipeline. Approximate lines of constant conveying line pressure
drop are also included. These are only approximate locations for reference since
their location will shift slightly with respect to conveying distance.
The sloping line at low air flow rate corresponds to a conveying line inlet air
velocity of about 600 ft/min and so represents the minimum conveying limit for
the dense phase conveying of the dicalcium phosphate.

J 500
o 900 ft +
r<->
^400
'o
| 300
& 200
_o
E 100
cd
500 1000 1500 2000

Free Air Flow Rate - fr/min
Figure 7.28 Influence of conveying distance on air flow rate required for conveying
dicalcium phosphate.
Conveying down to this limit is possible with a high pressure gradient, typi-
cally above about 10 lbf/in2 per 100 ft length of pipeline. This means that convey-
ing in this region is possible with either a high conveying air pressure or with a
short conveying line.
The sloping line at high air flow rates corresponds to a conveying line inlet
air velocity of about 2100 ft3/min and so represents the minimum conveying limit
for the dilute phase conveying of the dicalcium phosphate. This is the minimum
limit for conveying if the conveying distance is long or the pressure available for
conveying is low. These, of course, are relative terms, but Figure 7.28 illustrates
the situation with regard to dicalcium phosphate. Other materials, capable of being
conveyed in dense phase and at low velocity, will follow very similar patterns.
When conveying data for a material is extended down to the air only pres-
sure drop datum, and hence zero material flow rate, as with the conveying charac-
teristics presented here, most of the materials capable of being conveyed in dense
phase will include the transition from dense to dilute phase. That for the 310 ft
long pipeline starts the transition at a pressure of about 10 lbf/in and that for the
600 ft long pipeline starts at about 20 lbf/in 2 . For pipelines above about 900 ft long
the transition occurs at a pressure above about 30 lbf/in . The transition generally
occurs over a relatively narrow band of pressure drop values.
Conveying in the region between these two limits is perfectly safe, stable
and viable. It is dense phase conveying. If changes in operating conditions with a
system, however, such as distance, pressure and material flow rate, result in the
operating point being close to the conveying limit that links the 600 ft/min and

240 Chapter 7
2100 ft/min limit lines, the system could become unstable and likely to block the
pipeline [1].
5 OTHER PIPELINE FEATURES
It was mentioned earlier, in relation to Equation 7.10, that the equivalent length of
pipeline comprised a number of elements and that horizontal conveying distance
was just one element. The other elements include vertical sections of pipeline and
pipeline bends and these will be considered in the next chapter.
REFERENCE
1. D. Mills. An investigation of the unstable region for dense phase conveying

in sliding bed flow. Proc 4th Int Conf for Conveying and Handling of Particu-
late Solids. Budapest. May, 2003.

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Conveyed Material Influences

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Various materials were compared in Chapter 4 in terms of their conveying capabil-

Pressure Drop 160 120

Figure 7.1 Conveying characteristics for cement.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

40 80 120 160 200

Figure 7.2 Conveying characteristics for sandy alumina.

The data, therefore, relates to positive pressure conveying. A relatively high

40 80 120 160 200

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.1 Conveying Air Velocity

where Vn = volumetric flow rate of free air - ftVmin

160 120 Solids Loading

40 80 120 160 200

Figure 7.4 Conveying air velocity data for cement.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Conveying Line Pressure

0 40 80 120 160 200

Figure 7.5 Conveying air velocity data for sandy alumina.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

40 80 120 160 200

Figure 7.6 Conveying air velocity data for polyethylene pellets.

As a consequence, changes in material feed rate, and hence pressure, have a

2.2 Power Requirements

Power = 0-128 V hp (2)

where VQ = air flow rate at free air conditions - ftVmin

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

In order to plot lines of constant power, P, it is the volumetric flow rate of

Solids Loading Ratio

40 80 120 160 200

Figure 7.7 Power requirements data for cement.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

This is usually a sufficient margin to allow for pulsations in material flow

Solids Loading Ratio

Conveying Line Pressure

80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - If/min

Figure 7.8 Power requirements for sandy alumina.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Solids Loading Ratio

Conveying Line Pressure

80 120 160 200

Figure 7.9 Power requirements data for polyethylene pellets.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.3 Specific Energy

0-5 Solids Loading

40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin

Figure 7.10 Specific energy data for cement.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

30 Solids Loading Ratio

80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - fVVmin

Figure 7.11 Specific energy data for sandy alumina.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Solids Loading Ratio

0 40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - ft7min

With regard to pressure, comparisons across a given set of conveying char-

3 INFLUENCE OF PIPELINE BORE

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 7.13 Sketch of three inch bore pipeline.