Aluminum Lithium Alloy Welding Process Features

8 Aluminum–Lithium Alloy
Welding Process Features

Typically, aluminum–lithium alloy constructions are welded by the most common
methods of welding of traditional aluminum alloy constructions. Here, a series of
special welding methods have been developed, and this work was directly associated
with the manufacture of welded construction of aluminum–lithium alloys.
The welding method is determined by the structural features of the welding con-
struction (metal thickness in the welding zone, length of weld seams), as well as the
requirements to the welded joints, their controllability, and reparability. Currently,
to fabricate welded constructions of aluminum–lithium alloys, electric resistance
welding, gas shielded arc welding, electron beam welding, and friction stir welding
are applied.
8.1 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY ELECTRIC

RESISTANCE WELDING
The most popular methods of the current electric resistance welding of aluminum-–
lithium alloys are spot and seam welding.
Spot welding is applied to aluminum–lithium alloy constructions where the metal
thickness is within the range from 0.8 up to 5–6 mm. The most typical joint types
produced using the spot welding process are shown in Figure 8.1. The elements
assembled for welding should fit each other; however, gaps below 0.3 mm within
100 mm may be acceptable.
To get quality joints, special attention should be given to the surface preparation
of the parts. Prior to spot and contact-roller welding, both faces of the sheet elements
are cleaned within 30–50 mm from the locations of welding spots or seams. The best
results are obtained after a chemical treatment: part etching is carried out in special
baths after a prior degreasing. It is recommended to carry out etching at 17°C–25°C
in an aqueous solution of concentrated orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4) with the addi-
tion of 0.1%–0.3% potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7). The etching duration should
be 10–15 min, followed by hot air drying (T = 70°C–80°C) [202]. After etching,
the parts may be stored prior to the welding process up to 3 days using AC welding
machines and up to 24 h at stored-energy welding machines.
The spot welding of aluminum–lithium alloys is associated with some difficulties.
As aluminum’s electrical conductivity is quite high, the welding process is accom-
panied by metal overheating at the contact point of the electrode and the part and,
as a consequence, their fusion. To avoid such detrimental effect, in some cases heat-
insulation gaskets of steel 12X18H9 of thickness 0.2–0.5 mm are inserted between
the electrode and the aluminum part (Figure 8.2). Such gaskets are not welded to
219
220 Aluminum–Lithium Alloys
FIGURE 8.1 Aluminum alloy spot welding connection types.
FIGURE 8.2 Scheme of aluminum spot welding with stainless steel gaskets. (1) Electrode;
(2) gasket; (3) parts welded.
the parts. In the course of welding of aluminum–lithium alloys, the electrical resis-
tance of the oxide films formed on the part surface shall be maintained at a possibly
low and constant level, if applicable. When using AC welding machines, the resis-
tance shall be within 100–300 μΩ, and when using stored-energy welding machines,
it shall be below 100 μΩ [202]. To control the quality, the part surfaces are held
between electrodes of special press or spot machine. To measure the joint resistance,
micrometer caliper of the M246 type or any other device intended for low resistance
measurement may be used.
The spot welding of aluminum–lithium alloys requires extremely high density of
welding currents: up to 1000 A/mm2 or more, which exceeds the current density dur-
ing welding of low-carbon steel significantly. The current values are 3–4 times that
used in the welding of steel (Table 8.1) but may be comparable to the welding current
used in the welding of traditional aluminum alloys.
The recommended specific pressure is 59–98 MPa. Spot core diameter during the
welding of alloy 1420 with thickness of 2–3 mm is 8–11 mm. Since heating caused
by spot welding results in the softening of aluminum–lithium alloys and the dimen-
sion of softened zone is proportional to the welding duration, the alloys of such type
are welded by applying relatively short impulses of the current within 0.08–0.3 s
(strict modes).
Depending on the metal thickness, the following electrode sphere radii are
selected [203]:
Metal thickness, mm 1 2 >3
Electrode sphere radius, mm 75 100 150
Aluminum–Lithium Alloy Welding Process Features 221
TABLE 8.1
Preliminary Spot Welding Modes for Aluminum–Lithium Alloys
Electrode Welding Welding Current
Alloy Thickness, mm Force, kN Current, kA Application Duration, s
1420 1.5 + 1.5 7.85 46 0.21
2.0 + 2.0 6.77 33.8 0.23
3.0 + 3.0 6.87 41.7 0.22
V-1469 1.5 + 1.5 4.41 28.3 0.10
2.0 + 2.0 6.38 34.3 0.12
3.0 + 3.0 7.55 39.5 0.16
During the welding of aluminum–lithium alloys, minimum heat release at the

point of contact of the electrode and the part and intense electrode cooling must be
ensured. Therefore, the alloy’s electrical conductivity for electrode manufacturing
shall be not less than 85%–90% of that of copper.
During spot welding of high-strength aluminum–lithium alloys in the thickness
range 1.5–2 mm, better core compaction and, as a consequence, elimination of the
susceptibility of the welded spot to pores and cracks are achieved by the application
of a cycle of alternating force with forging pressure Pf (Figure 8.3). In most cases, it
is assumed that Pf = 1.5 + 3 Pweld, where Pweld is the force applied to the electrodes
at welding heating step. Therefore, alloy 1460T with a sheet thickness of 1.5 mm
requires Pweld = 6500 N, and Pf = 9,810–11,800 N. To avoid metal overheating at
the point of the electrode–part contact, to reduce the electrode wear level, and to
improve the quality of aluminum–lithium alloy part surfaces, in some cases (e.g., for
critical parts) the impulse of welding current is simulated with gradual rise and fall
(Figure 8.4).
During welding of aluminum alloys, the spots demonstrating high strength at
shear exhibit poor fracture strength (Table 8.2).
Seam welding can be applied quite successfully for the production of alu-
minum alloy parts with thickness up to 4 mm requiring sealing. In this case, the
I, P
I
Pf
FIGURE 8.3 Cycle scheme of single-impulse spot welding of aluminum alloys under forg-
ing pressure.
I, P
FIGURE 8.4 Cycle scheme of spot welding with gradual current increase and decrease.
TABLE 8.2
Average Fracture Force of Weld Points of Aluminum–Lithium Alloys
Fracture Force, kN
Core
Alloy Grade Thickness, mm Diameter, mm For Shear For Breakoff
1420 2.0 + 2.0 9.0 8.5 4.2
3.0 + 3.0 10.5 9.6 3.6
V-1469 2.0 + 2.0 9.0 6.5 2.4
3.0 + 3.0 10.5 10.6 4.1
aluminum–lithium alloys may be welded applying one of two techniques: inter-

rupted welding or stitch welding.
The first technique consists of continuous movement of the part under weld-
ing with reference to machine electrodes, and the welding current is supplied as
impulses velocity, ti, alternating with pauses, tp. Interrupted current activation
allows avoiding overheating of the surfaces of the welded parts, thereby effecting
significant reduction of the electrode wear. For aluminum–lithium alloys, the ratio
of ti /tp is 0.32:0.45.
The second method consists of incorporating alternating welding current and
moving parts: welding performed on fixed parts and moving parts is carried out at a
constant pressure when the welding current is not supplied.
The basic types of joints in the stitch welding of aluminum are identical those
of the steel and other metals (Figure 8.5). The size, C, is selected depending on the
alloy thickness [4]:
b, mm 1 1.5 2
C, mm 14 17 20
The width of roll operating part is 2–12 mm and it increases with the growth of
the welded metal thickness. The electrode diameter is 150–200 mm. Rolls with
spherical operating surfaces are used for welding of aluminum–lithium alloys. Seam
b
(a)
b
(b)
FIGURE 8.5 Basic typical joints of seam welding of aluminum–lithium alloys. (a) Lap-
welded. (b) Edge-welded.
TABLE 8.3
Preliminary Modes of Stitch Welding of Aluminum–Lithium Alloy 1420
t, s
Roll Stitch
Width, Current Compressive VCB, Increment,
b, mm mm ICB, kA Effect Pauses Force, kN m/min mm
1.0 + 1.0 3.6 32 0.06 0.10 3.3 0.75 2.0
1.5 + 1.5 4.8 38 0.06 0.18 4.2 0.65 2.5
2.0 + 2.0 6.6 41 0.08 0.24 4.8 0.50 2.5
welding of aluminum–lithium alloys requires considerable current in the welding

circuit (Table 8.3) [4]. So, high-power roll machines are used for these purposes
(250–350 kVA).
The electrode compression values are close to the values for the low-carbon steel
with the same thickness. Welding speed is lower than with steel, and within the
range 0.5–1.0 m/min. With the increase of thickness of the welded parts the rate
decreases.
The state of the alloy surface has a significant influence on the seam quality dur-
ing both seam and spot welding.
It should be noted that some difficulties related to the determination of the bound-
ary nucleus occur during the interpretation of the x-ray images as this alloy contains
no x-ray contrast materials. In the case of spot welding of Al–Cu–Li alloys, such
FIGURE 8.6 Appearance of alloy V-1469 weld spot in the x-ray image.
difficulties never occur because of copper edging to the nuclear boundaries, result-
ing in the distinct appearance of the nucleus surrounded by a light ring in the x-ray
image (Figure 8.6).
8.2 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM SHEET SEMIFINISHED

PRODUCT FUSION WELDING FEATURES
In the course of fusion welding of alloy 1420, the seams are characterized by a large
number of pores located close to the zone of melting with the base metal. Other parts
of the seam display only a small number pores.
According to [5], the cause of the porosity typical for alloy 1420 weld seams is the
surface film generated during pre-quenching heating at temperatures over 420°C.
Lithium present in alloy 1420 contributes to creation of the surface film. And this
film is capable of intense absorption of moisture and hydrogen and forms lithium
hydride. In the course of welding, moisture and lithium hydride decomposition result
in atomic hydrogen release, causing pore development. According to the data pro-
vided in [205], to avoid pores in the metal seam of alloy 1420, prior to welding the
surface layer should be removed up to depth of 0.05 mm by etching the connecting
parts in a solution 100–110 g/L caustic soda at a temperature of 60°C–70°C for
10–15 min.
A higher number of pores were observed in the weld of sheet semifinished prod-
ucts of alloys 1460, V-1469, and others, when the surface contained the oxide film.
So the authors paid considerable attention to the analysis of the structure of the sur-
face layer of sheet semifinished products of aluminum–lithium alloys.
The experiments demonstrated that welding of sheet samples of aluminum–
lithium alloys caused intense formation of gas bubbles along the contact zone of
the molten crater at both the joint and penetration sides [206]. During welding with
gradual increase of the penetration depth by gradual increase of the arc current,
TABLE 8.4
Amount and Diameter of Welded Joints in Alloy 1420 with Various
Dissolved Hydrogen Contents (Welding along the Solid Material)
Initial Hydrogen Content, cm3/100 g Pore Amount, pc./100 mm Pore Diameter, mm
0.33 95–124 0.05–1.0
0.48 88–110 0.05–1.0
0.67 98–130 0.05–1.0
0.95 75–105 0.02–1.2
gas bubbles build-up was intense when the molten metal reached the surface layer
located at the root of the joint.
During welding of the solid pate of alloy 1420, the number of pores recorded in
the joints was established to be independent of the initial hydrogen content dissolved
in the base metal (Table 8.4).
The results of the investigation of the surface layer structure of a sheet of alloy
1420 after air quenching from 450°C and artificial aging for 5 h at 120°C confirmed
that the surface layer consisted of the oxide film and an enlarged grain layer (ring);
the oxide film contained several layers flowing one into another and the external
layer consisted of lithium hydroxide and Li2CO3 [207,208].
Then, the magnesium–aluminate type layer based on magnesium and lithium
oxides followed. The total thickness of the oxide film was 0.047–0.061 mm. Table 8.5
shows the composition of the oxide film in alloy 1460.
The enlarged grains layer with a thickness of 0.12–0.14 mm demonstrated lower
content of lithium and magnesium. Its hardness was 50 units when that of the deeper
layer was 62.5 units. The zone with enlarged grains contained not only aluminum-
based solid solution but also MgO and Al2O3. The macrostructure of the surface
layer of sheet of alloy 1420 is shown in Figure 8.7.
TABLE 8.5
Structure of Oxide Films at Aluminum–Lithium Alloy Sheet Surface
Film Thickness, mm
Total (Considering the Layer
Alloy Oxide Film Structure Individual Component with Enlarged Grains)
1420 Li2O + LiOH 0.006–0.009 0.37–0.48
MgO 0.01–0.017
MgO + Al2O3 0.02–0.06
Al2O3 0.002–0.007
1460 Li2O + LiOH 0.005–0.009 0.015–0.040
Li2O + Al2O3 0.008–0.012
Al2O3 0.003–0.009
FIGURE 8.7 Microstructure of the surface layer of alloy 1420 sheet with 3 mm thickness;
200× magnification.
At 0.03–0.06 mm depth from the sheet surface, some micro-discontinuities occur

and the zone surrounding them shows a higher hydrogen content. According to the
opinion of authors of [216], due to increasing diffusion of lithium and magnesium,
some cavities of vacansion origin acting as hydrogen accumulators form in the sub-
surface layer of alloy 1420. For hydrogen dissociation, the quenching temperature
of the semifinished products (450°C–460°C) is insufficient, so hydrogen remains in
cavities and acts as a cause for pore formation during the welding process [4]. The
pores are concentrated in the heat-affected zone due to the influence of welding ther-
mal cycle on the micro-discontinuities present in the base metal, that is, they occur
not in the molten welded metal but in the semisolid phase of the heat-affected zone.
For this reason, all methods affecting the molten metal in the crater in the course of
welding are inefficient.
The surface layer of alloy 1420 of the aluminum–copper–lithium system consists
of the oxide film and enlarged grain layers as well. The upper layers of the oxide
film contain hydrated lithium oxide and LiOH with inclusions of Li2CO3. The layer
containing the complicated oxide Al2O3·Li2O is located under this layer. In addition,
Al2O3 is in its α-modification with a higher crystal lattice parameter due to the biva-
lent copper cations.
Metallographic analyses showed that the layer with enlarged grains is located
under the oxide film on the surface of alloy 1460. The hardness of the enlarged grain
layer is lower by 360–370 MPa than the hardness of the deeper alloy layers. The
thickness of the surface layer of alloy 1460 was 0.07–0.12 mm.
Investigations on hydrogen distribution in the aluminum–lithium alloy surface
layer, performed by multiple laser beam probing of the sample surface after con-
trolled removal of the metal layer, confirmed that the hydrogen content in the surface
sample layer exceeded that in the deeper metal layers by 3–5 times.
Gas release cm /100 g

6
3
5
1
4
2
3
3
2
4
1
5
200 300 400 500 600
Heating temperature, °C
FIGURE 8.8 Trend of gas release from alloy 1462 (solid lines) and from alloy 1201 (dashed
lines) surface after petrol degreasing (1), chemical etching (2), chemical milling (3), speed
milling (4), and vacuum heat treatment (5).
Besides, the surface layer with enlarged grains displayed a lower content of the
basic alloying elements.
The process of gas release from the surface was analyzed in a vacuum-heating
unit with an induction furnace; its schematic configuration is presented in [209] and
in the unit for surface heating with the laser beam by the technique described [210].
During the heating stage, the gases released are pumped through a mass
spectrometer detector to record the mass spectrum in the range m/e = 1–60. The
dependence of gas release from the surface of alloys 1460 and 1201 is presented
in Figure 8.8.
The kinetics of gas release was analyzed at the heating rate of 9°C/min–10°C/min.
It offered the possibility to monitor the temperatures of the start and end of gas
release for every gas-containing compound accurately. Under actual welding con-
ditions, the heating rates are higher by hundreds of times and the release of gas in
gas-containing compounds occurs almost simultaneously.
With respect to hydrogen, three types of spectra were obtained for alloys 1420,
1460, AMg6, and 1201: the first spectrum was in the range 220°C–300°C, the second
one in 450°C–550°C, and the last one in 650°C–700°C. At 220°C–300°C, hydrogen
may be assumed to be released in the course of dissociation of moisture adsorbed on
the metal surface. At 450°C–550°C, hydrogen is released from hydroxides, namely
AlOH, LiOH, and Mg(OH)2; and at 650°C–700°C dissolved hydrogen is released
from the base metal.
The experimental data obtained may be the ground for an exogenous mecha-
nism for inception of gas bubbles in the surface layer of aluminum–lithium alloys
FIGURE 8.9 Subsurface pore occurrence in base metal along the welded joint of alloy 1420.
at the fusion zone of the welding pool within the range 540°C–620°C due to disso-
ciation of compounds on the surface layers. This mechanism consists of molecular
hydrogen release from micro-discontinuities of the enlarged grain layer and dis-
sociation of components of the oxide film on heating. Up to ~750°C, free hydrogen
release at the front contact zone of the welding pool is obstructed by the LiOH
layer. This situation results in the build-up of gas bubbles flowing into the welding
pool, creating porosity at the solidification stage. The creation of such bubbles is
confirmed by the results of microstructure analysis of the welded joints, presented
in Figure 8.9.
To produce a pore-free welded joint of sheets of aluminum–lithium alloys, the
effective process activity is the controlled removal of the surface layer to a depth of
0.15–0.20 mm. In this case, the layer with enlarged grains is removed completely
and the oxide film consists of Li2O, MgO, and LiOH.
The modification of alloy quenching temperatures from 450°C to 400°C enables

the reduction of the surface layer thickness (from 0.12–0.15 to 0.05–0.07 mm), which
is done to get pore-free welded joints [11].
According to the data in [211], during welding of alloy 1420, pores may be avoided
by heating at a temperature of 450°C for 2 h or more prior to standard heat treatment
of the sheet material. However, the heat treatment does not decrease the mechanical
properties of the welded joints. The positive effect of vacuum annealing remains for
the long period through the formation of a surface layer with reduced content of the
reactive components of lithium and magnesium.
The duration of vacuum treatment at temperatures over 450°C depends on the
material thickness; it is 4–6 h for a metal thickness of 2 mm, 12 h for a metal thick-
ness of 6 mm, and 12–24 h for a metal thickness of 10–16 mm [212].
Pre-heat-treatment vacuum annealing contributes to an increase in the durability
of the welded joints, obtained by automatic argon arc welding under the condition of
low cycle fatigue, and it is associated with [213] with significant reduction of seam
porosity and amount of hydrogen dissolved in alloy 1420. Vacuum heat treatment of
alloy 1420 prior to welding contributes to an increase of the mechanical properties
and corrosion resistance of the welded joints with a thickness of 2 mm with argon arc
welding with tungsten electrodes and with a thickness of 6 and 10 mm with electron
beam welding [214].
The temperature of vacuum annealing of alloy 1420 may be selected within the
range 450°C–500°C. With increase of the annealing temperature the time of vacuum
treatment may be reduced considerably [215].
The results of experiments performed by the authors demonstrated that vacuum
heat treatment modifies the structure and thickness of oxide films on aluminum–
lithium alloys. The rate of this modification is determined only by doping the alloy
system. The most significant modifications were observed for alloys AMg6, 1420,
1421, 1440, 1460, and V-1469, whereas alloy 1201 showed lower modifications. It
was conditioned with the removal (sublimation) of doping elements such as lithium
and magnesium from the alloy surface, as their vapor pressure at 400°C–550°C
surpassed that of aluminum vapor pressure considerably. Moreover, this condition
maintained for a long period. The samples of alloys 1420, 1421, 1423, and 1460 after
vacuum heat treatment and air soaking for 1–4, 6, 9, and 12 months showed no sus-
ceptibility to porosity during welding.
So, the surface layer formed after vacuum heat treatment and depleted in terms
of reactive elements with thickness 60–100 μm (based on metallographic analy-
sis) protected the metal surface from interaction with the atmosphere for a long
time.
It should be noted that the observed thickness of the depletion layer at vacuum
heat treatment correlates with designed data based on the temperature dependence of
lithium and magnesium diffusion in aluminum. On the other hand, after controlled
(mechanical or chemical) removal of the surface layer, neither degradation of the
activity of the surface was observed nor the depleted layer is formed; so immediately
after surface preparation, topochemical reactions with water vapor, CO, and CO2
present in the atmosphere commence.
Vacuum heat treatment requires mandatory use of vacuum equipment fitted with
large working chambers. To prepare the surface, chemical milling is reasonable,
with the limitation on the interval between the part’s surface preparation and the
welding step.
The important issue from the technological viewpoint is the possibility to heat
parts prepared for welding in the course of manufacturing. So, the influence of heat-
ing in air and in argon on the pore development process in the weld seam was addi-
tionally examined. The high-temperature heating of alloys 1420, 1421, 1460, and
V-1469 in air was established to contribute to the depletion of near-surface layers of
magnesium and lithium due to oxidation of these elements and sublimation. After
heating, the surface is covered with a loose film of dark grey color. X-ray structure
analysis showed that the oxide film contained Li2O, Li2CO3, LiOH, and MgO. The
local gas analysis of hydrogen content confirmed that total hydrogen content was
highly dependent on the increase of temperature and the duration of heating. For
example, after heating up to 500°C for 3 h, the hydrogen content in the near-surface
layer with depth of 100 μm increased by ~3–5 times compared to the initial data for
alloy 1420 with thickness of 3 mm. Therefore, heating in air causes depletion of the
near-surface layer in doping elements, as it happens during vacuum heat treatment;
however, the porosity during welding occurs due to the spurt of hydrogen content in
the near-surface layer.
Samples of alloys 1420, 1421, 1460, and V-1469 chemically etched were heated
in the container of steel 12X18H10T, and then argon was supplied through pipe
from a bottle. The container with samples was placed in an electrical muffle
furnace.
After heating, the surface of samples was covered with a grey powder-like deposit
that could be easily removed with a wet brush. The welding process, which directly
follows the heating step under argon condition, is accompanied by slight porosity
formation. After standard chemical etching, the x-ray images showed no pores. So,
the heating under the inert gas, as well as vacuum heat treatment, contributes to
production of quality, pore-free welded joints, but it requires additional chemical
etching.
The results obtained show that the most reasonable method of aluminum–lithium
alloy sheet pre-welding is chemical milling with controlled removal of the surface
layer combined with the limitation of the period between the part preparation and
welding step. If parts prepared for welding requires process heating operations, such
operations shall be performed under argon and with mandatory chemical etching of
the part surface prior to welding.
8.3 WIRE-FILLER SELECTION FOR ALUMINUM–LITHIUM

ALLOY SHEETS ARC WELDING
Traditionally, wire-fillers such as SvAMg2, Sv AMr3, SvAMg6, SvAMg61,
SvAMg63, 1557, and 1577 wires are recommended for arc welding of alloys of the
Al–Mg system. The authors analyzed the possibility of application of a limited num-
ber of new wire-fillers for welding of aluminum alloys of the Al–Mg–Li system.
The weldability was evaluated using a cruciform sample, herringbone structure, and
TABLE 8.6
Weldability Factors for Alloys 1420 and 1421 of Al–Mg–Li System
Crack Formation Factor, %
Cruciform Herringbone Critical Forming Rate,
Alloy Grade Filler Grade Sample Structure mm/min
1420 AMg6 11 19 5.3
AMg63 9 18 5.6
01571 5 11 6.3
01545K 3 6 6.5
With no fillers 22 28 4.4
1421 AMg63 6 12 5.7
01571 0 5 7.7
applying the technique developed at the Moscow Higher Technical School at the
LTP1-6 unit. The results of the experiments are shown in Table 8.6.
Data analysis confirmed that, for alloys 1420 and 1421, the use of wire-fillers
01545K and 01571 ensures significant improvement of the weldability factors com-
pared to the values obtained using traditional wire-fillers [217,218].
The dependence of the mechanical properties of the welded joints on the grade of
wire-filler is shown in Table 8.7.
For alloys of 1420, 1421, and 01423, the use of wire-fillers with scandium fails
to increase the strength limit, reduces the bending angle, and improves the fracture
toughness along the seam metal by 10%–15% compared to when using the tradi-
tional wire-filler Sv.AMg63.
Recently, more attention has been focused on the development of wrought alumi-
num alloys of Al–Cu system with addition of various doping elements such as Li, Ti,
Zr, Cr, Sc, Ag, and so on (Table 8.8).
TABLE 8.7
Mechanical Properties of Welded Joints of Al–Mg–Li System Alloys
(Automatic Argon-Arc Welding)
Fracture Toughness, J/cm2
Strength Bending
Alloy Grade Filler Grade Limit, MPa Angle, Degrees Along Seam Along Zone
1420 AMg63 372 86 17.8 7.8
01545K 375 83 26.1 8.1
01571 384 81 24.3 8.0
01421 AMg63 385 77 18.6 12.3
01545K 381 82 25.5 13.2
01571 394 75 23.7 12.6
01423 AMg63 364 80 17.1 8.2
01571 365 77 23.5 8.1
TABLE 8.8
Current Aluminum–Lithium Alloys of the Al–Cu–Li System
Element Weight Percentage, %
Alloy Cu Mn Li Zr Sc Ti Mg Ag Cr
1440 1.2–1.9 0.05–0.08 1.6–2.3 0.10–0.20 — 0.02–0.10 0.60–1.10 — —
1450 2.8–3.2 0.05–0.08 1.8–2.0 0.10–0.20 — 0.10–0.15 0.05–0.10 — —
1460 2.6–3.3 0.05–0.10 1.9–2.3 0.08–0.12 0.06–0.10 0.10–0.15 0.05–0.10 — —
1460–1 5.0–5.5 0.08–0.10 1.0–1.3 0.08–0.10 0.12–0.20 0.02–0.10 0.02–0.07 — —
1460–2 4.0–4.3 0.20–0.30 1.0–1.2 0.10–0.16 0.15–0.20 0.04–0.06 0.02–0.07 — —
1460–3 5.1 0.1 1.2 0.12 0.18 0.05 0.25 — —
V-1469 4.3 0.35 1.0 0.12 0.10 — — 0.44 —
The weldability of alloys of this system was evaluated with samples of thick-
ness 2–4 mm [219]. The experiments for the determination of hot brittleness were
performed using automatic argon arc welding with alternating sine-wave current
(ISVU-315 power source).
During welding with wire-fillers, alloys 1440, 1450, 1460, 1460-1, 1460-2,
1460-3, and V-1469 of the Al–Cu–Li system demonstrates stable susceptibility to hot
cracks. Therefore, the critical strain rate using samples for the technique developed
in Moscow Higher Technical School is 1.6–2 mm/min, and the crack formation fac-
tor using the herringbone structure is 52%–75%. In all cases, the cracks are located
along the seam axis. The hot brittleness of welded joints may change with the wire-
filler chemical composition differing from that of the base metal. Commercial and
trial wire-fillers enabled the improvement of the hot brittleness factors of the welded
joints (Tables 8.9 and 8.10).
When using wire-fillers of the Al–Cu system for welding alloys 1460 and V-1469,
the resistance of welded joints to hot cracks increases by nearly 2–3 times compared
to welding without wire-fillers. The highest values are achieved for the alloy 1460-1
containing 5%–5.5% copper. The resistance of alloy 1460-1 to hot cracks is 1.5–2
times higher than that of alloy 1460, and 25%–30% higher than that of alloy 1460-3
with a high magnesium content.
The highest resistance to hot cracks is achieved at 6.5%–7% copper content in
the metal. Such condition is ensured during the welding of alloy 1460 using wire-
fillers with copper content exceeding 10% (optimum 12%–15%) and of alloy 1460-1
(6.5%–7.5% copper) [220].
The ultimate resistance of the welded joints of the Al–Cu–Li alloys is at the level
of 250–300 MPa (Table 8.11), which is significantly lower (at 25%–50%) than the
resistance of aluminum alloys of the Al–Mg–Li system whose ultimate resistance is
350–370 MPa [221].
The ratio of the values of ultimate resistance of the welded joints and base metal
of Al–Cu–Li alloys is 0.5–0.6, which is the lowest among all known aluminum
alloys.
TABLE 8.9
Filler Wires for Al–Cu–Li Alloys Welding
Element Weight Percentage, %
Filler Wire Cu Si Mn Ti Zr Mg Sc Li
1177 5.0 — 0.40 0.10 — 3.80 — —
1217 10.20 — 0.20 0.15 0.16 0.05 0.15 —
AK5 0.15 5.6 — 0.12 — 0.05 — —
AMg63 — — 0.60 0.08 0.10 6.10 — —
No. 1 2.8 — 0.20 — 0.10 0.05 — 2.2
No. 2 10.0 — 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.11 —
No. 3 12.0 — 0.25 0.08 0.10 0.05 0.25 —
No. 4 15.0 — 0.20 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.25 —
No. 5 7.0 3.0 0.10 — 0.12 0.05 0.20 —
No. 6 4.5 9.0 0.20 — — 0.05 0.20 —
No. 7 3.0 7.0 0.30 — — 0.05 0.20 —
No. 8 — 12.0 0.30 — — 0.05 0.20 —
No. 9 8.0 6.0 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.05 — —
No. 10 4.5 — 0.20 0.10 0.12 0.10 — —
The bending angle of the welded joints of Al–Cu–Li alloys is considerably lower
than that of alloys of other doping systems.
The use of wire-fillers containing 10%–12% copper may be the cause of a drastic
reduction of ductility of the welded joints. Consequently, their usage is not reasonable.
The properties of the welded joints may be improved with further heat treat-
ment. The heat treatment of the welded joints of Al–Cu–Li alloys was established to
increase the ultimate resistance of the joint [222], but along with that their ductility
also reduces significantly. For example, quenching and artificial aging after welding
of alloy 1460 guarantee the increase of values of σB by 30%–40%.
8.4 WELDING METHOD VERSUS ALUMINUM–LITHIUM

ALLOY WELDED JOINTS PROPERTIES
The employed welding method affects the structure of the joint, finally resulting in
the modification of the mechanical properties.
Welding of alloy 1420 at constant current of direct and reverse polarity fails to
improve the quality of the welded joints and seams [223].
The methods of gas-shielded arc welding applied to boost the quality of the
welded joints of aluminum–lithium alloys are as follows: welding using the alternat-
ing sine-wave current, welding using alternating sine-wave current with overlapping
of pulse-modulated waves, welding using asymmetrical alternating current, welding
using heteropolar current impulses of rectangular shape; welding with rotating tung-
sten electrode with axial feed of the wire-filler; and plasma welding.
TABLE 8.10
Hot Brittleness Values of Al–Cu–Li Alloys
Critical Forming Crack Formation
Alloy Filler Wire Rate, mm/min Factor, %
1460 With no fillers 1.8 61
Sv1201 3.2 32
Sv1217 4.0 18
Sv1177 3.9 24
No. 1 1.9 58
No. 2 3.9 20
No. 3 4.6 5
No. 4 5.2 2
No. 5 2.2 47
No. 6 2.3 59
No. 7 1.9 65
No. 8 2.0 54
No. 9 2.1 50
1460-1 With no fillers 2.5 42
Sv1201 4.3 18
Sv1217 4.8 12
No. 1 2.5 45
No. 2 4.8 15
No. 3 5.5 4
No. 4 6.0 0
Sv1201 3.6 32
Sv1217 4.5 17
No. 1 2.3 52
No. 2 4.4 21
No. 3 5.1 6
No. 4 5.4 2
No. 6 2.5 51
Sv1201 3.1 40
Sv1217 3.3 38
V-1469 With no fillers 1.5 55
Sv1201 3.8 30
Sv1217 4.2 22
One of the variants to improve the quality of welded joints using argon arc weld-
ing of aluminum–lithium alloys is the overlapping of additional modulated impulses
[224]. The additional impulses overlap during the period of direct polarity. Both
single impulses and an impulse series (set of impulses) may be overlapped. Welding
with modulated impulses induces mechanical vibrations of the molten metal in the
TABLE 8.11
Welded Joints’ Mechanical Properties
Alloy Filling Wire Ultimate Resistance σB, MPa Bending Angle α, Degrees
1440 Sv1217 294 31
1450 Sv1217 276 23
1460 Sv1217 285 25
Sv1201 284 27
No. 4 288 8
1460-1 Sv1217 291 23
Sv1201 303 38
No. 4 295 9
V-1469 Sv1217 340 47
Sv1201 326 52
No. 4 310 18
crater, redirecting the liquid metal flow in it. As a result, the oxide films are broken
and the oxide inclusion content in the metal seam is reduced.
The expansion of the process possibilities for argon arc welding of aluminum–
lithium alloys with nonconsumable electrodes is ensured with the application of asym-
metric current of various shapes [226–229]. More completely, the process requirements
may be satisfied if the power in the half-wave of each polarity is controlled by the
separate and independent alteration of the amplitude and duration of direct and reverse
polarity currents. Depending on the welding conditions, the heat energy consumed by
the melting pool and the nonconsumable electrode may be distributed more accurately,
the welding penetration and seam metal density may be increased, the mechanical
properties of the welded joints, solidification conditions, and seam metal formation are
improved, and base metal softening width is reduced [226,227].
The welding process is more stable if the welding current is of rectangular shape.
The asymmetric heteropolar curve of the welding current of rectangular shape is
characterized by four parameters: peak value of the direct polarity current (Imax dir)
and reverse polarity current (Imax rev), the long-term direct tdir current impulse, the and
reverse trev current impulse. Depending upon the presence of the oxide film on the
alloy surface, the welded metal thickness, and its physical and chemical properties
during welding, both the absolute current values and durations of direct and reverse
polarity, as well as their ratio, will have to be modified.
Due to the application in welding equipment of asymmetric current there was a
need of development of such criteria of his assessment which it is good would cor-
relate with the main indicators of properties of seams and welded connections.
Such criteria may be developed if some factors of peak current asymmetry ki,
against the impulse duration of direct and reverse polarity kt and against the valid
values of direct and reverse polarity currents kC are introduced. The basis for asym-
metry factors [230] is the principle of symmetry: the symmetry condition ki = kt =
kC = 0; direct current at direct polarity ki = kt = kC = +1, and if current of the reverse
Imax rev = 0
+1 ki
Idir
tdir
Irev
tdir = trev
trev
Imax dir > Imax rev Imax p > Imax rev

tdir < trev Imax dir = Imax rev tdir> trev kt
trev = 0
tdir = 0
–1 0 +1
tdir = trev
Imax dir < Imax rev Imax dir < Imax rev
tdir < trev –1 tdir > trev
Imax dir = 0
FIGURE 8.10 Asymmetric rectangular current parameter alteration charts.
polarity alone is available, ki = kt = kC = −1. In all other cases, the factors ki, kt, kC
are of intermediate values: positive if direct polarity current prevails, and negative if
reverse polarity current prevails (Figure 8.10).
The current asymmetry factor is determined as follows:
ki = [(1 − Imax rev/Imax dir):(1 + Imax rev/Imax rev)].
The impulse duration asymmetry factor is determined similarly:
kt = (1 − trev/tdir)/(1 + trev/tdir).
The factor of valid current asymmetry is determined using the following formula:
kval = [(1 − Ival rev/Ival dir):(1 + Ival rev/Ival dir)].
where
Ival dir and Ival rev are the valid values of direct and reverse polarity current over a
period, respectively
Experiments have shown that during welding of alloy 1420 the process is stable
within –0.4 ≤ kC ≤ 0.4. If the factor is reduced, kC, the strength limit of the welded
joints of sheet material, increases linearly from 347 up to 397 MPa. Fracture tough-
ness, bending angle, and porosity show their extreme values within the range −0.05 ≤
kC ≤ 0.25. During welding of alloy 1420 sheets with thickness 3 mm, the optimum
value of kC is in the range −0.05 ≤ kC ≤ 0.25, if strength limit of the welded joint is not
the key parameter. If a welded joint with high strength is to be produced, kC should
shift to negative values −0.3 ≤ kC ≤ 0.
The properties of the welded joints of alloy 1420 may be improved by additional
electromagnetic influence during the course of the welding process [231]. Along with
that, smaller number and sizes of pores as well as higher strength and ductility of the
welded joints are assured.
To stimulate the cathode cleaning of the pool from the oxide film and to reduce
oxide film inclusions into the seam, the arc welding may be carried out under an
axial magnetic field. Since the cathode arc spot rotates in the field along a nearly
circular path, and the arc moves simultaneously along the junction, the cathode spot
welding covers nearly the whole area of the welding pool very fast. Under such con-
ditions, the time for cleaning the oxide film reduces by 3–5 times. The external
magnetic field induction should not exceed 15–18 mT.
The external alternating or constant magnetic field parallel or perpendicular to
the welding axis is created with flat-topped electromagnets (Figure 8.11). On using
the constant magnetic field, the arc may incline to one side with respect to the weld-
ing direction. If the arc deviates to the welding direction side (magnetic field parallel
to the welding direction), an effect similar to welding with the electrode inclined by
an acute angle is observed. In this case, the welding penetration depth reduces. If the
arc is shifted to the reverse direction, the welding penetration depth increases similar
to welding with the electrode inclined at an obtuse angle.
3 1
FIGURE 8.11 Scheme of arc welding with welding pool magnetic stirring. (1) Parts,
(2) electromagnet coils, (3) arc, and (4) electrode.
In an alternating magnetic field, the arc vibrates with the frequency of the exter-
nal magnetic field. As a result, the conditions for heat introduction into the part and,
especially, heat distribution along the surface are modified. If the arc vibrates across
the welding direction, the seam width increases and the welding penetration depth
reduces. It allows welding of thin metal sheets. Such a method is suitable for welding
dissimilar metals.
Vibrations transferred to the molten metal of the welding pool modify the nature
of its solidification and contribute to grain-fining, resulting in improved properties of
the welded metal. Therefore, this practice is applied for welding metals with a coarse
grain structure of the seam metal.
The method of rotating electrode welding is applied for manufacturing items with
seams of complicated space configurations. The method of welding with a rotating
electrode involves feeding the wire-filler along the standard line to the surface of
the part subjected to welding (Figure 8.12), and a tungsten electrode with a deflected
running tip rotates around the wire by means of a special device [232].
During rotating electrode welding, apart from the arc current, welding speed,
and the voltage at the arc, which are the parameters determining the heat input,
the radius and frequency of the electrode running tip have a significant influence
on the seam size. When the electrode rotates, the arc moving along the joint traces
the path depends on the relation between the welding speed VCB and the linear
speed of electrode rotation VЭ. The speed of movement of the heat source along the
cycloidal curve increases at one of the welded element as VCB and VЭ are combined.
The speed of movement on the other element reduces significantly (VCB − VЭ), and
at VCB = VЭ, the arc almost stops. If the ratio VCB/VЭ increases, the difference in
heat input into the edges subjected to welding reduces. The continuity of the seam
is assured only at a specific ratio of the welding speed and linear frequency of
electrode rotation [204].
The minimum rotation frequency to ensure such a condition is determined by
nmin = 45(RK /VCB).
With increase in the welding speed, as well as a reduction in the radius of electrode
running tip rotation, the corresponding increase in the electrode rotation frequency
is required. Experiments have shown that a reasonable value of the radius of the
electrode running tip rotation for alloy 1420 and 1460 is (0.75– 0.90) δ, where δ is
the thickness of the material welded.
If the electrode rotation frequency is 0.8–1.0 Hz, the active arc spot moves along
a circle of radius RK, equal to radius of deflection of electrode running tip. If the
electrode rotation frequency increases up to 1.2–1.8 Hz, some delay of the active
spot from the electrode is observed. At the same time, the active spot is shifted to
the center of the welding pool. The radius of the circle traced by the center of the
active spot along the welding pool surface becomes lower RK. Further increase of
the electrode rotation frequency above 2.5 Hz leads to stabilization of the active
spot at the center of the welding pool. In this case, during electrode rotation, the
active spot does not follow it, that is, the radius of movement of the active spot cen-
ter becomes zero. The process of rotating electrode welding converts to automatic
Ar 5
RII
RK
FIGURE 8.12 Scheme of automatic welding with rotating electrode. (1) Electrode holder,
(2) wire-filler, (3) tungsten electrode (4) nozzle, and (5) part. Rp, wire rotation radius, RK,
electrode working tip rotation radius.
argon-arc welding with a fixed arc against the welding pool. The preliminary modes
are presented in Table 8.12.
The arc moves along the surface of the welding pool during welding with the
rotating electrode and creates the conditions for a fine-grained seam structure.
The rotation of the electrode and movement of the active spot along the surface of
the welding pool provide more uniform heat distribution in the crater. It allows arc
current reduction by 20%–22% compared to machine argon AC arc welding with
similar values of the other parameters.
Plasma arc welding: Plasma is ionized gas containing charged particles and
capable of current conduction. The gas is ionized on heating. Ionization increases
TABLE 8.12
Preliminary Modes of Mechanized Rotating Electrode Welding of Alloy 1420
Electrode Electrode Argon
Welding Wire Rotation Rotation Flow
Thickness, Arc Speed, Feed Speed, Frequency, Rate,
mm Current, A Voltage, V m/h Rate, m/h mm Hz L/min
2 90 14 12 18 1.5 1.5 10
4 130 12 10.5 20 2.0 2.0 14
at higher temperatures. The gas in the central part of the welding arc is heated to
5,000°C–30,000°C, and its electrical conductivity is very high; the gas emits lights
and presents a typical plasma. The plasma flow used for welding is produced in spe-
cial plasma generators where the gas is heated and ionized with an arc discharge in
special chambers.
The plasma arc stream is produced by two main schemes. If the plasma stream
of direct action is applied, the part is introduced into a welding arc circuit with
active spots located at the electrode and the part. When a plasma stream of indirect
action is applied, the active arc spots are located on the electrode and inner or side
surface of the nozzle. The plasma-generating gas may also act as a protection of
metal against air. In some cases, to protect the molten metal against air, a separate
stream of a special, cheaper gas is supplied. The gas moving along the nozzle walls
is less ionized and at a lower temperature, preventing nozzle melting. However, most
plasma burners are fitted with extra water cooling.
Thermal efficiency of a plasma stream depends on the welding current power
and voltage, plasma-generating gas composition, flow rate and speed, the distance
between the nozzle and the part surface, burner movement speed (welding and cut-
ting speed), and so on. The stream geometry may be different as well (square, round,
etc.) and determined by the nozzle orifice.
Due to the necessity to destroy and remove the oxide film, plasma arc welding
is performed with compressed reversed-polarity AC and DC arc. It has several pro-
cess advantages in comparison with common argon-arc welding of aluminum and
its alloys with nonconsumable electrode, and it contributes to an increase in effi-
ciency of the welding process by 50%–70%, to the reduction of argon consumption
by 4–6 times, and to the improvement of the welded joint quality. Using AC plasma
cutting, the effective efficiency of heating increases up to 65%–70% compared to
45%–50% in standard argon-arc welding with nonconsumable electrodes and alter-
nating current.
As you can see, this method has some advantages primarily for welding of struc-
tures of cold-worked and heat-hardenable aluminum alloys. The total number of
discontinuities in the seam caused by short-stops of the decomposition reaction
of moisture residues in the oxide film while the welding pool is present may be
decreased with lower heat input of the welding process. In DC plasma cutting, the
flow rate of the wire-filler is reduced by 40%, the seams are narrow, and satisfactory
mechanicals properties of seams of the unetched base metal may be obtained. In

this situation, the best results are obtained with a penetrating, constricted arc. As
the electrical resistance of the oxide film (A12O3) is high, welding along the metal
surface not cleaned of the oxide film leads to a sharpening of the active spot and
increase of the arc penetration capability.
The constricted arc penetrates via the crater in the pool through the whole thick-
ness of the base metal, so cathode cleaning is absolutely necessary. To fill the hole
under the arc, some wire-fillers are fed into the welding zone. The immersion of the
constricted arc into the metal may be effected by both machine and manual welding.
The plasma arc welding of end joints of aluminum alloys with thickness up to
8 mm is implemented without edge preparation, with a gap of 1.5 mm for one pass at
the steel gasket or at both sides in suspension.
Reverse-polarity DC welding modes of aluminum alloys with a thickness of
2–5 mm are recommended to be selected on the basis of the ratio
ICB = 0.18vCBδB.
In plasma welding, the seams show high mechanical properties similar to the seams
produced by both reverse polarity AC and DC welding.
Powerful cathode cleaning of the metal in the course of plasma cutting ensures
quality welding seams if the requirements of metal preparation to the welding pro-
cess are lowered.
Plasma welding with a penetrating arc guarantees defect-free seams at one pass
without any edge preparation and with no supporting and forming fixtures. In such
a case, the heat-affected zone narrows considerably, welding strains become lower,
mechanical factors of the near-seam zone are improved, efficiency increases, and
the energy consumption reduces. Welding of aluminum alloys with penetrating arc
is developed for a thickness of 3–8 mm. For bigger thicknesses, the maintenance of
the welding pool in suspension and obtaining quality welding seams are much more
complicated.
The technology of plasma arc welding with penetrating arc using supporting and
forming gasket with a slot along the welding junction has been developed, which
allowed improvement the stability of welding process and expansion of the thick-
ness range subject to welding up to 16 mm. The welding seams contain no internal
defects; they demonstrate favorable shape of the cross section and stable formation
of the seam root. The mechanical characteristics of the welding seam are at the level
of the base metal.
Though it has undeniable advantages, plasma welding with penetrating arc fails
in one aspect: some deflection of the front face of the welding seam. When the
deflection is slight, in some cases, especially for a part under dynamic load, second
pass is required to apply an “ornamental” stinger bead to provide reinforcement to
the welding seam.
The method of constricted, penetrating arc welding with measured feed of the
wire-filler has been developed. This method ensures the stable production of a seam
in a welded metal thickness of 3–8 mm. The seam is produced with a smooth transi-
tion to the base metal, and no internal defects occur. Microstructural investigations
and microhardness measurements show no differences between the base metal and
the seam metal and the near-seam zone.
Further increase of efficiency of the welding process for high-quality welded
joints of aluminum alloys relates to the development of combined methods using
two or more heating source in the welding zone.
Currently, plasma arc welding using reverse polarity with tungsten electrode and
wire-filler is used for welding extended seams of aluminum alloy sheets with thick-
ness exceeding 3 mm. On the other hand, plasma arc welding at reverse polarity with
tungsten electrode for extended seams of sheets is associated with frequent occur-
rence of defects in the form of tungsten inclusions.
Inclusions occur as a result of the loss of strength of electrode material caused by
long-term heating at reverse polarity welding and erosion under vapor effect in the
plasma arc burning zones.
To find solutions for this situation, it was decided to reduce the heat load on the
tungsten electrode by transferring the main welding arc to the plasma-generating
nozzle cooled with water in the course of the welding process. The method of plasma
arc welding of aluminum alloys using a hollow cathode has been developed and the
principle of this method is described in the design patent specification [233].
The scheme of plasma arc welding is shown Figure 8.13. The parts (1) are installed
in an assembling and welding unit (not shown in the figure). The plasma generator
with the anode nozzle (2) and tungsten cathode (3) is placed above the junction of
the parts subject to welding. Moreover, the anode nozzle (2) is formed with internal
expansion (cylindrical or conical) and sharp edge (4) at the inner surface.
The supply source (5) of the pilot arc with the high-frequency ionizer (6) is
connected to the cathode (3) and anode nozzle (2) (the polarity of the connection
is shown in the figure), and the supply source (7) of the main arc is connected to
the parts (1) and the anode nozzle (2). Therefore, the supply sources of the pilot
and main arc are united with one joint anode for the anode nozzle (2). To cool the
anode nozzle (2), cooling water is fed into the water channels of the plasma genera-
tor. The anode nozzle (2) is fed with the plasma-generating gas, that is, argon. To
protect the molten metal of the welding pool against oxidation, the welding zone is
supplied with a protective gas (via the protection nozzle (8)), which can be argon
or helium.
When all welding mode parameters are set, the parts (1) are welded with the pilot
arc induced between the cathode (3) and anode nozzle (2) from the supply source
(5) and by means of the high-frequency ionizer (6). Along with that, the main arc
occurs between the anode nozzle (2) and the parts (1) to be welded. The main arc
is self-induced when the supply source (7) is switched on, as the space between the
anode nozzle (2) and the parts (1) is ionized by the pilot arc column. Depending on
the design requirements, the welding may be performed with no filling material or
with some wire-fillers fed to the front part of the welding pool.
To implement the plasma welding process under the production conditions, a spe-
cial plasma generator has been developed and fitted with a movable microchamber
to protect the seam metal (Figure 8.14) [234].
The plasma generator is installed in a special-purpose welding tip intended for
welding extended sheet structures and contains not only the plasma gun but also
3
6
He Ar
5
8
4
7
1
FIGURE 8.13 Scheme of plasma arc welding with hollow cathode. (1) Parts welded (2)
anode nozzle (3) tungsten cathode (4) channel with sharp edge with anode (5) pilot arc supply
source (6) oscillator, (7) welding arc supply source, and (8) protective nozzle.
FIGURE 8.14 Plasma generator for alloy 1420 panel welding.

the system of supply of the operating gases and cooling water. It also contains a
mechanism of plasma generator movement vertically and across the axis of the
welded joint, the mechanism of wire-filler supply, and a cassette with the filler
wire.
Plasma arc welding of aluminum–lithium alloys was performed under reverse
polarity from a DC supply source (VSVU-400). A tungsten pin of 6 mm diameter
acted as the anode.
Argon was used to protect the metal of the welding pool against oxidation and
was supplied to the nozzle of the plasma generator at the flow rate of 12–14 L/min.
The penetration zone was also protected with argon supplied to the forming groove
at the flow rate of 2–3 L/min.
The key parameters influencing the arc penetration capability are the values and
ratio of the pilot and main arcs, flow rate of the plasma generating gas, and diameter
and length of the nozzle channel.
The perfection of the method of constricted arc welding with reverse polarity
direct current with hollow cathode is of practical interest for increasing the energy
efficiency in aluminum–lithium alloy welding.
The technological scheme of the described process is shown in Figure 8.15.
The main and pilot arcs are supplied from the VSVU-400 source. Argon was used
as the plasma-generating gas, and helium was used as protective gas. The current
of the main arc (ICB) was 60–65 A, and the pilot arc current (Iд) was between 30
and 200 A.
The samples of alloy 1420 with thickness of 8 mm were under examination.
The weld penetration depth was evaluated using the seam section over the whole
sheet.
–
Ar Ar
Uk2
+
Uk1
lc
+
Ua1 Ua2
l
He He
–
(a) (b)
FIGURE 8.15 Scheme of burning of the main and pilot arcs with (a) separate and (b) com-
bined anode spots.
H, mm 4
0 1 2 3 4
Ival/ICB
FIGURE 8.16 Dependence of penetration depth on the ratio of pilot and main arcs during
alloy 1420 welding (nozzle diameter, 3.0 mm; welding speed, 0.3 m/min).
The experimental data obtained are presented in Figure 8.16. At Ival/ICB = 1.9–
2.0, significant increase of the welding penetration depth was observed from 1.5 to
4.0 mm.
A jump in the penetrating capability of the constricted arc occurs, which almost
doubles, on slightly increasing the pilot arc current. This leads us to assume that the
arc–electrode system shows self-organization.
The increase in the influence of the intensity of the heat source on the mate-
rial causes the modification of the principle of energy input and heat exchange; the
penetration becomes knife-like, which is typical on an energy concentrated source
(Figure 8.16). Such penetration shape is related to the process of intensive steam gen-
eration at the arc’s influence point on the metal. While welding with a concentrated
energy source at the zone of transition to the modes with intense steam generation,
the welding penetration depth achieves its maximum energy efficiency expressed as
the coefficient of thermal efficiency.
The welding of sheets of alloy 1420 with a thickness of 6 mm was performed in
the through-penetration mode with the formation of the seam on a stainless steel
gasket. The welding modes for 6-mm-thick sheets are shown in Table 8.13.
The macrostructure of the welded joints of sheets of alloy 1420 with a thickness
of 6 mm, performed with plasma arc welding, is presented in Figure 8.17.
The influence of gas-shielded arc welding on the mechanical properties of
aluminum–lithium alloys is shown in Table 8.14.
The analysis of the data obtained confirms that proper preparation of the surface
of aluminum–lithium alloys, absence of internal defects in seams, and modification
of arc welding method allow variations of the strength of welded joints within the
range 15–25 MPa. Here, the bending angle varies over wider ranges due to the influ-
ence of the welding method applied on the grain structure and size in the seam metal.
TABLE 8.13
Modes of Plasma Jet Welding with Penetrating Arc of 6-mm-Thick Annealed
Sheets of Alloy 1420
Pilot Arc Weld Tip Argon Wire Welding Wire Feed
Thickness, Current, Arc Diameter, Flow Rate, Diameter, Speed, Rate,
mm A Current mm L/min mm m/h m/min
6 180–185 70–75 3 2–2.5 2 18 0.8
FIGURE 8.17 Macrostructure of alloy 1420 sheet welded joints produced with plasma arc
welding, 4×.
8.5 TRANSFORMATIONS AT HEAT INFLUENCE ZONE AT

ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY WELDING PROCESS
The high strength of aluminum alloy semifinished products is assured by heat treat-
ment or thermomechanical processing. The strengthening is caused by the decompo-
sition of recorded supersaturated solid solution in the course of artificial aging. The
properties of both seam metal and near-seam zone are affected adversely under the
influence of welding process temperatures due to structural transformations [235].
The peculiarities of alloy transformations within the heat-affected zone are ana-
lyzed with hardness measurements using a Rockwell-type device with a steel ball
of 1/16″ diameter at 600 N load. The modification of the metal hardness within the
specified zone should be noted to be similar to modification of the strength limit
[236], and they both reflect the influence of welding heat on the mechanical proper-
ties of the joint metal, the so-called softening.
Analyses were performed using sheets of alloy 1420 and 1460 in two tempers: as
quenched, and as quenched and artificially aged. The welded joints of these alloys
were tested in two states: directly after welding, and after artificial ageing.
The modes of automatic tungsten-arc welding were preselected to get similar
patterns of maximum temperature distribution within the heat-affected zone in all
TABLE 8.14
Welding Method vs. Aluminum–Lithium Alloy Welded Joints’ Properties
Fracture
Toughness, kJ/m2
Strength Bending Angle,
Alloy Filler Wire Welding Method Limit, MPa Degrees Seam HAZ
1420 SvAMg63 Uninterrupted 362 82 165 67
Pulsed current 370 102 210 105
Energy-pulse 377 108 230 123
Rotating electrode 375 115 235 130
Plasma 380 95 230 125
01423 SvAMg63 Uninterrupted 345 80 250 98
Energy-pulse 315 108 220 151
Plasma 350 98 260 110
1460 Sv1217 Uninterrupted 290 25 110 70
Energy-pulse 315 38 133 88
Plasma 310 35 135 92
alloys. During welding at one mode, and due to various values of the heat capacity
and heat conductivity of alloys, the curves of maximum temperature distribution
failed to coincide. The curves of temperature distribution were brought together by
correcting the welding modes against the welding currents.
Creation of close temperature conditions within the near-seam zone enabled bal-
ancing the sensitivity of the examined alloys to the welding heat effect.
The curves of hardness variations within the heat-affected zone are shown in
Figure 8.18. The general trends for alloys 1420 and 1460 are as described further.
Directly after welding, artificially aged sheets demonstrate a narrow width of the
softening area when compared to sheets after quenching. It may be explained as due
to the difference between the processes accompanying the softening stage of just-
quenched and quenched and artificially aged alloys. In the latter case, the softening
stage ends with annealed and overaged areas at ~300°C, but the quenched sheet soft-
ening areas contain also zones where considerably lower temperature release due to
work-hardening of cold-worked sheets and return to the freshly quenched state occur.
Artificial aging of the welded joints contributes to the increase in hardness at all
areas of heat-affected zone. Seam metal and the zone of partial solid solution close
to the seam become harder significantly, independently of the initial sheet state. The
zone of partial annealing during overaging and higher hardness values after aging
are observed if the quenched metal is subject to welding.
The processes causing higher softening and initiating heat cycle conditions in the
artificially aged alloy under short-term welding may explain the situation. Within
110 110
1 1
105 105
2
100 2 100
HRB
HRB
95 95
90 90
85 85
80 80
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
(a) Distance from a weld axis, mm (b) Distance from a weld axis, mm
110 105
105 1
100 100
95 95 2
90
HRB
HRB
85 2 90
80 1
75 85
70 80
65
60 75
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
(c) Distance from a weld axis, mm (d) Distance from a weld axis, mm
FIGURE 8.18 Distribution of hardness in the seam and heat-affected zone after welding
(a, c) and artificial aging (b, d) for alloy 1420 (a, b) and for alloy 1460 (c, d). Initial sheet state
prior to welding: (1) as quenched; (2) artificially aged.
the same period, the quenched metal undergoes more stages, including processes
causing first strengthening and later softening. So, the level of solid solution decom-
position during the course of welding of quenched metal is lower, and it maintains
hardenability during the following artificial aging.
Softening occurring as a result of return or release of work-hardening at the cir-
cumference of the heat-affected zone in the course of welding of quenched metal
affects the hardness recovery slightly during the process of joint artificial aging.
Considering the lower level of solid solution decomposition during the welding of
quenched metal and the information presented above, the width of the softening
zones after artificial aging of the joint is far less with higher hardness of the joints
compared to the results of quenched sheet welding process.
The welded joints of alloy 1420 at all analyzed combination of heat treatment
operations and welding showed the narrowest width of the softening zone. The curves
of hardness of the base metal in the states after welding and artificial aging (Figure
8.18) demonstrate no peaks typical for other heat-hardenable alloys (zones of partial
annealing and overaging). Artificial aging performed after welding of the quenched
metal removes the softening influence of the welding heat in the zone adjacent to the
seam. In case of welding of artificially aged alloys, the hardness in the heat-affected
zone also recovers almost completely. In this case, during welding of thin sheets of
alloy 1420, the growth of strengthening phase particles and the creation of stable
phases fail to develop because of low rate of solid solution decomposition. The return
to the quenched state may be assumed to happen along the whole heat-affected zone.
It creates the conditions for hardness recovery along the whole length of the heat-
affected zone by repeated artificial aging of the base metal of the welded joint.
8.6 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY LASER BEAM

WELDING PROCESS FEATURES
Application of aluminum alloys doped with lithium and scandium for aviation man-
ufacturing parts enables improvements in the characteristics of military aircraft.
Individual fuselage parts and other elements are produced by means of the laser
beam welding.
Laser as a heating source for aluminum–lithium alloy welding is one of the most
upcoming trends in the technology of material processing. The main advantage of
the laser beam welding is a definite reduction in the strains and stresses of the pro-
cessing parts, as well as creation of structures ensuring high mechanical properties.
Up to the present time, aluminum–lithium alloys have been mostly welded with
CO2 lasers. The main difficulty in the application of the CO2 laser as a tool for
aluminum–lithium alloy welding is associated with the relatively low efficiency of
the laser irradiation’s influence compared to processing of other metals, e.g., steels.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, a new class of powerful solid lasers,
namely fiber lasers, became widespread. In addition to the irradiation wavelength
(1.07 μm) the coefficient of efficiency of such laser type is the highest, and reaches
30%. Also, its radiation may be transferred to the processing spot along flexible
beam guides, which allows expansion of the capability of the laser processing. The
application of fiber lasers contributes to the reduction of the cost of complex opera-
tion and maintenance of CO2 lasers. However, so far the process features of fiber
laser beam welding of aluminum–lithium alloys have not been examined, and it has
hampered the evaluation of its application efficiency.
The specific features of the structure and properties of the welded joints of doped
aluminum alloys using laser beam welding at higher rates were examined.
The modes of the laser beam welding of alloy 1420 are shown in Table 8.15, and
mechanical properties of the welded joint are shown in Figure 8.19.
Welded joints of alloy 1420 are characterized by a very high ratio of the strength
limit of the welded joint (σB ш) and that of the base metal (σBO.M). With variation
TABLE 8.15
Modes of the Laser Beam Welding of Alloy 1420
Alloy Sheet Thickness, mm Welding Speed, m/min Radiant Power, kW
1420 2.0 1.3 2.7
2.5 3.0
4.5 4.1
8.2 5.0
320
σB
300
σT, σB, MPa
280
260 σT
240 2
220
2 4 6
Welding speed, m/min
α, ° 3
30 4
250
200 α
aH, kJ/m2
20 150
100 aH
10 50
0
2 4 6
Welding speed, m/min
FIGURE 8.19 Dependence of mechanical properties of alloy 1420 welded joints on laser
welding speed. (1–4) Base metal properties level.
of vCB (i.e., the ratio σB ш /σBO.M) changes slightly, and its maximum value (0.92) is
reached at vCB = 2.5 m/min (Figure 8.19).
Values of aH and α are lower than those of the base metal, and with increase of
vCB they become even lower. The hardness of the welded seam metal increases pro-
portionally to vCB (Figure 8.20).
Hardness measured at a distance of 0.3 mm from the fusion zone is almost equal
to that of the base metal, that is, prior to welding, the heat-hardenable material retains
its properties in the heat-affected zone of the welded joint [237].
The values of the mechanical properties and their dependence on the welding
mode mostly depend on the structure of welded joints. Therefore, the microstructure
HV
115 3
110 2
105
100
95 1
90
85
80
1 2 3 4 5 Welding speed, m/min
FIGURE 8.20 Variations of hardness along alloy 1420 seam at welding speed of 2.5 m/min
(1), 5.2 m/min (2), and 8.2 (3) m/min.
of the welded joint obtained at various welding speeds was examined using trans-
verse and longitudinal microsections.
The weld seam of alloy 1420 processed with laser beam welding shows drastic
variations of the macrostructure of the seam center and its circumference. At the
solidification stage, the circumference is characterized by alternating fine equiaxial
and column crystals, but the central part’s structure is fine subdendritic. The specific
feature of this structure is that the level of etchability varies vastly in different parts
of the central seam zone when observed during microsection preparation. It may be
related to the inhomogeneity of the doping element distribution.
At vCB = 2.5 m/min, the fusion zone shows dispersoids (Figure 8.21). Such a mode
assures the best combination of strength and fracture toughness. With the increase
of vCB, the properties deteriorate: the strength and fracture toughness values become
lower. It may be assumed that during laser beam welding some doping elements are
partially burned off, contributing to the alloy’s strength: for example, lithium and
magnesium. In addition, the laser beam welding at the rate of 8.2 m/min is character-
ized by the formation of polyhedrons, crystals of special shape as fine frost crystals
(Figure 8.22). Such a structure is generated at super-high cooling rates if some crys-
tallization centers likely to be presented with the dispersoids are available.
Almost all modes demonstrate no structure modification in the heat-affected
zone. A drastic transition from the cast zone structure to the base metal structure
is observed. Such a result is especially critical for heat-hardenable materials, for
example, alloy 1420.
FIGURE 8.21 Microstructure of metal surface zone of alloy 1420 welded joint at a welding
speed of 2.5 m/min; 100×.
FIGURE 8.22 Microstructure of transition zone of alloy 1420 at a welding speed of

8.2 m/min; 200×.
The maximum strength limit values of the welded joints of the examined alloys
are 0.80–0.92 times that of the base metal.
Mechanical properties are favorably affected by the unique macro-discontinuities
of the welded seam structure: reduction of dendrite sizes in the seam center due to
precipitation of dispersoid, Sc and Zr, and dendritic column-cell structure.
One of the most advanced methods of aluminum alloy jointing is through hybrid
laser–plasma welding [238–240]. This welding method (Figure 8.23) incorporates
the benefits of the individual methods (along with the mutual correction of weld-
ing method drawbacks) and has the hybrid effect [241] of the joint application of
laser irradiation and the electric arc. This effect is the so-called violation of additive
3
1 4
υCB
FIGURE 8.23 Scheme of hybrid laser and plasma welding. (1) Wire-filler, (2) laser beam,
(3) plasma nozzle, and (4) plasma arc.
property of the influence of heat of laser irradiation and arc plasma on the processed
material caused by the transition from the heat-conducting mode to the knife-type
penetration mode [242–244].
The hybrid combination of the plasma arc and a laser beam with a total power 3.0
and 3.5 kW on alloy 1420 ensures the complete and thorough penetration of the joint
with thickness of 3 mm at a speed of 34.4 m/h.
The analysis of macrosections demonstrates that the selection of the welding
mode and the speed of wire-filler feed may guarantee the optimal geometry and
satisfactory formation of the upper and root-reinforcing beads.
The metal composition of the joint seams produced without any wire-fillers is
almost identical to the initial composition of the base metal. When some wire-
filler (e.g., SvAMg63) is introduced into the welding pool, the seam metal of alloy
1420 displays a higher content of the doping element, magnesium, from 4.3 up to
5.8 wt.%.
When values of the tensile strength of alloy 1420 are compared, the low efficiency
of alloy 1420 joints produced with the hybrid welding mode without any wire-filler
should be marked out. Fracture of such samples occurred along the seam axis, and
strength factor was about 0.5–0.6 times that of the base metal. The places of metal
fracture displayed porosity and oxide films.
The tensile strength of alloy 1420 joints obtained with the hybrid welding with
wire-fillers was 0.84–0.87 times the σCB of the base metal. The fracture of samples
occurred along the base metal of heat-affected zone.
The higher values of the tensile strength of alloy 1420 joint seam metal are
explained as due to the increased weight percentage of magnesium in the seam metal
compared to that in the base metal due to introduction of the wire-filler SvAMg63
and growth of the seam section.
Examination of the microstructures of alloy 1420 and 1460 joints produced
with and without out any wire-fillers confirms that the base metal and seam metal
contained not only α-solid solution of magnesium and lithium, but also aluminum
showed double and more complicated β-phases of Mg2Al3 or Mg5Al3 present in the
base metal and along the grain boundaries in forms of thin fiber precipitates and
also in the form of fine eutectic precipitates, located between the dendrite branches,
in the seam metal [245]. In the seam metal, the phase precipitates are highly dis-
persed and the fusion boundaries demonstrate no signs of overheating. In addition,
the uninterrupted chains of precipitates are available along the grain boundaries
in the heat-affected zone. The fusion zone in such joints is very narrow with fine-
grained structure and presents a gradient flow of base metal grains into seam metal
crystallites.
The dendrites are directed from the fusion boundaries toward the seam metal.
The central part of the seam demonstrates also a mixture of equiaxial and directed
dendrites.
The grain orientation in the base metal strain remains the same up to the fusion
boundary, and the heat-affected zone contains no grain recrystallization, but recrys-
tallized grains are available in the root part of the seam.
The joints of alloy 1420 demonstrate macro and microdefects in forms of pores,
micropores, oxide films, and cracks. The presence of macro and micropores in the
seam metal and fusion zone, especially in alloy 1420, may be explained as due to the
influence of highly concentrated heating source on volatile lithium and magnesium,
and possibly to the gas content present in the initial alloy 1420 compared to alloy 1460.
Besides, the porosity is due to the availability of oxide inclusions in the molten
metal, which become the centers for the origin of pores. Microporosity at the border
of the joint gap and the seam initiates microcracks. This situation may be due to the
shifting of the heating source form the joint axis, contributing to the development of
discontinuities and incomplete fusion in the seam root.
The microhardness of alloy 1420 joints produced with and without wire-fillers
is uniformly distributed along the whole width of the weld seam and is close to the
metal hardness (HV = 0.05–75), and the microhardness in the seam center reaches
HV = 0.05–80, and it coincides with the high quality of the dispersed structure typi-
cal for the welded joint obtained with laser beam welding at high speeds.
Examination of seam inhomogeneity proved that the distribution of the volatile
doping element, magnesium, in the base metal and seam metal in the joints of alloy
1420 obtained without any wire-fillers was nonuniform (Figure 8.24).
Basic metal Weld
Mn, % Mg, %
2.0 8
1
1.5 6
1.0 4
2
0.5 2
0 0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
(a)
Basic metal Weld
2.0 8
1
1.5 6
1.0 4
2
0.5 2
0 0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
(b) L, mcm
FIGURE 8.24 Distribution of magnesium (1) and manganese (2) in base metal and in metal
of alloy 1420 joint produced with hybrid welding (a) with and (b) without wire-filler.
The joints produced without fillers displayed a slight (for 1.0–1.5 wt.%) decrease
of magnesium in the seam metal.
The distribution of hydrogen at various places of the alloy 1420 joints produced
with the hybrid welding without wire-fillers testified that the highest hydrogen con-
tent (higher than in the base metal) was along the seam axis, which was due to the
diffusion of hydrogen from the fusion zone into the seam metal at the side of the
base metal (Figure 8.25a). The significant weight percentage of hydrogen in the base
metal contributes to higher porosity in the seams, and drastic variations of hydrogen
content incite cracking.
0.25
Basic metal Weld Basic metal Basic metal Weld Basic metal
[H], g/cm3 ×104
0.20
0.15
0.10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
(a) L, mm (b) L, mm
FIGURE 8.25 Distribution of hydrogen in alloy 1420 joints produced with hybrid welding
(a) with and (b) without wire-filler.
Alloy 1420 joints produced by welding with wire-fillers exhibit considerable

reduction of hydrogen content in the seam metal (Figure 8.25b) and, as a conse-
quence, the absence of pores and cracks.
The hybrid laser–plasma welding allows 2–4 times increase in the penetration
depth of aluminum alloys with thickness of 2.5–3.0 mm compared to laser beam or
plasma arc welding and increase in the welding speed within the same range com-
pared to the plasma arc welding.
The results of investigations of chemical microdiscontinuities of alloy 1420 joints
and determination of hydrogen content and its distribution proved that two main
factors, namely magnesium content in the seam metal and hydrogen content in the
base metal and wire-filler, influence the porosity level of seams obtained with laser
beam welding.
8.7 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY FRICTION

STIR WELDING FEATURES
Because of the development of aviation and space technologies, as well as other
branches of mechanical engineering industries, the requirements to welded joints’
reliability and accuracy have become stricter and stricter. Welded material con-
structions based on new doping systems and produced using new technologies are
required now. In most cases, the complexity of physical and mechanical characteris-
tics required for processing of such material demonstrates low weldability by fusion
welding. For this reason, methods of pressure welding, enabling formation of the
seam without any liquid layer of the molten metal, is of special interest in the joint-
ing of such materials.
One of such method is friction stir welding (FSW), developed by Wine Thomas
TWI (UK) in December 1991 [246]. Though this method is new, it has become
the leading method abroad for welding various parts of space and aviation
applications.
During FSW, the fixed joint is produced by means of a steel cylindrical welding
tool, called the indenter (pin).
The welding process consists of the following (Figure 8.26): The material with a
rectangular section of edges is clamped at the rigid lower plate for preventing of move-
ment or rise of welded plates in the course of the welding process. The cylindrical
5
Fy
3 υc 2
1
Fy
6 4
FIGURE 8.26 Scheme of friction stir welding (FSW). (1, 2), Bank stock subject to welding,
(3) tool, (4) pin (indenter), (5) blank stock junction, and (6) seam. vc, tool feed speed; ω, tool
rotation frequency; Fy, blank stock compression force.
tool, fixed in the holder adapter of the welding machine, starts rotating at the set
speed around the conditional longitudinal axes and perpendicular to the plane of the
joint of the parts to be united. The tool is moved to the beginning of the joint of two
parts, and with the specified force the profiled indenter (pin) starts to apply the force
on the place of the part joint.
When the rotating pin makes contact with the part surface, friction occurs, which
results in heat release at the contact point. It triggers the plastic yield of the material
under the pin, and the pin plunges into the part, causing ductile material streaming
around. This results in increase of the area of contacting surfaces and, as a conse-
quence, heat release caused by friction.
When the pin plunges into the part completely, the edges of welding force plunger
initiate force impact onto the metal surface. The zone of contact of the edges of
welding force plunger and the surface of the parts united also experiences friction,
causing surface heating [247,248].
Because of that, the material of this zone starts to convert into the plastic state.
After that, the rotating tool starts to move along the junction line of the parts up to
the end of the welded joint. Such movement of the rotating tool results in plastic
flow of the base metal from the tool front toward its backside, where the metal is
cooled. Close to the end of the welded joint, the tool is moved out gradually up to
the upper metal layers. Then before its rotation stops, it is completely taken out from
the welded material.
After that, the force plunger rotation stops, and the welded parts are released
from clamps. The heat generated due to the welding process is insufficient to form a
molten zone at the welded joint.
The whole process results in macroscopic fusion and reduction of risks in the
occurrence of crowds of defects.
The weld seam obtained by this method is irregular against its longitudinal
axes, as the material from one (front) side of the force plunger is pushed out with
the pin to the rotation direction onto the other side (back): toward the welding
movement.
On the basis of the welding process description, the following key parameters
may be specified for such a method: the pin shape, tool rotation and movement, and
the pressure applied to the tool.
The pressure applied to the tool is selected provided that it is sufficient for the pin
immersion down to the welding depth. And the main condition is the nature of the
material subjected to welding.
The frequency of tool rotation influences the welding process considerably. It is
associated with the fact that the ramping of the rotation speed increases the friction
of the tool edges against the part surface, causing high heat release in this zone.
The tool movement speed also affects the heat release in the material subject to
welding. Currently, the welding speed may vary within 0.2–3 m/min depending on
the type of the alloy welded and the thickness of parts.
Possible modification of the pin shape may be regarded as the issue under high
examination, resulting in the development of various pin outlines. Cutting is used for
delivery of plastically formed metal from the area adjacent to the pin into the area
between its edges.
Standard formation of the joint requires a very small distance between the pro-
filed pin and the lower part surface, and so the pin length should be selected depend-
ing on the part thickness.
A special dent starting from the pin edge is produced at the lower surface of the
force plunger. Apparently, this dent is necessary to guarantee the immersion of the
pin into the welded part at the initial stage, and better material mixing during the
course of the welding process.
The first experiments on aluminum alloys the of Al–Mg–Si system (6000 alloy
family) displayed high properties of the joints produced. Further development of this
welding mode allowed welding of aluminum alloys of the Al–Cu (2000 series alloy
family), Al–Mg (5000 alloy family), and the Al–Zn–Mg–Cu systems (7000 alloy
family).
The presented analysis of FSW shows the benefits of its application for the Al–Li
system alloys (8000 alloy family).
This work reviews FSW’s influence on the structure and properties of welded
joints of sheets of alloys 1420, 1441, 1460, and v-1469 with thickness of 4.5–7 mm.
FSW was performed using an Agile CS 1000 machine. The cylindrical angular
threaded tool of steel 4X5MFS with quenched operating part, and a pin and shoulder
diameter of 5.2 and 16.0 mm, respectively, were used.
The pin length was selected as 0.3–0.4 mm less than the thickness of the alloy
subjected to welding. The rate of transformation varied within the range of 800–
1000 rpm at the tool feeding speed of 100–220 mm/min. The welding was across
the strain fibers.
Figure 8.27 shows the external appearance in a plan view and macrostructure of
the joint of sheet of alloy 1441 with thickness of 6 mm produced by FSW. The joint
macrostructure examinations testified that several zones might be specified in the
macrostructure, as outlined schematically in Figure 8.28.
The four zones specified are as follows: the zone with initial metal structure,
the heat-affected zone (HAZ), the thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ), and
welding core zone belonging to the thermomechanically affected zone.
(a) (b) 10 mm
FIGURE 8.27 Weld appearance (a) and the microstructure of the weld (b) to the alloy
V-1469 (friction stir welding).
Core of weld Basic metal
Zone of thermomechanical influence Heat-affected zone
FIGURE 8.28 Structural zones locations in aluminum alloy welded joint produced with
friction stir welding.
In the first zone, the metal is at a sufficient distance from the welding point and
is not distorted. During the course of welding, metal is subjected to the certain ther-
mal cycling, but it has no influence on the metal microstructure and mechanical
properties.
Metal in the second zone is also at a sufficient distance, and so is not subjected
to mechanical influence of the pin. So, the material in this zone is not distorted
but subject to higher influence of welding thermal cycle, causing modification of its
microstructure and/or mechanical properties.
In the course of welding, the material of the third zone is subject both to the
plastic straining under the tool influence and to heating, causing modification of
its microstructure. This zone in aluminum alloys is characterized by a distinct bor-
der between the zone with resolidification and strain zone with no resolidification
commenced.
The fourth zone exhibits the resolidification stage. This zone is often called the
welding core or the zone of mixing, assuming the direct contact with the pin surface
in the course of welding and mixing of materials of this area. This area is a part of
the thermomechanically affected zone and stands out because of the metal structure
TABLE 8.16
Mechanical Properties of Aluminum–Lithium Alloy Welded Joints, Performed
with Friction Stir Welding
Base Metal
Mechanical Welded Joint Mechanical
Properties Properties
Sample
Alloy σB, σ0.2, σB, σ0.2, α, Fracture
Grade State MPa MPa δ, % MPa MPa δ, % Degrees Location
1420 Quenching + 445 240 11 398 172 18.3 180 Heat-affected
artificial aging zone
V-1469 Quenching + 565 535 7 420 243 10.4 125 Heat-affected
Sources: Drits, A.M. and Ovchinnikov, V.V., The Research Results of Al-Cu-Li-Mg High-Strength Alloys
Weldability, Alloyed with Silver, Scandium, Zirconium, 1, 29, 2011; Drits, A.M. and Ovchinnikov,
V.V., Zagotovitel’nye proizvodstva v mashinostroenii, 7, 18, 2011; Drits, A.M. and Ovchinnikov,
V.V., Metallovedenie i termicheskaia obrabotka metallov, 9, 45, 2011; Drits, A.M. and
Ovchinnikov, V.V., Zagotovitel’nye proizvodstva v mashinostroenii, 1, 11, 2012; Ovchinnikov,
V.V. et al., Svarochnoe proizvodstvo, 4, 45, 2012; Ovchinnikov, V.V. et al., Features of Welded
Joint Forming at B-1469 Aluminum Alloy Friction Stir Welding, 6, 30, 2012.
consisting of resolidified grains. The direct contact of the material under welding and
the pin surface in the course of welding induces maximum plastic strain and maxi-
mum heat release. As the resolidification process is complete in this area, according to
the Bochvar formula, the temperature of this area reached not less than 0.5–0.7 times
the alloy’s melting point. The mechanical properties of the analyzed aluminum–
lithium alloys welded joints produced with FSW are presented in Table 8.16.
Review of the data allows us assume that the strength limit of alloy 1420 joints is
equal to 0.85–0.9 times that of the base metal. At the same time, the strength limit
of the welded joints of Al–Mg–Li system alloys fails to exceed 0.65 times that of the
base metal.
All alloys exhibited higher values of the bending angle (Figure 8.29).
As a rule, tensile tests of welded joints of all alloys under the examination demon-
strated fractures along the heat-affected zone (HAZ) (Figure 8.30).
The analysis of welded joints obtained by FSW after tensile tests established the
fact that the rupture was of dimple type (Figure 8.31).
The analysis of the base metal of alloy 1420 demonstrated that after quenching
and artificial aging the alloy structure contained grains of two types elongated in
the direction of sheet rolling. The first type presented coarse grains with the average
size about 85 ± 7 μm in longitudinal direction and about 25 ± 3 μm in transverse
FIGURE 8.29 Alloy 1441 joint sample appearance after bending test.
FIGURE 8.30 Alloy V-1469 joint sample appearance after static tension test.
FIGURE 8.31 Fracture of V-1469 welded joint after tensile test.

direction. Low-angle-boundary lattice was observed inside of these grains. The sec-
ond type presented fine grains with sizes of 4.2 ± 0.5 and 2.3 ± 0.2 μm in longitudinal
and transverse directions, respectively, and they contained no low-angle boundaries.
The specific volume of such grains is very small and does not exceed 2%. Mainly,
they are located along the coarse grain boundaries. The average level of grain disori-
entation in the initial state of the alloys was 10.2°, and the percentage of high-angle
boundaries was 16%.
The welding core was fine enough and of almost globular. The grain boundaries
were well distinct against those of the base metal, so this seems plausible that some
component of the alloy phase was at the grain boundaries. The combined influence
of intensive plastic strain and temperature at FSW in the core (mixing zone) of the
weld seams results in a resolidified, fine-grained, equiaxial structure. The grain
body was found to contain almost no low-angle boundaries and demonstrate no
developed substructure as in the initial metal. If the sheet thickness is reduced from
7 to 4 mm, the grains are inclined to grow from 1.3 up to 2.5 μm. Such a phenom-
enon may be associated with the peculiarities of heat removal from the mixing zone
during FSW.
It should be pointed out that, in contrast to the average grain size, the plate thick-
ness exhibits no influence on the percentage of high-angle boundaries and the aver-
age disorientation angle. These values are almost identical for seams of various
alloys and are within the range 89%–90% and 38°–39°, respectively.
The border between the welding core and the thermomechanically affected zone
following the core zone is vague for alloy 1420. This zone, like the thermomechani-
cally affected zone, displays a more coarse grain structure compared to the welding
core and most of grains are slightly elongated horizontally, testifying that the strains
occurred in this zone.
The boundary between the thermomechanically affected zone and the heat-
affected zone following the first one demonstrates the transition from relatively
fine-grained structure to the structure with sufficiently coarse grains elongated hori-
zontally. The grain boundaries are quite distinct, and most likely it testifies the avail-
ability of some phases typical for this alloy.
These phases might have much lower melting temperatures and start melting at
the temperatures of the welding process. Perhaps, these phases are formed or devel-
oped as a result of the rate ramp of the diffusion of some chemical elements from
the grain. This zone exhibits inferior properties compared to those of the base metal,
which is due to the poor orientation of grains and formation of various phases along
the grain boundaries.
The most essential issue for aluminum–lithium alloys is the possibility to improve
the mechanical properties of joints produced by FSW, implementing heat treatment
after the welding step. Such heat treatment may include artificial aging after welding
or a complete heat treatment cycle: quenching and artificial aging. Table 8.17 con-
tains the results of mechanical tests of welded joints that were heat-treated.
Artificial aging following the welding process improves the strength limit of a
welded joint and its strength factor up to 0.82 (for the Al–Cu–Li system alloys).
To determine the possibility of obtaining the maximum strength for joints pro-
duced by FSW, the welded samples were subjected to overquenching and artificial
TABLE 8.17
Thermal Processing vs. Mechanical Properties of Aluminum–Lithium
Alloy Welded Joints Performed with Friction Stir Welding
After FSW + Artificial After FSW + Quenching +
After FSW Aging Artificial Aging
Alloy σB, MPa α, Degrees σB, MPa α, Degrees σB, MPa α, Degrees
1420 398 180 412 180 435 168
1441 224 180 334 165 386 112
1460 365 152 439 123 504 95
V-1469 420 125 454 120 520 88
aging. The heat treatment indicated led to considerable wavy strain of the joints
along the whole seam length.
Metallographic examinations of the joints overquenched showed noticeable
growth of the grain. The maximum grain size growth was observed in the welded
joint zone. The initial average grain diameter was 0.8 mm outside the welding zone.
The grain size along the sheets was 0.5–1.4 mm.
The difference in the structure after overquenching may be caused by the vari-
able content of elements of the anti-resolidifiers, as their accumulation at lower level
determines noticeable grain growth. Beside this, grain growth becomes more active
on increasing the shear thickness. It should be noticed that, during FSW, the criti-
cal strain of the welded metal is present, and it also induces grain growth under the
condition of heating and resolidification.
Artificial aging of the welded samples to temper T1 has a positive effect on their
mechanical properties. Moreover, an increase in the joint strength limit is also
observed. If the samples are subjected to overquenching after the welding process,
they exhibit complete resolidification of both the base metal and the weld seam, and
the strength limit of joints approach the level of the base metal strength.
Comparing the results obtained by the authors during FSW of alloys of other
doping systems, and considering the data in scientific and engineering publications
related to FSW issues, it is fair to say that the weldability of aluminum alloys under
FSW conditions is determined by the capability of the alloy to extrude (Figure 8.32).
Formability
6xx 3xx 2xx 5xx 7xx 8xx
FSW weldability
FIGURE 8.32 Interconnection of formability and weldability of aluminum alloys under

FSW conditions.
8.8 WELD BACKUPS VERSUS ALUMINUM–LITHIUM

ALLOY WELDED JOINTS PROPERTIES
During arc welding, the aluminum alloys contains such inner defects as gas poros-
ity, oxide and tungsten inclusions, hot cracks, incomplete fusion, and so on. The
most frequent defect is gas porosity (48%) [255]. The detrimental influence of
pores on the welded joint’s serviceability becomes apparent [256] when the welded
structures are operated under cyclic loading. Besides, the pores located directly
near the surface or close to it are the most critical. The presence of pores in the
seam metal together with oxides and chains of merging pores lowers the fatigue
strength at the base of 2 × 106 cycles by 26%–38% against the fatigue strength of
defect-free seams [257].
However, a certain number and volume of pores are acceptable without any
reworking of the welded element. The standards of acceptable defects are established
by the designer on the basis of the welded structure’s operating conditions, its oper-
ating capability, and reliability. Generally, the production instructions specify the
porosity value (the number of pores per the unit of length of the seam or its section),
the pore chain length, single pore size, and pore occurrence on the seam surface.
If the defect is corrected with weld backup, properties of the seam metal and of
the metal of the adjacent area are altered fatally. The level of alteration of the proper-
ties of welded joints is determined by the weld backup practices.
We examined the influence of the weld backup as well as the effect of repeated
weld backup on the properties of the seam metal and heat-affected zone of the
metal.
The processes occurring in the seam metal and the adjacent heat-affected zones
at weld backup were analyzed using a sample with intersecting seams. Moreover,
the main and backup seams were produced in succession and located at an angle
(Figure 8.33). Metallographic examinations of sections of the welded joints were
carried out to determine the length of area affected during welding to maximum
heat exceeding Ts , T3ak, and TCTap, respectively, in the direction parallel to the sheet
surface. The pattern of the structure modifications in the specified area according
to the variations of the welding mode was the basis for the selection of weld backup
process.
Weld axis 2
Weld axis 1
FIGURE 8.33 Main and backup seam locations.

(a) (b)
FIGURE 8.34 Process options for backup welds along fusing zone (a) and along seam (b).
Figure 8.34 demonstrates the possible process variants for weld backup along the
seam axis and along the fusion zone. [258].
The mechanical properties of the welded joint highly depend on the number of
weld backups. The strength versus the number of the weld backup along the axis of
the seam metal and fusion zone for alloys 1420, 1423, 1460, and V-1469 is presented
in Table 8.18.
Deterioration of mechanical properties of welded joints at backup welding is asso-
ciated with the structural modifications in the fusion zone and the near-seam zone.
TABLE 8.18
Mechanical Properties of Aluminum–Lithium Alloy Welded Joints vs. Weld
Backup Number
One Weld Backup Two Weld Backups Three Weld Backups Four Weld Backups
σB, α, σB, α, σB, α, σ B, α,
Alloy MPa Degrees MPa Degrees MPa Degrees MPa Degrees
1420 335 130 312 115 288 80 268 62
1423 344 90 327 72 295 66 277 52
1441 245 111 232 95 220 77 215 70
1460 307 55 262 46 242 31 228 27
V-1469 313 47 282 40 255 30 238 22
Note: The table contains the average values of testing of 20 samples.

TABLE 8.19
Mechanical Properties of Welded Joints of V-1469 Alloy after Weld Backup
Process Variant Mechanical Properties
σB, MPa α, Degrees KCU, kJ/m2
FSW 310 – 340 60 – 70 180 – 245
335 63 210
FSW + one backup (FSW) 275 – 300 20 – 33 154 – 231
290 25 201
FSW + one weld backup (argon-arc welding) 180 – 220 28 – 32 27 – 52
200 30 38
The effect of the weld backup on the properties of joints produced with FSW is
of high concern. The weld backups were produced by repeated pass of the tool along
the pre-produced FSW seam and by means of manual argon-arc welding. The results
of mechanical tests are presented in Table 8.19.
The results obtained testify that repeated passes on the FSW seam reduce the
strength and ductile properties of the joints. And, backups produced by means of the
manual argon-arc welding causes a drastic fall in the properties.
The examination results may confirm that the correction of defects of welded
joints of aluminum–lithium alloys with two weld backups at the same joint area
is unacceptable because of the drastic deterioration of the mechanical properties,
especially ductility.
8.9 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY MULTIPASS WELDING

During multipass welding of joints of thick components of the construction of
aluminum–lithium alloys, the effect of intense heat of the welding process on the
base metal depends on the welding method, the composition of the fillers, its melting
temperature, and heat. If the solidification temperature of the seam metal is higher
than the temperature of the welded alloy, the seam solidifies prior to the solidifica-
tion of the base metal adjacent to it. So, in the border zone of the seam and weld
metal, the so-called zone of mutual solidification, where the alloy solidifies after all
the others, some defects related to the solidification process may occur.
The cracks and the distribution pattern in the weld seam are known to be related
to of the balance of liquidus and solidus temperatures of the seam and the base metal
[254].
If, at the end of solidification stage, the temperature of the seam metal is higher
than the temperature of the base metal, then the fusion zone, at the locations of the
liquid layers, exhibits defects: they include discontinuities of various types, caused
by the influence of heat and shrinkage strains on the metal under solidification
within enclosed volumes.
During the welding process, the balance conditions are not achieved, so to deter-
mine the intervals of melting and solidification, the actual heating and cooling
conditions should be considered, since as the cooling rate increases the lower border
of the alloy solidification shifts quite noticeably.
In [254], a review of the graphs of melting and solidification of various semi-
finished products of alloy 1420 is presented. These diagrams were obtained by the
differential thermal analysis using a VDTA-8M unit with the heating and cooling
rate of 80°C/min under helium atmosphere (the reference was tungsten). In addi-
tion, to clarify the role of the wire-fillers in the generation of micro-discontinuities
within the fusion zone, some comparative thermographic studies were performed at
identical heating and cooling conditions, to determine solidus and liquidus tempera-
tures and solidification intervals of the metals of seam produced by multipass (8–10
passes) manual argon-arc welding of plates of alloy 1420 with thickness of 25 mm
and double-groove preparation at 90° using the wire-fillers VAL 16, SvAMg6, and
SvAMg3.
The melting stage was established to coincide with the severe deviation of the
curve down, proving the occurrence of an endothermic process. The level of such a
deviation depends on the alloy’s chemical composition. The analysis of the melting
and solidification graphs confirms that these processes happen within one stage for
alloy AMg6 and within two stages for alloy 1420.
The beginning of the melting process of alloy 1420 is accompanied by a drastic
deviation of the curve but minor in terms of values. This stage ends quickly, and
further trend of the curve (Figure 8.35a) indicates the melting of the solid solution
accompanied by heat absorption (sharp drop). In the graph, the solid solution solidi-
fication is presented as a high peak, and easily fusible components of solidification
are shown as low peaks (Figure 8.35b, curves 2–5).
During heating and cooling of samples cut out from the seams produced with
wire SvAMg3, the curves demonstrate two breaks, one of which is determined by
the melting (solidification) of aluminum–silicon eutectics at 560°C–580°C (Figure
8.35, curve 1): SvAMg3 is composed of silicon up to 1%. The other curve break cor-
responds to melting and solidification of the solid solution at 600°C–650°C. The use
of wires of SvAMg6 and SvAMg63 as fillers almost excludes the low-temperature
stage of melting and solidification of the seam metal. In such a case, the melting and
solidification processes are similar to those in alloy AMg6 (Figure 8.35, curve 6).
While using only VAL 16 wire, the low-temperature stage of melting and solidifica-
tion remains (Figure 8.35, curve 2).
The temperature interval of the melting of the base phase, namely the α-solid
solution, in alloy AMg6 and 1420 varies only slightly.
On comparing the results of the thermal analysis of the melting process on heat-
ing samples cut out of different semifinished products of alloy 1420 and the seam
produced with VAL 16 wire, it may be stated that the process starts at about 450°C
and melting of the bulk of the solid solution starts at 580°C–630°C.
The low-temperature peak is more distinct in the curves corresponding to heat-
ing of the remelted sample. During the low-temperature melting stage, the thermal
effect of the first doses of molten metal is less than 1% of the effect created by the
solid solution bulk.
The low-temperature melting stage of alloy 1420 may be explained as due to
the melting of intermetallic compounds followed by eutectics and be classified
ΔQ ΔQ
1
3
1
2
3
5 4
6 5
0 0
Heating T Cooling T
(a) (b)
FIGURE 8.35 Graphs describing melting (a) and solidification (b) processes of Alloy
AMg6, semifinished products, and metal of seams produced on alloy 1420 (differential
thermal analysis). (1) Seam, svAMg3 wire; (2) seam, VAL16 wire-filler; (3) alloy 1420
sheet, δ = 100 mm; (4) die forging, δ = 100 mm; (5) plate, δ = 25 mm; (6) alloy AMg6
sheet, δ = 6 mm.
as contact melting at the boundary of the α-solid solution and complicated inter-
metallic compound phases, containing not only the key doping elements, namely
magnesium and lithium, but also higher contents of copper, iron, calcium, and
silicon. Such a phenomenon may happen in the heat-affected zone, especially in
the case of use of wire-fillers with melting temperature higher than the melting
temperature of the base metal. The structure of alloy 1420 in temper T1 pres-
ents grains of solid solution with inclusions of single coarse prime intermetallic
compounds and a large amount of fine intermetallic compounds developed dur-
ing thermomechanical processing in the course of manufacturing semifinished
products.
To examine the process strength of alloy 1420, some laboratory process samples
with various doping materials were welded. Besides, flat samples with ring weld
build-up were used.
The examination of templates cut out of the ring samples established that, dur-
ing welding of alloy 1420 and of its modifications with lower lithium content, the
FIGURE 8.36 Crack in mutual solidification zone of alloy 1420 joint produced with
SVAMg3 wire-filler.
discontinuities in the zone of mutual solidification developed despite using wire-

fillers. However, the number of discontinuities depended on the composition of the
wire-fillers.
During welding with SvAMg3 wire, the accumulation of microporosities, form-
ing a crack at some locations, may be observed (Figure 8.36).
These cracks in different points along the whole length exhibit some areas par-
tially recovered with eutectics as typical for hot cracks. The rupture on the defect
surface displays grains with smooth molten edges and shrinkage pore edges and
shrinkage pores among them, but no plastic strain traces are detected. The rupture
of such type is typical of cases when solidification cracks occur in the presence of
the liquid phase.
Metallographic analysis assumes that the variation of wire-filler composition

has a significant influence on the width of the mutual solidification zone. Since for
welding with SvAMg3 wire-filler the width of mutual solidification zone is 0.22–
0.35 mm, for SvAMg6 wire-filler this width is 0.15–0.30 mm; for SvAMg63 wire-
filler the width is 0.10–0.18 mm; and for SvVAL16 wire-filler the width of mutual
solidification zone is 0.05–0.11 mm.
In [4], the mechanism of defect development in the fusion zone is demonstrated,
which consists of the following:
The grade of the filling material influences the width of the zone of mutual solidi-
fication and, as a consequence, the interval of this zone in the solid–liquid state. At
the same time, the force on the metal of this zone is also modified. The seam part
at the start of solidification loses its mobility, as the part produced before is fixed
(excluding the case of root welding); moreover, the ductility of the seam reduces if
some dendritic solidification of the seam metal is present, similar to the situation
with welding using SvAMg3 and SvAMg6 wire-fillers. The welded metal obtained
with SvAMg63 wire-filler demonstrates the fine-grained structure; its dendrite solid-
ification is suppressed because of the modifiers present in the wires. Apparently, it
may be explained as due to the unequal number of defects in the zone of the mutual
solidification during welding with fillers of various grades.
In area C (Figure 8.37), the solidification ends between the solid base metal
and solid seam. If here during the linear shrinkage the strain exceeds the ultimate
elongation within the brittleness temperature range, then microporosity and cracks
occur.
The possibility of appearance of solidification cracks during manual multipass
welding increases since the fusion zone is curved with surfaces of double curvatures
and angle area in the zone of their junctions, which promotes the hardness of the
Mutual crystallization
569° 538° zone
SvAMg6
Linear shrinkage Linear shrinkage
FIGURE 8.37 Principle of hot-crack formation in the mutual solidification zone. (From
Denisov, B.S. and Meilakh, A.I., Welding in Aircraft: Welded Constructions of MiGs,
Rusavia Publishing, Moscow, Russia, 2007.)
solidifying system of the solid seam and base metal and solid–liquid zone of the
mutual solidification.
Similar criteria were used for the development of filling materials for welding
of Al–Cu–Li system alloys, which are provided with higher content of copper and
structure-element modifiers.
8.10 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY ELECTRON BEAM WELDING

Mainly, welded constructions are made from semifinished products of wrought
alloys. All aluminum alloys contain sufficient amounts of dissolved hydrogen: for
Al–Mg alloys, it is 0.6–0.8 cm3/100 g, for alloy 1201 it is 0.2 cm3/100 g, and for alloy
1420 it is 0.4 cm3/100 g.
Electron-beam welding of aluminum alloy joints is conditioned, primarily, with
a high density of energy at the heating spot and, as a consequence, the possibility
of single-pass welding of higher thickness at strict modes. When compared with arc
welding methods applied for fabricating heat-hardenable or cold-worked alloys, the
benefits of electron-beam welding become more obvious since the level of metal soft-
ening in the heat-affected zone is reduced significantly. In such a case, the strength of
joints produced by electron-beam welding is higher than that of joints made by other
arc methods by 15%–20%.
During the preparation of welded edges for electron-beam welding, the best
practice is scraping until all traces of the previous machining are removed. This
operation should be the last one as thereafter the surfaces to be jointed should not be
handled with hands. Chips should be removed with a dry brush. The surface of the
aluminum part is usually cleaned by etching in alkali baths.
The main difficulty in the arc welding of aluminum (Tпл = 660°C) is caused by the
presence of heat-proof oxide films (Tпл = 2050°C) and the necessity to remove them.
In addition to their refractory nature, a critical characteristic of the oxide film is its
capacity to absorb gases, especially water vapor, retained within the oxide film up to
the melting temperature.
During electron-beam welding, the film is destroyed with the heat impact and the
hydrodynamic instability of the pool.
The greatest difficulty during electron-beam welding of aluminum alloys with
large thicknesses is the powerful flow of vapors and gases from the pool. It increases
the possibility of high-tension breakthrough in the gun, causes higher wear of cath-
ode due to the formation of easily fusible eutectics on its surface, and results in
unstable pool behavior and deterioration of seam’s appearance.
In most cases, this flow may be so powerful that it makes the welding impossible
totally: the seam fails to form.
The basic defects of the seam during electron-beam welding of aluminum alloys,
excluding different shape variations (undersized welds, puddles, etc.), are caused by
the seam porosity.
The factors regarded as the causes of pore development are as follows [260]:
1. Higher hydrogen content in the welded metal and drastic variations of its
solubility at the pool solidification stage (Figure 8.38).
2.0
[H], cm3/100 Γ
1.5
T melt
1.0
0.5
600 700 800

T, °C
FIGURE 8.38 Variation of hydrogen solubility in aluminum at different temperatures.
For that matter, and to remove the porosity in aluminum alloys, several
authors have recommend limiting the upper permissible limit of the hydro-
gen content within 0.7 cm3/100 g. However, hydrogen content in alloys (e.g.,
1460 and 1420) is much lower, but the porosity remains.
2. Moisture absorbed within the surface film composing it as hydrated oxides.
Loosening of magnesium in the oxide film increases the moisture content
in the film.
To reduce the influence of this factor, prior to the welding process the sur-
face film should be removed with chemical etching or machining.
3. Light-volatile alloy components. To decrease the porosity due to this
effect, some authors recommend lowering the metal pool overheating level,
thereby reducing the energy concentration in the heating spot.
In addition to the factors mentioned above, during the welding of alloy 1420 differ-
ing in its high degree of structure layering, the seam porosity may be caused by gas
release from the interlayer inclusion, and it is confirmed by the typical topography of
porosity on the cross sections (Figure 8.39).
To clarify the mechanism of gas bubble core development during electron-beam
welding of aluminum–lithium alloys with minimum gap in the welded joint, the weld
sample areas close to the welding pool were examined by metallographic methods.
For this purpose, in the course of sample welding, the boosting voltage is aborted
when the welding pool was 100–150 away from the joint edge. This sample is cut
into several templates, which are broken along the seam. The fractured surfaces were
examined using optical and a scanning electron microscopy.
FIGURE 8.39 Topography of porosity in electric beam seam of alloy 1420 at distinct mate-
rial exfoliation. (1) Seam, (2) pores, and (3) interlayer precipitates.
The examination performed detected no traces of metal seizure in its solid state
preceding the development of enclosed microcavities at the welded edges in front of
the melting edge (Figure 8.40) [263]. The metal areas adjacent to the melting border
did not differ from the distant areas and exhibited the typical traces of the machining
process. Along the melting border, a chain of pores varying in size was observed.
Presumably, although no welding was done on the solid phase due to the oxide film
present at ends of the joint surfaces in front of the welding pool, during the electron-
beam welding of aluminum alloys the tight contact of the joint surfaces in front of
the pool contributed to pore development.
The results obtained in the course of this work afford ground to state that pore
formation does not require mandatory enclosed microcavities in the joint plane in
front of the welding pool, contrary to the welding of titanium alloys. The mechanism
of gas bubble formation during electron-beam welding of aluminum–lithium alloys
may be presented in the following manner (Figure 8.41):
Calculations show that during electron-beam welding of aluminum–lithium
alloys the edges 10 mm away from the melting front (line 2, Figure 8.41) are heated
up to 250°C–610°C. Such heating leads to a tight contact of longitudinal protru-
sions and microcapillary development due to the dents present. Heating results in
intense gas desorption; gases are released in the course of pyrolysis of the surface
1
2
2 Б
(a) Б (b)
FIGURE 8.40 Fracture of weld sample along seam. (a) Joint side surfaces, scrapped, (b) joint
side surfaces, peeled, (1) joint side surfaces in front of welding pool; (2) solidified metal area
at front wall of welding pool with pore chain and along the melting transition zone B–B.
contaminations and moisture decomposition. The gases released from the capillary
tubes may be move toward the welding direction or toward the welding pool. Gas
bubbles appearing in the welding pool increase their sizes due to diffusion of gases
from the surrounding liquid metal.
To confirm the proposed mechanism, welding was carried out on samples with
edges preprocessed with the scanning electron beam. The processing was imple-
mented with the 1.6 kW power beam scanning at the frequency of 50–50 Hz with
the plate movement speed of 12–14 m/h. The x-ray test of the welded samples estab-
lished that their porosity was similar to that of samples welded along the whole
material. Examination of the samples on the scanning electron microscope showed
almost no pores along the melting border.
Accordingly, the results of the implemented examination allow us state that
electron-beam welding of the aluminum–lithium alloys blank stock with high thick-
ness activates the mechanisms of gas bubble development based on processing of the
ends of joints subject to welding. Under certain conditions, this mechanism becomes
the prevailing mechanism for pore formation in the seams of aluminum–lithium
alloys in the course of electron-beam welding. Under the condition of the electron-
beam welding, the gas bubbles emerge by the flow of the desorbed gases and mois-
ture decomposition products into the front part of the welding pool via the capillary
tubes formed in the joint as a result of the welded stock contact.
The general porosity control during electron-beam welding of aluminum alloys
requires the following:
1. Thorough preparation of the welded joint surfaces by etching, scrapping,

and so on
2. Increase of the welding speed over 60 m/h
3. Implementation of the repeated passes
4. Longitudinal and circular beam oscillation
2
A A
3
6 5 4
7
A-A 8
B
3 8
B
I 2 3 4
B-B 5
6
6
5
FIGURE 8.41 Principle of gas bubble generation in welding pool front part. (1) Electron
beam; (2) melting transition zone; (3) welding pool front part; (4) gas bubble; (5, 6) peak and
dent at side joint surface; (7) side joint surface; and (8) welding pool back part.
Short length of the softening zone during electron-beam welding of heat-hardenable

alloys enables their application for constructions without repeating the heat treat-
ment after welding.
Because of their low specific weight, aluminum alloys with thickness up to 20 mm
may by welded at the lower position without any process gaskets within the thickness
range 20–150 mm. The best results are obtained during welding with vertical and
horizontal seams. If the thickness is over 150 mm, horizontal beam welding upwards
is preferable. To prevent inner defects in the form of cavities and to decrease liquid
metal flowing out, the electron beam during upward welding is inclined at the angle
of 5°–17° from the horizontal position downward.
For alloys with thickness up to 40 mm, the reasonable speed range should be
36–70 m/h. If the thickness is over 40 mm, the welding may be performed at a speed
of 10–30 m/h.
To compensate the burn-off of the light, volatile elements, welding is imple-
mented with wire-fillers.
Since the solidifying metal demonstrates a high factor of the linear expansion and
significant shrinkage, the modes ensuring minimum heat input and parallel seam
shape should be aimed at.
Alloy 1420 (of the Al–Mg–Li system) has attracted the attention of the designers
because of its high specific strength (the highest among aluminum alloys). It was
decided to manufacture the fuel tanks and the cabin for MIG-29 from this alloy.
However, by the launch of production activities, its technical properties were not
analyzed well enough. At the very beginning, some problematic issues surfaced:
higher seam porosity level, low fracture toughness of the near-seam zone (somewhat
up to 0.01 kg/cm2), and cracks in the near-seam zone. The main causes of these
problems were the higher layering of the metal and drastic inhomogeneity of the
properties in various directions due to this layering. The worst properties were along
the height. Unfortunately, when die forgings were designed for the electron-beam
welding, this very direction, that is, the direction along the height, was the most
unfavorable place of the seam (Figure 8.42).
Gradually, as a result of collaborative research work of the teams from many com-
panies, the material quality has been improved considerably (due to the introduction
of vacuum holding mixer at the filling stage), die forging process schemes have been
modified, and various practices for assembling and welding have been tested.
And, finally, when all troubles seemed to have been overcome, perestroika (period
of restructuring of the Soviet political and economic system) started, and all activi-
ties related to alloy 1420 were frozen. Further, some attempts were made to bring
alloy production back, but they failed.
Table 8.20 contains the mechanical properties of the base metal and of the welded
joints of an extruded strip of alloy 1420 with thickness 40 mm.
Furthermore, in most cases the sample fracture (tensile and impact samples) was
along the seam metal with some transition onto the fusion line.
The lowest hardness among various zones of the welded joint of alloy 1420 was
with the seam metal. The seam metal hardness values for different welding modes
were in the range 80–86 units. The hardness measurements along the seam height
displayed no major variations (Table 8.21).
FIGURE 8.42 Layering scheme for alloy 1420 die forgings welded with electron beam.
(1) Process allowance; (2) seam layering; and (3) seam outline.
TABLE 8.20
Mechanical Properties of Extruded Strip of Alloy 1420 and Strip Welded
Joints, Produced with Electron-Beam Welding
Base Metal Welded Joint
Strength Relative Fracture Strength Fracture Toughness KC, J/m2 × 104
Limit Elongation Toughness Ks, Limit σB,
σbom, MPa δ, % J/m2 × 104 MPa Along Seam Along Fusion Zone
446 – 469 6 – 13.3 20.5 - 24.4 365 – 378 3.82 – 5.85 1.17 - 1.27
459 10.4 23.5 370 4.9 1.22
Sources: Grinin, V.V. et al., Elektronno-luchevaia svarka v sudovom mashinostroenii, Nikolaev
Polytechnic Institute Publisher, Nikolaev, Ukraine, 1987; Ovchinnikov, V.V., Application of
Electron Beam, Laser and Plasma Treatment in Mechanical Engineering, Mashinostroenie
Publisher, Moscow, Russia, 1990.
TABLE 8.21
Rockwell Hardness HRF 60 in Welded Joint Zones
Distance from seam peak, cm 5 15 30 40 50 70 90
HRF 60 84 84 85 85 84.5 84 83.5
(a) (b)
FIGURE 8.43 Peeled (a) and (b) etched sample. The digits show Rockwell hardness.
The softening zone detected by the hardness measurements was well visualized
on the samples planed across the weld seam (Figure 8.43). The borders of this zone
were slightly visible on the macro- and microsections.
Tests on several samples established that the mechanical properties of the welded
joint of alloy 1420 and the properties of the base metal mostly depend on the orienta-
tion of the weld seam and test sample against the strained structure of the semifin-
ished product.
The welding across the grains (testing in longitudinal direction) guarantees the
following mechanical properties of the welded joints:
• Strength limit is 300–350 MPa, that is, 0.65–0.76 times the base metal
strength limit
• Fracture toughness is (9.8–27.4) × 104 J/m2, that is, 0.43–1.2 times the base
metal yield, Ks
• Bending angle is 52°–56°, which is 1.1–1.2 times the base metal bending
angle.
When welding along the grains and testing of samples cut out in the direction of the
height of the formed material, the strength limit of the welded joint may decrease to
290–300 MPa, and fracture toughness may lower to (1.2–7) × 104 J/m2.
Strength limit and fracture toughness increase from the seam peak to its root, and
this situation may be explained by the reduction of crystallite sizes and the cast zone
width. In the welded joint with thickness 100 mm, this increase may be up to 30% of
the strength limit and up to 120% of the fracture toughness.
The porosity of the welded joint reduces proportionally to the decrease of the
welding speed. The minimum porosity with superior mechanical properties is
assured with a welding speed of 9–10 m/h.
Double and triple metal remelting through its total depth reduces the porosity in
the welded joint, but deteriorates the strength at the same time. So, at triple remelt-
ing, the strength limit is reduced by 8%–18%, and fracture toughness is reduced by
30%–40% compared to similar factors of single-pass welding.
To improve the quality and obtain the optimum shape of the penetration during
welding of alloy V-1469 with the horizontal beam, the heat inputs were programmed
with the modification of the beam delay time in stop points along the trace of the
discreet sweep. The welded joints demonstrated the guaranteed penetration and for-
mation of the temper bead (Figure 8.44).
Mechanical properties of the welded joint were determined by tensile test with
standard round samples with the gage length of 8 mm (GOST 1497–94). The fracture
toughness was determined using Charpi samples taken along the seam metal (GOST
4647–80). The samples were cut out across the seam, and the weld seam was strictly
along the sample middle. The results of the mechanical tests of joints welded with
various beam sweeps are given in Table 8.22 [263–265].
A beam sweep of circular shape with the central line ensures the highest val-
ues of the yield offset (σ0.2 = 250 MPa) without any deterioration of the ductility
characteristics.
The microstructure of the seams welded with various beam sweeps is shown in
Figure 8.45. Depending on the sweep type, the number of intergrain layers, micro-
cracks, and pores may vary.
Electron-beam welding with ellipsoid sweep and axes ratio of 3:1 when the largest
axis is along the weld seam enables the reduction of hydrogen content in the layer
FIGURE 8.44 Macrostructure of joint of alloy V-1469 plate with 40 mm thickness.
TABLE 8.22
Sweep Types vs. Mechanical Properties of Various Areas of Welded Joint
of V-1469 Plate at Electron-Beam Welding
Sampling KCV20,
Sweep Type Location σB, MPa σ0.2, MPa δ, % ψ, % kJ/m2
Circular sweep, Upper seam 231 – 299 237 – 240 3.3 – 4.3 24.9 - 40.3 107 – 117
uninterrupted part 287 235 3.8 32.0 110
Middle 288 – 301 235 – 241 2.7 - 4.4 19.5 - 27.1 134 – 167
seam part 292 239 3.5 21.3 144
Seam root 286 – 323 245 – 251 4.0 - 5.3 24.6 - 33.9 73 – 140
314 248 4.2 28.7 107
Circular sweep, Upper seam 265 – 324 198 – 209 6.5 - 7.1 35.8 – 36.1 103 – 112
discreet part 311 205 6.7 36.0 115
Middle 308 – 335 190 – 216 2.6 - 6.4 22.5 - 36.1 130 – 157
seam part 324 199 5.1 31.0 134
Seam root 291 – 332 228 – 236 4.1 - 5.1 27.6 - 30.1 70 – 122
320 233 4.5 28.3 98
Circular sweep Upper seam 266 – 327 248 – 252 5.2 - 5.9 25.1 - 30.2 96 – 108
with stops part 313 250 5.8 27.4 107
along the line Middle 330 – 337 250 – 254 4.3 – 4.6 27.8 - 28.0 124 – 158
coinciding with seam part 341 252 4.4 27.9 134
joint axis Seam root 284 – 320 245 – 251 4.3 - 5.3 27.5 - 30.1 80 – 133
313 249 4.7 28.6 122
Ellipsoid sweep Upper seam 250 – 305 195 – 216 6.2 - 7.0 25.3 – 35.7 92 – 105
with axes ratio part 269 200 6.8 35.0 100
of 2:1 at bigger Middle 340 – 357 206 – 216 3.1 – 3.7 16.9 - 22.4 108 – 126
axis across the seam part 350 210 3.3 19.7 112
weld seam Seam root 240 – 315 224 – 240 3.9 – 4.5 24.2 - 30.0 80 – 128
295 232 4.1 25.9 117
Ellipsoid sweep Upper seam 317 – 347 235 – 248 4.3 – 4.6 25.1 - 29.2 41 – 66
with axes ratio part 323 239 4.4 27.8 51
of 3:1 at bigger Middle 345 – 367 216 – 230 3.2 – 3.9 16.7 - 22.5 65 – 88
axis along the seam part 360 225 3.5 19.7 77
weld seam Seam root 309 – 354 230 – 244 4.3 - 4.6 27.1 - 28.0 57 – 69
342 240 4.4 27.9 63
Ellipsoid sweep, Upper seam 260 – 315 201 – 215 6.4 - 7.5 25.8 - 36.1 96 – 111
discreet part 286 208 7.1 36.0 107
Middle 320 – 342 216 – 266 3.0 – 3.7 16.5 - 22.1 100 – 136
seam part 330 220 3.3 19.4 114
Seam root 241 – 315 234 – 241 3.9 – 4.3 25.0 - 30.8 74 – 138
305 237 4.0 26.9 107
Source: Ovchinnikov, V.V. et al., Zagotovitel’nye proizvodstva v mashinostroenii, 11, 9, 2009.

Note: The numerator presents maximal and minimal values, and the denominator is an average value
of five measurements.
(a) (b)
FIGURE 8.45 Metal seam microstructure (longitudinal section along seam axis) at welding
with circular uninterrupted (a) and discreet (b) sweep, 120×.
with subdendritic microstructure to 0.59 cm3/100 g, and in the dendritic microstruc-

ture layer to 0.48 cm3/100 g.
Because of the change of the trace of the electron beam from circular sweep to
ellipsoidal with axes ratio 3:1, the gas-vapor channel becomes more stable, the metal
porosity reduces, and the metal thickness against the welding case remains without
beam oscillation.
Figure 8.46 shows the influence of the beam scanning frequency on the total area
of pores per 100 mm during the welding of alloy V-1469 with vertical and horizontal
beams.
The data obtained confirms that the porosity of seams produced with a horizontal
beam on the vertical plane is higher than that when welding with vertical beam in the
lower position. It may be explained with the gas bubble transfer with the liquid metal
flow followed by the seizure at the upper weld edges. When beam scanning is done
along the ellipsoid trace, the degassing mechanism is implemented in the gas-vapor
channel and the porosity of seams welded with the horizontal beam approaches the
80
70
60 1
Total area of pores
per 100 mm weld
50
40 2
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Beam scanning frequency, Hz
FIGURE 8.46 Dependence of pore area on beam scanning frequency. (1) Welding with
horizontal beam on vertical plane. (2) Welding at lower position.
(a) (b)
FIGURE 8.47 Appearance of welded sample (a) and microstructure of welded joints pro-
duced with electron-beam welding (b).
porosity of seams welded with the vertical beam in the lower position. The highest
efficiency of degassing into the gas-vapor channel is observed at the beam oscillation
frequency f = 250–300 Hz.
The application of electron beam welding allows obtaining welded joints with
almost parallel walls with no pores, cracks, or vapor pockets (Figure 8.47).
Visual examination of the seam and size measurements confirm that the front side
of the joint shows the lowering of the seam by 0.5–0.8 mm, and the side of the weld-
ing penetration displays the bump up to 2 mm. Mechanical properties of the welded
edge joints of alloy V-1469 are shown in Table 8.23.
The welded joints of alloy V-1469 demonstrate high strength (up to 0.8 times the
base metal strength). Low ductility values obtained for the welded joints are typical
of the alloy itself (α = 9°–13°). The drop in strength and fracture toughness in the
middle part of this joint may be due to the quality of the base metal.
TABLE 8.23
Mechanical Properties of Welded Joints of Alloy V-1469
Mechanical Properties Values
Sampling
Location σB, MPa K Bending Angle α, Degrees KCU, kJ/m2
Upper seam part 464 – 485 0.8 22 – 28 79 – 83
471 26 80
Middle seam part 358 – 416 0.66 10 – 12 57 – 61
388 11 59
Seam root 462 – 487 0.8 12 – 13 80 – 82
472 12 81
Source: Grushko, O.E. et al., Zagotovitel’nye proizvodstva v mashinostroenii, 5, 7, 2012.

K = sB CBIII /s B OCH MeT.
(a) (b)
FIGURE 8.48 (a) Fracture of welded joint of alloy V-1469 extruded strip of 40 mm thick-
ness. (b) Seam upper part.
Fractographic studies were performed of the samples tested for short-term tensile
strength and destroyed along the fusion zone.
The fracture of samples cut out from the upper part of the welded joint exhibited a
distinct fiber structure. Some zones with banding and flat areas with intercrystalline
fractures were detected on the surface of the fracture. The banding areas showed the
places with melting along the grain boundaries (Figure 8.48a). Mainly, these areas
showed the structure in a form of peaks, elongated grains, and some dimples. Several
strengthening phases were observed at the grain boundaries within the intercrystal-
line fractures (Figure 8.48b).
The fracture of the sample cut out from the middle part of the welded joint exhib-
ited the layering structure. The extended fibers and destruction area along the grain
boundaries were observed on the fracture surface. Some peaks and microporosity
were detected within the area with fiber structure. The fracture follows the fibers
with a high content of small particles.
The fracture of the sample cut out from the root part of the seam demonstrated
less distinct layering against the seam middle part and the areas containing no
fibering. Therefore, the reduction of the mechanical properties in the middle part
of the weld seam might be associated with the peculiarities of the base metal
structure.
Metallographic examinations proved that the weld seams were characterized
by equiaxial structure with a grain size of 5–10 μm. Because of the high solidi-
fication rate at the circumference of the seam, the zone with elongated grains
was almost missing, and the zone with fine resolidified grains was 20–30 μm
approximately.
The transition zone failed to contain the uninterrupted excessive phase, which is
typical of high-strength alloys of the Al–Cu–Li system. Doping of such alloys with
scandium and silver may reduce the coarse structure of the transition zone, its length
and netting, enriching of the borders with secondary brittle phases. This structure
is more favorable in terms of increase of resistance to hot cracks during the welding
process. Microhardness measurements and welded joint microstructure showed that
the heat-affected zone was not large and equal to 1.5–2.0 mm.
The research activities implemented by the Russian Aircraft Company MiG and
the National Institute of Aviation Technologies (NIAT) established that the proper
selection of the focus current and operating distance may ensure welding of com-
plicated profiles with height up to 150 mm without any correction of the welding
parameters. Hence, two or, in some cases, three elements of the complex joint can be
welded as the electron beam moves. Besides, a new drawback of the electron-beam
welding when applied to complicated profiles was determined. At the areas with
drastic variations of the thickness or thickness sum, local lowering of the weld seam
to 4–5 mm was observed at the smaller thickness. This defect was caused by both
jump-type variation of the beam power and conditions of solidification of the seam
metal under the influence of capillary forces of the surface tension of the molten
metal. It is very difficult to avoid such a defect, and process allowances other than
further seam lowering are required.
In cooperation with NIAT specialists, we developed the method of electron-beam
welding for complicated joints with filling material in forms of inserts of variable
cross section placed in the part junction. The protruding part of the insert should be
placed in the zone of the proposed seam lowering (Figure 8.49). Sometimes, such a
method gives satisfactory results [261,262].
Two troubling issues have been solved during mastering the method of electron-
beam welding of complicated section joints:
1. Prevention of reworking of the extruded profiles, as during welding one part

should not contain process allowances
2. Performance of the electron-beam welding of complicated joints with no
seam lowering.
Figure 8.50 shows some examples of the electron-beam welding of joints with vari-
able cross sections of the aluminum–lithium alloys 1420.
FIGURE 8.49 Electron-beam welding of complicated joints of aluminum–lithium alloys

with insert.
FIGURE 8.50 Examples of joints and seams produced with electron beam welding of alloy
1420 parts with varying sections.
CONCLUSIONS
This book presented the results the work of several years by the authors as team
members of VIAM, KUMZ, VILS, NIAT, and the Russian Aircraft Company MiG.
These results were based on theoretical and practical analyses of process develop-
ment by mastering a new class of aluminum wrought alloys—aluminum–lithium
alloys—in metallurgical and machine-building production.
The purity of the charge materials, contents of the alloying components, and
admixtures in aluminum–lithium alloys determine their physical and chemical prop-
erties and, as a consequence, are reflected on the properties of semifinished products
and their weldability.
It is possible to improve the quality of aluminum–lithium alloy welded joints in
an integrated manner based on the approach arising from the thesis that weldability
and properties of welded joints are determined by the chemical and phase composi-
tion of the ingot, conditions of its heat treatment, and the modes of ingot deformation
by forging, die-forging, and sheet rolling.
Principles of aluminum–lithium alloy cold- and hot-cracking susceptibility
changes have been established based on results of the study of separate and complex
influences of the main alloying elements and their admixtures on tensile properties
of these alloys in liquid and solid states and building composition–property charts
for the multicomponent systems Al–Mg–Li, Al–Cu–Li, Al–Cu–Mg–Li, which
allowed us to determine the position of concentration areas conforming to satisfac-
tory processibility by casting and welding.
For the first time, the idea has been formulated and experimentally validated
that aluminum alloys, simultaneously containing in certain proportions the elements
forming heterogeneous nuclei (zirconium, scandium) being centers of solidification,
and surface-active elements with lower heat conductivity (lithium, magnesium, zinc)
securing steady growth of grains with smooth surface under conditions of lowered
cooling rates, are susceptible to the formation of nondendritic structures without
enforced physical effect to the solidifying melt.
For the first time, a mechanism of defect structure build-up was discovered in
alloy 1420 forming in a form of both macro discontinuity flaws found during ultra-
sonic testing, reducing the properties in short-transverse direction, and micro discon-
tinuity flaws found during probe heat testing as zones showing hypersusceptibility to
oxidation and opening up by heating with cavity formation.
Strain temperature increase as well as metal local heating exacerbated by lower
heat conductivity resulted in replacement of the total uniform strain process at low
temperatures by shear with viscous flow along grain boundaries, leading to the inter-
granular structure.
Based on the theoretical generalization of a large volume of experimental data,
the process parameters to obtain melts with specified contents of the main alloy-
ing elements, metallic admixtures and hydrogen, ingots in aluminum–lithium alloys
1230, 1420, 1421, 1424, 1441, 1460, 1440, and 1450 with the specified structure, and
large forged and die-forged semifinished products in alloy 1420 with the guaranteed
level of properties in three directions and good weldability were developed and real-
ized under conditions of serial production.
These investigations allowed us create the very-first-in-the-world structure of the
all-welded pressurized compartment using the aluminum alloy system Al–Mg–Li
(1420) to be used in aircraft airframe as fuel tank compartment, cockpit, and so on.
Thereby, a weight reduction of the structure of 30% was achieved. The structure
and material allowed us to ultimately mechanize the assembly and welding pro-
cesses in serial production, and to ensure a high level of maintainability and corro-
sion resistance.
REFERENCES
1. Certificate for Opening No. 390. The phenomenon of aluminum-magnesium alloy sys-
tem strength and stiffness increase with simultaneous density decrease (Fridliander
effect). Fridliander I.N., Shamrai V.F., Shiriaeva N.V. 18.10.1990 (in Russian).
2. Fridliander I.N., Kablov E.N., Grushko O.E. et al. Aluminum based alloy. Patent Russia
No. 2038405, February 19, 1993 (in Russian).
3. Fridliander I.N. Memories of Creating Aerospace and Nuclear Technology from
Aluminum Alloys. Moscow, Russia: Nauka Publishers, 2006, 287p. (in Russian).
4. Denisov B.S., Meilakh A.I. Welding in Aircraft: Welded Constructions of MiGs.
Moscow, Russia: Rusavia Publishing, 2007, 360p. (in Russian).
5. Skliarov N.M. 70 Years Path from Wood to Super Materials. Endorsed by E.N.
Kablov. Moscow, Russia: MISiS, All-Russian Research Institute of Aviation Materials
Publisher, 2002, 488p. (in Russian).
6. Leshchiner L.N., Latushkina L.V., Fedorenko T.P. 1441 alloy of Al-Cu-Mg-Li sys-
tem. Abstracts of Papers of Metallurgy of Aluminum Alloys with Lithium All-Union
Scientific Conference. Moscow, Russia: VILS Publisher, 1991, pp. 76–77 (in Russian).
7. Leshchiner L.N., Kishkina S.I., Starova E.N., Fedorenko T.P., Bulgakova E.N. The
properties of 1441 alloy clad and unclad sheets. Tsvetnye metally, 1994, 4, 56–59 (in
Russian).
8. Mozharovskii S.M., Komarov S.B. The adoption of large flat aluminum alloy ingots
casting containing lithium. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1993, 7/8, 79–83 (in Russian).
9. Drits A.M., Krymova T.V. 1460 alloy sheets structure and properties. Tsvetnye metally,
1996, 3, 45–48 (in Russian).
10. Grinberg N.M., Serdjak V.A., Gavriljako A.M. et al. Fatigue life and crack resistance of
sheet Al-Li 1460 alloy at 293 to 4 K. Journal of Fatigue, 1993, September, 393–400.
No. 2237098, July 24, 2003 (in Russian).
12. Klochkova Iu.Iu., Grushko O.E., Lantsova L.P., Burliaeva I.P., Ovsyannikov B.V. The
Development of Semi-Finished Products from Future-Proof Aluminum–Lithium Alloy
in Industrial Production V-1469. Moscow, Russia: All-Russian Research Institute of
Aviation Materials Publisher, 2010, pp. 133–136 (in Russian).
13. Nikiforov A.O., Novikov I.I., Makarov V.D. Superplasticity of 01420 and 01440 lithium
aluminum alloys. Abstracts of Papers of Metals Superplasticity All-Union Scientific
Conference. Ufa, Russia, 1989, 107p. (in Russian).
14. Lloid D.Dzh., Mur D.M. Development of Superplastic Aluminum Alloys. Endorsed by
N.E. Peiton, K.M. Gamilton; translated from English. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgiia
15. Sergeeva D.N., Nikiforov A.O., Novikov I.I., Makarov V.D. Formation of ultrafine-
grained structure and parameters of superplasticity of Al-Li-Cu system based alloys.
Izvestiia vuzov. Tsvetnaia metallurgiia, 1991, 6, 9–12 (in Russian).
16. Sergeeva D.N., Levchenko B.C., Nikiforov A.O., Samokhvalov S.V. Al–Li–Cu system
alloys superplasticity. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1991, 9/10, 29–32 (in Russian).
17. Makova O.B., Portnoi V.K., Levchenko B.C., Khokhlatova L.B., Kolobnev N.V.
Zirconium influence on the formation of ultrafine structure and 1420 alloy superplas-
ticity characteristics. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1990, 15–17 (in Russian).
18. Fridliander I.N., Ekhina E.V., Kuniavskaia T.M., Likin V.L. The appearance of
superplasticity effect in aluminum alloys with lithium. MiTOM, 1985, 2, 3–6
(in Russian).
19. Kolobnev N.I. Phase and structural transformations in aluminum alloys with lithium,
and development of new industrial alloys 1424, 1430, 1451, 1461 for aerospace engi-
neering. Dr. Habil thesis. Moscow, Russia, 2003, 495p. (in Russian).
20. Vainblat Iu.M., Degtiarev A.G. Metalscience background for cladding sheets of alumi-
num alloys with lithium. Abstracts of Papers of Metallurgy of Aluminum Alloys with
Lithium All-Union Scientific Conference. Moscow, Russia: VILS, 1991, pp. 19–20 (in
Russian).
21. Degtiarev A.G., Vainblat Iu.M., Tarasov V.A., Popov V.I., Kolobnev N.I. Development
and implementation of 1420 alloy clad sheets industrial technology production,
pp. 80–81 (in Russian).
22. Grushko O.E. Metalscience basis of ingots and semi-finished products production
from high-modulus low density aluminum–lithium alloys for aviation and rocketry. Dr.
Habil thesis. Moscow, Russia, 1990, 505p. (in Russian).
23. Fridliander I.N., Grushko O.E., Sheveleva L.V. et al. Aluminum based alloy. Patent
Russia No. 2310005, June 25, 2006 (in Russian).
24. Aluminum based alloy. Patent Russia ER No. 2006403. ALCOA. August 22, 2003.
No. 2412270, August 9, 2007 (in Russian).
26. Klimov V.T., Gin’ko I.B., Sadkov V.V., Krymova T.V. Use of aluminum–lithium alloys
in ANTK aircrafts named after A.N. Tupolev. Tsvetnye metally, 1997, 3, 59–62 (in
Russian).
27. Voronov S.M. Gases in Aluminum Alloys and Methods of Molten Degassing. Moscow,
Russia: Oborongiz Publications, 1938, 49p. (in Russian).
28. Al’tman M.B. Non-Metallic Inclusions in Aluminum Alloys. Moscow, Russia:
Metallurgiia Publisher, 1963, 126p. (in Russian).
29. Al’tman M.B., Lebedev A.A., Chukhrov M.V. Melting and Casting of Light Alloys.
Moscow, Russia: Metallurgiia Publisher, 1969, 680p. (in Russian).
30. Shamrai F.I. Lithium and Its Alloys. Moscow, Russia: AN SSSR Publisher, 1932,
186p. (in Russian).
31. Radin A.Ia. Study of aluminum alloys oxidation kinetics in the liquid state. Voprosy
tekhnologii liteinogo proizvodstva. Moscow, Russia: Oborongiz Publications, 1961,
p. 98 (MATH; Vol. 49) (in Russian).
32. Kubashevskii V.O., Gopkins V. Metals and Alloys Oxidation. Moscow, Russia:
Metallurgizdat Publisher, 1963, 362p. (in Russian).
33. Kurdiumov A.V., Inkin S.V., Chulkov B.C., Grafas N.I. Flux Treatment and
Aluminum Alloys Filtration. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgiia Publisher, 1980, 196p.
(in Russian).
34. Dobatkin V.I., Gabidullin P.M., Kolachev B.A., Makarov G.S. Gases and Oxides in
Aluminum Wrought Alloys. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgiia Publisher, 1976, 264p. (in
Russian).
35. Semenchenko V.K. Surface Phenomena in Metals and Alloys. Moscow, Russia:
Tekhteorizdat Publisher, 1957, 312p. (in Russian).
36. Thile W. Die Oxydation von Aluminum und Aluminium-legierungen Schmeezen.
Aluminium 1962, Bd. 38, N 12, S. 780–783.
37. Mal’tsev M.V., Chistiakov Iu.D., Tsipin M.I. To the question about the structure of
oxide films on the liquid aluminum and its alloys. Dokl. AN SSSR [USSR Academy of
Sciences Papers], 1934, 99(3), 824–826 (in Russian).
38. Mal’tsev M.V., Chistiakov Iu.D., Tsipin M.I. Electron diffraction study of oxide and
hydro oxide films on metals. Izvestiia AN SSSR. Seriia fizicheskaia, 1956, 20(7), 824–
826 (in Russian).
39. Kunin L.L. Surface Phenomena in Metals. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgizdat Publisher,
1955, 300p. (in Russian).
40. Khabarova O.E., Podsechinov A.V., Semenov A.E., Zasypkin V.A. Features of
VAD23 alloy melting and casting. Wrought Aluminium Alloys. Moscow, Russia:
Mashinostroenie Publisher, 1964, vol. 3, pp. 201–205 (in Russian).
41. Zal’tsman I.Ia., Grushko O.E., Zasypkin V.A. et al. Some features of VAD23 alloy
preparation. Wrought Aluminium Alloys. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgizdat Publisher,
1966, vol. 4, pp. 9–12 (in Russian).
42. Dubost B., Golinet C., Ansara J. An experimental and thermodynamic study of the
Al–Li–Cu equilibriuin phase diagram. The Fifth International Aluminum-Lithium
Conference, Williamsburg, VA, March 28–31, 1989, pp. 233–238.
43. Tarasenko L.V., Grushko O.E., Zasypkin V.A., Ivanova L.A. The phase composition of
surface films on aluminum alloys with lithium. Izvestiia AN SSSR. Metally, 1990, 2,
206–211 (in Russian).
44. Grushko O.E. Investigation of melting processes, tendency to form casting cracks and
development of industria technology of ingot casting from aluminum alloys with lith-
ium. PhD thesis. Moscow, Russia: All-Russian Research Institute of Aviation Materials
45. Marezio B. Crystallographie structure and anomal dispertion of LiA102. Acta
Crystallographica, vol. 19, 1965, 396.
46. Magsood A. Thermal oxidation behavior of on Al-Li-Cu-Mg-Zr alloy. Metallurgical
Transactions, 1987, 18A(4), 681–689.
47. Wefers K., Mozelewsk F.A. Surface chemistry of Al-Li-Cu alloy. Aluminum, 1988,
64(3), 295–301.
48. Zasypkin V.A., Grushko O.E., Ivanova A.A. et al. A method of producing ingots of
aluminum alloys with lithium. Author Certificate No. 610398 (USSR). April 16, 1976,
No. 2348928 (in Russian).
49. Grushko O.E., Zasypkin V.A., Tarasenko L.V., Ivanova A.A. A method of melting of
aluminium alloys containing lithium. Author Certificate No. 663186 (USSR). January
3, 1978, No. 2564193 (in Russian).
50. Grushko O.E., Zasypkin V.A., Ivanova L.A., Tarasenko L.V. Aluminium based alloy.
Author Certificate No. 758786 (USSR). April 9, 1979, No. 2749976 (in Russian).
51. Stepanova M.G., Fridliander I.N., Valiaeva V.I. et al. Aluminium based alloy. Author
Certificate No. 999640 (USSR). September 3, 1981, No. 3336269 (in Russian).
52. Grushko O.E., Stroganov G.B., Fridliander I.N. et al. Aluminium based alloy. Author
Certificate No. 1091586 (USSR). September 11, 1982, No. 3482356 (in Russian).
53. Beliaev A.I., Zhemchuzhina E.A., Firsanova L.A. Physical Chemistry of Molten Salts.
Moscow, Russia: Metallurgizdat Publisher, 1937, 355p. (in Russian).
54. Zasypkin V.A., Semenov A.E., Zal’tsman I.Ia., Grushko O.E. Sodium in aluminum
wrought alloys. Aluminium Alloys. Endorsed by I.N. Fridliander. Moscow, Russia:
Metallurgiia Publisher, 1968, i. 5, pp. 30–38 (in Russian).
55. Ostroushko Iu.I., Buchikhin P.I. Lithium, Its Chemistry and Technology. Moscow,
Russia: Atomizdat Publisher, 1960, 120p. (in Russian).
56. Grushko O.E., Makarov G.S., Vorob’ev O.I. et al. Melting and Casting Technology
of alloys with Lithium to Produce Finished Products with Regulated Hydrogen and
Sodium Contents for Weld Constructions. Moscow, Russia: All-Russian Research
Institute of Aviation Materials Publisher, 1986, 67p. (in Russian).
57. Grushko O.E., Zasypkin V.A., Ivanova L.A. et al. Method of aluminium alloys treat-
ment. Author Certificate No. 936627 (USSR), February 1, 1980, No. 3312319 (in
Russian).
58. Grushko O.E., Sandler B.C., Chapyzhnikov B.A. et al. Impurities of carbon and nitro-
gen in 1420 alloy. Aircraft Materials. Moscow, Russia: All-Russian Research Institute
of Aviation Materials Publisher, 1986, i. 4, pp. 22–31 (in Russian).
59. Simensen C.J., Berg G. Determination of admixtures in aluminum. Aluminum, 1980, 5,
335–340.
60. Riedelbauch H. Scheinelsabchandlung von Aluminiumknet werkstoffen: Prinzipien
und Moglichkeiten. Gieaserei, 1972, Bd. 10, N 23, S. 409–417.
61. Grishin V.K., Glazunov M.G., Arakelov A.G. et al. Lithium Properties. Moscow,
Russia: Metallurgizdat Publisher, 1963, 115p. (in Russian).
62. Makarov G.S. Gas Refining of Aluminum Alloys. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgiia
63. Makarov G.S., Grigor’eva A.A., Danilkin V.A. On hydrogen contents in aluminium
moltens. Tsvetnye metally, 1981, 7, 73 (in Russian).
64. Sharov M.V., Pimenov Iu.P. Hydrogen and oxide inclusions in aluminum moltens.
Properties of Melted Metals. Moscow, Russia: Nauka Publishers, 1974, pp. 106–109 (in
Russian).
65. Kurdiumov A.V., Inkin S.V., Chulkov V.S., Shadrin G.G. Metal Impurities in Aluminium
Alloys. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgiia Publisher, 1988, 143p. (in Russian).
66. Zasypkin V.A., Grushko O.E., Ivanova L.A. et al. 01420 alloy melting protected under
flux and inert gases. Aviatsionnye materialy. Moscow, Russia: ONTI, VIAM, 1979, i.
5, pp. 37–45 (in Russian).
67. Laiper A.I. Alumina Production. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgizdat Publisher, 1961,
919p. (in Russian).
68. Wert J.A., Bourgaaser K.S., Starke E.A. Intergranular fracture of Al-Li base alloys.
A Final Rep. Cont. NAT-0SR-83-0061-C. 01.01.1984. 31.12.1986.
69. Webater D., Kirkbride R. Mechanical propertis and microstructure of Al–Li–Cu–Mg–
Zr in forgings. Metallurgical Transactions, 1986, 17A(11), 2007–2016.
70. Webster D. The effect of low-melting point impurities on the properties of aluminum–
lithium alloys. Metallurgical Transactions, 1987, 18A, 2181–2193.
71. Fedosov A.S. Regulation of lithium and calcium impurities content in aluminum alloys
in order to eliminate their negative impact on the processing characteristics. PhD the-
sis. Moscow, Russia, 1986. 201p. (in Russian).
72. Karpov Iu.A., Alimarin I.P. A new stage in the analytical chemistry of high-purity
substances. ZhAKH [Journal of Analytical Chemistry], 1979, 34(7), 1402–1410 (in
Russian).
73. Radii A.Ia. On the mechanism of flux action when melting the aluminum. Voprosy
tekhnologii liteinogo proizvodstva, Moscow, Russia: Oborongiz Publications, 1963,
pp. 45–70 (Tr. MATI; i. 46).
74. Kurdiumov A.V., Chuikov B.C., Vygovskii E.V. The saturation of the aluminum mol-
ten with alkali metals at its melting under flux. Tsvetnye metally, 1975, 9, 38–42 (in
Russian).
75. Kurdiumov A.V., Chuikov B.C. Methods of sodium activity determining in fluxes.
Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1975, 3, 71 (in Russian).
76. Grushko O.E., Vol’khin G.D., Vorob’ev O.I. et al. Flux for aluminium alloys treatment.
Author certificate no 1181323 (USSR). March 2, 1984, No. 3436288 (in Russian).
77. Grushko O.E., Zasypshn V.A., Tarasenko L.V., Ivanova A.A. Preventing lithium burn-
out in 01420 alloy by its alloying. Aviatsionnye materialy, Moscow, Russia: ONTI
VIAM, 1979. i. 5. pp. 51–55 (in Russian).
78. Kherd D. Implimentation of Hydrides in Chemistry. Moscow, Russia: Foreign Literature
79. Voronov S.M. Gases in Aluminum Alloys and Methods of Degassing. Moscow, Russia:
Oborongiz Publications, 1938, 49p. (in Russian).
80. Gabidullin P.M., Makarov G.S. On hydrogen redistribution thermodynamics and kinet-
ics in liquid and solid metals. Metallovedenie i tekhnologiia legkikh splavov [Metallurgy
and Technology of Light Alloys]. Moscow, Russia: Nauka Publishers, 1976, pp. 8–19 (in
Russian).
81. Grigor’eva A.A., Chulkov B.C., Danilkin V.A. et al. The hydrogen content in aluminum
ingots obtained using liquid aluminum from electrolysis baths. Tsvetnye metally, 1982,
1, 70–71 (in Russian).
82. Danilkin V.A., Grigor’eva A.A. The Solubility of Hydrogen in Liquid Aluminum Alloys
from Atmospheric Water Vapor, 1969, 12, 47–50 (in Russian).
83. Makarov G.S, Grigor’eva A.A., Danilkin V.A. On the Content of Hydrogen in
Aluminum Alloys, 1981, 7, 73 (in Russian).
84. Makarov G.S. Investigation of aluminum alloys gas refining trends and production
technology development of wrought alloys with limited hydrogen content. Dr. Habil
thesis. Moscow, Russia: VILS, 1982, 432p. (in Russian).
85. Grushko O.E., Danilkin V.A., Zasypkin V.A., Talaev B.C. Hydrogen in alumi-
num alloys with lithium. Biul. VILS. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1975, 3, C. 7–11
(in Russian).
86. Sharov M.V., Pimenov Iu.P. On the processes of absorption and release of hydrogen by
aluminum and alloys. Metallovedenie splavov legkikh metallov [Metallurgy of Light
Metals Alloys]. Moscow, Russia: Nauka Publishers, 1970, pp. 80–87 (in Russian).
87. Bondarev B.I., Fedosov A.S, Grigor’eva A.A. et al. Changing of the hydrogen content
in the process of 1420 alloy melting and casting. Voprosy aviatsionnoi nauki i tekhniki
[Aviation Science and Technology Issues]. Moscow, Russia: VILS, 1989, i. 3, pp. 17–20
(in Russian).
88. Lovtsov V.P. Impact of non-metallic inclusions on the formation of gas porosity.
Liteinoe proizvodstvo, 1955, 2, 18–20 (in Russian).
89. Wijkvan G.V., Ackermann D.M. Screem degesaing of aluminium & aluminium alloys.
107th AIJME Melting, Denver, CO, 1978, pp. 111–118.
90. Makarov G.S., Teitel’ I.L., Shvadov I.V., Iunyshev V.K. To the question concerning the
vacuum degassing of aluminum alloys under molten cooling conditions. Biull., VILS,
Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1978, 4, 12–13 (in Russian).
91. Slavinskii M.P. Physical and Chemical Element Features. Moscow, Russia:
92. Di Maria E., Howmet G. Pechiney press gov’t for freer. AMM. April 29, 1985, p. 4.
93. Beliaev A.M., Zhemchuzhina E.A., Firsanova L.A. Physical Chemistry of Molten
Salts. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgizdat Publisher, 1937, 315p. (in Russian).
94. Baimakov Iu.M. The balance in the metal and its molten salt system. Proceedings of
the All-Union Meeting on Physical Chemistry of Molten Salts and Slags. Physical
Chemistry of Molten Salts and Alloys. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgizdat Publisher,
1962, pp. 22–25 (in Russian).
95. Irwing R.R. Alcoa tracks materials 2000. Iron Age. January 17, 1986, pp. 44–47.
96. Frosim E., Gebkhard E. Gases and Carbon in Metals. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgiia
Publisher, 1980, 712p.
97. Komarov S.B., Ovsyannikov B.V., Blagodatskikh V.I., Sal’nikov V.I. Electric flux
refining of aluminum–lithium alloys. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1991, 3, 21–24 (in
Russian).
98. Ovsyannikov B.V., Makarov G.S., Komarov S.B. The Features of Electric Flux Refining
of Aluminum-Lithium Alloys, 1996, 1, 32–35 (in Russian).
99. Ovsyannikov B.V. Investigation of aluminum–lithium alloys electric flux refining tech-
nology trends and development. PhD thesis. Moscow, Russia, 1996, 220p. (in Russian).
100. Livanov V.A. Aluminium Alloys. Moscow, Russia: Oborongiz Publications, 1955, 156p.
(in Russian).
101. Dobatkin V.I. Aluminium Alloy Ingots. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgizdat Publisher,
102. Dobatkin V.I. Continuous Casting and Casting Properties of Alloys. Moscow, Russia:
Oborongiz Publications, 1948, 183p. (in Russian).
103. Fridliander I.N. The research of V95 alloy billets casted with cooling by water and air.
Metallurgicheskie osnovy lit’ia legkikh splavov. [Metallurgical Basics of Light Alloys
Casting]. Moscow, Russia: Oborongiz Publications, 1957 (in Russian).
104. Gorshkov I.E. Casting of Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys. Moscow, Russia:
105. Gabidullin P.M., Livanov V.A., Buev A.M. Ingot solidification during continuous
casting. Novye materialy v promyshlennosti [New Materials in Industry], Kuibyshev,
Russia: KPI Publisher, 1963, pp. 123–146 (in Russian).
106. Khabarova O.E., Podsechinov A.V., Semenov A.E., Zasypkin V.A. VAD23 alloy melt-
ing and casting peculiarities. Deformiruemye aliuminievye splavy [Wrought Aluminium
Alloys]. Moscow, Russia: Mashinostroenie, 1964, i. 3, pp. 44–52 (in Russian).
107. Bittence J.C. New aluminum alloys sighted on the horizon. Materials Engineering,
1980, 6, 32–33.
108. Grushko O.E., Novikov I.I., Semenov A.E. Hot brittleness of aluminum-copper-
lithium-manganese alloys. Deformiruemye aliuminievye splavy. Moscow, Russia:
Metallurgizdat Publisher, 1966, i. 4, pp. 25–30 (in Russian).
109. Grushko O.E., Ivanova L.A., Kovalev V.G. et al. Tendency change trends for casting
cracks depending on the composition of aluminum–lithium alloys. Voprosy aviatsion-
noi nauki i tekhniki [Aviation Science and Technology Issues]. Moscow, Russia: All-
Russian Research Institute of Aviation Materials Publisher, 1986, i. 4, pp. 36–43 (in
Russian).
110. Novikov I.I. Hot Brittleness of Nonferrous Metals and Alloys. Moscow, Russia: Nauka
Publishers, 1966, 299p. (in Russian).
111. Vorob’ev O.I., Grushko O.E., Makarov G.S. Development of technology for the produc-
tion of aluminum–lithium alloy ingots. Voprosy aviatsionnoi nauki i tekhniki [Aviation
Science and Technology Issues]. Moscow, Russia: All-Russian Research Institute of
Aviation Materials Publisher, 1987, i. 5, pp. 71–73 (in Russian).
112. Teitel’ I.L. The study of crystallization and cooling process of the aluminum alloy billet
with diameter up to 800 mm during continuous casting. Deformiruemye aliuminievye
splavy [Wrought Aluminium Alloys]. Moscow, Russia: Oborongiz Publications, 1961,
113. Livanov V.A., Gabidullin P.M., Shipilov B.C. Continuous Casting of Aluminium Alloys.
Moscow, Russia: Metallurgiia, 1977, 325p. (in Russian).
114. Shumeiko V.N. Solving Optimization Problems on a Computer. Moscow, Russia:
MISiS Publisher, 1984, 220p. (in Russian).
115. Papazian J.M. Lithium Depletion during Heat Treatment of Al-Li Alloys. Metallurgical
Transactions, 1986, 17A(4), 335.
116. Komarov S.B., Ovsyannikov B.V. The features of aluminum–lithium alloy ingots
casting with melt protection by flux. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1993, 9, 36–41 (in
Russian).
117. Grushko O.E., Vol’khin G. D., Vorob’ev O.I. et al. Flux for aluminium alloy treatment.
Author Certificate No. 1181323 (USSR), March 28, 1984, No. 3889116 (in Russian).
118. Komarov S.B., Mozharovskii S.M., Ovsyannikov B.V., Makarov G.S., Grushko O.E.
Protection and refining of aluminium-lithium alloys with flux. Tsvetnye metally, 1995,
10, 57–60 (in Russian).
119. Fridliander I.N., Leshchiner L.N., Grushko O.E. et al. Aluminium based alloy. Author
Certificate No. 1290723 (USSR) January 14, 1983, No. 3873538 (in Russian).
120. Fridliander I.N., Leshchiner L.N., Grushko O.E. et al. Aluminium based alloy. Author
Certificate No. 1356498 (USSR), April 14, 1986, No. 4037113 (in Russian).
121. Fridliander I.N., Kolobnev N.I., Chertovikov V.M. et al. Aluminium based alloy. Author
Certificate No. 1367517 (USSR), January 16, 1986, No. 4007975 (in Russian).
122. Grushko O.E., Sheveleva A.M. and others. Aluminium based alloy. Patent Russia No.
2038405, February 19, 2003 (in Russian).
123. Grushko O.E., Sheveleva A.M. and others. Aluminium based alloy. Patent Russia No.
22370987, July 24, 2003 (in Russian).
124. Samoilovich Iu.A. System analysis of Billet Crystallization. Kiev, Ukraine: Nauka
dumka Publisher, 1983, 248p. (in Russian).
125. Grushko O.E., Samoilovich Iu.A., Sheveleva L.M. et al. Study of crystallization con-
ditions in order to optimize the 1420 alloy billets casting technology. Voprosy aviat-
sionnoi nauki i tekhniki [Aviation Science and Technology Issues]. Moscow, Russia:
All-Russian Research Institute of Aviation Materials Publisher, 1987, i. 5, pp. 81–84 (in
Russian).
126. Grushko O.E., Snetkova Iu.I., Sheveleva L.M., Ivanova L.A. 1420 alloy billet structure
formation. Aviatsionnye materialy [Airspace Materials]. Moscow, Russia: All-Russian
Research Institute of Aviation Materials Publisher, 1984. i. 2, pp. 11–15 (in Russian).
127. Grushko O.E., Snetkova Iu.I., Tikhomirov V.A., Komarov S.B. Influence of chemical
composition and parameters for 1420 alloy melt preparing on billet structure. Voprosy
aviatsionnoi nauki i tekhniki. [Aviation Science and Technology Issues]. Moscow,
Russia: All-Russian Research Institute of Aviation Materials Publisher, 1987, i. 5,
128. Fridliander I.N. Investigation of crystal growth forms, depending on the cooling rate.
Proceedings All-Russian Research Institute of Aviation Materials. Moscow, Russia:
All-Russian Research Institute of Aviation Materials Publisher, 1949, i. 5, pp. 12–25 (in
Russian).
129. Dronova N.P., Solov’eva V.V., Rubleva M.K. Aluminium Alloy Ingots and Semi-Finished
Products Structure Atlas. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgiia Publisher, 1971, 444p. (in
Russian).
130. Zakharov E.D., Gur’ev I.I. Heterogeneity in continuous casting billets and its influ-
ence on the quality of semi-finished products. Aliuminievye splavy. Moscow, Russia:
Mashinostroenie Publisher, 1964, i. 3, pp. 371–382 (in Russian).
131. Zakharov E.D. Changing of crystallization conditions during billets continuous cast-
ing. Aliuminievye deformiruemye splavy [Aluminium Wrought Alloys]. Moscow,
Russia: Mashinostroenie Publisher, 1969, pp. 339–348 (in Russian).
132. Zakharov E.D. Billet solidification tendencies. Deformiruemye aliuminievye splavy.
[Aluminium Wrought Alloys]. Moscow, Russia: Oborongiz Publications, 1961, pp. 60–78
(in Russian).
133. Elagin V.I. Use of Color Metallography for Aluminum Alloys Structure Study. Moscow,
Russia: VILS, 1989, i. 3, 64p. (in Russian).
134. Fridliander I.N., Grushko O.E., Sheveleva L.M. et al. Features of 1420 alloy ingots
deformation related to their structure and phase composition. Proizvodstvo polufabri-
katov s ispol’zovaniem osadki v vypuklo-vognutykh plitakh. [Manufacturing of Semi-
Finished Products Using Upsetting in Convex-Concave Plates]. Moscow, Russia:
ONTI All-Russian Research Institute of Aviation Materials Publisher, 1985, pp. 49–56
(in Russian).
135. Chalmers B. Solidification Theory. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgiia Publisher, 1968,
350p.
136. Tarasenko L.V., Grushko O.E., Ivanova L.A. Homogenization influence on the phase
composition, structure and mechanical properties of the 1420 alloy ingots. Voprosy
aviatsionnoi nauki i tekhniki [Aviation Science and Technology Issues]. Moscow,
Russia: ONTI, All-Russian Research Institute of Aviation Materials Publisher, 1988, i.
2, pp. 24–30 (in Russian).
137. Eskin G.I., Shvetsov N.N. Conditions of occurrence and development of ultrasonic
cavitations in the molten aluminum and its alloys. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1971,
6, 25 (in Russian).
138. Dobatkin V.I., Eskin G.I, Shvetsov N.N. et al. Laws of aluminum alloy ingots structure
formation at continuous casting with US treatment of crystallizing molten. Fizika i
khimiia obrabotki metallov, 1973, 6, C. 37 (in Russian).
139. Rokhlin L.L., Dobatkina T.V. Features of aluminum–lithium alloys phase multi-com-
ponent diagrams. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1996, 5, 13 (in Russian).
140. Illarionov E.I., Kolobnev N.I., Gorbunov P.Z. Aluminium Alloys in Space Technology.
Pod obshch. red. E.N. Kablova [Endorsed by E.N. Kablov]. Moscow, Russia: Nauka
Publishers, 2001, 187p. (in Russian).
141. Basiuk S.T., Grushko O.E., Sheveleva L.M. et al. The Method of thermomechanical
treatment of plates from aluminum-magnesium-lithium system alloys. Author’s certifi-
cate no, 1360231 (USSR), September 11, 1983, No. 3863122 (in Russian).
142. Setiukov O.A., Grushko O.E., Semenov A.E., Zasypkin V.A. Structure and phase con-
tent of 01420 alloy billets. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1973, 4, 54–59 (in Russian).
143. Berezina A.A., Volkov V.A., Kolobnev N.I. et al. Influence of magnesium and scandium
on the structural state of aging alloys on aluminum–lithium base. Voprosy aviatsionnoi
nauki i tekhniki [Aviation Science and Technology Issues]. Moscow, Russia: All-Russian
Research Institute of Aviation Materials Publisher, 1988, i. 2, pp. 10–25 (in Russian).
144. Grushko O.E., Snetkova Iu.I., Tikhomirov V.A., Komarov S.B. Influence of chemi-
cal composition and parameters of 1420 alloy molten preparing on the billet struc-
ture. Voprosy aviatsionnoi nauki i tekhniki, NTS, seriia TLS [Aviation Science and
Technology Issues, NTS, TLS Series], app to i. 5, 1987, pp. 71–73 (in Russian).
145. Mondol’fo L.F. Aluminium Alloys Structure and Properties. Moscow, Russia:
Metallurgiia Publisher, 1979, pp. 296–297 (in Russian).
146. Grushko O.E., Zasypkin V.A., Ivanova L.A. et al. 1420 alloy semi-finished products
purity increase. Aviatsionnye materialy [Airspace Materials]. Moscow, Russia: ONTI
All-Russian Research Institute of Aviation Materials Publisher, 1980. i. 5, pp. 30–59 (in
Russian).
147. Korzina N.S., Semenov A.E., Solov’eva V.V., Khodakov P.E. Intermetallic com-
pounds in V96ts alloy products. Aliuminievye splavy [Aluminium Alloys]. Pod red. I.F.
Fridliandera. [Endorsed by I.F. Fridliander]. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgiia Publisher,
1968, i. 5, Konstruktsionnye splavy [Structural Alloys], pp. 21–25 (in Russian).
148. Grushko O.E., Zasypkin V.A., Ivanova L.A. et al. 1420 alloy semi-finished products
purity increase in airspace materials collector. Moscow, Russia: ONTI VIAM, 1980,
149. Grushko O.E., Denisov B.S., Lukin V.I., Sheveleva L.M. On the mechanism of defects
formation in 1420 alloy weld compound. Voprosy aviatsionnoi nauki i tekhniki
[Aviation Science and Technology Issues]. Moscow, Russia: VILS, 1985, i. 8, p. 35 (in
Russian).
150. Grushko O.E., Sheveleva L.M., Zhegina I.P., Basiuk S.T. The influence of impurities of
alkali and alkaline earth metals on the structure and properties of 1420 alloy. Voprosy
aviatsionnoi nauki i tekhniki [Aviation Science and Technology Issues]. Moscow,
Russia: VIAM, 1988, i. 2, pp. 10–19 (in Russian).
151. Vainblat Iu.M., Gol’der Iu.G., Kopeliovich L.B. On formation of intermetallic com-
pounds in 1420 alloy containing sodium. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1976, 3, 89–90
(in Russian).
152. Vainblat Iu.M., Kopeliovich L.B., Gol’der Iu.G. Submaginal alloy brittleness caused
horophilic sodium impurity. FMM, 1976, 42(5), 1021–1028.
153. Talbot D.E.I., Ranaley C.E. The addition of bismuth to aluminum-magnesium alloys
to prevent embrittlement by dodium. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions, 1977,
8A(7), 1149–1154.
154. Thompson P.F., Burman N.M. Edge cracking in hot-rolled Al-Mg alloys. Materials
Science and Engineering, 1980, 45(1), 95–107.
155. Vinokurov N.D., Zal’tsman I.Ia., Vasilevskii A.M., Shanskaia P.M. Influence of
AMg6 alloy preparation and refining method on the technological plasticity of ingots.
Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1966, 2, 8–11 (in Russian).
156. Grashchenko N.F. Aluminum alloys mechanical properties improvement. Legkie

metally, 1936, 4, 26–30 (in Russian).
157. Kurdiumov A.V., Chuikov B.C., Vygovskii E.V. The saturation of aluminum molten
with alkali metals during its melting under flux. Tsvetnye metally, 1975, 9, 12–14 (in
Russian).
158. Vauchskii I.A., Kurdiumov A.V., Chulkov B.C. et al. The Dependence of the Mechanical
Properties of Aluminum Wrought Alloys on the Impurities, 1983, 11, 13–15 (in Russian).
159. Parkhutik P.A., Kalashnik L.D., Lubenskii M.Z. On modification of eutectic silumin.
Struktura i svoistva metallov i splavov [Metals and Alloys Structure and Properties].
Minsk, Belarus: Znanie Publisher, 1974, pp. 24–36 (in Russian).
160. Webster D. Proceedings of the Third International Aluminum-Lithium Conference
Aluminum-Lithium Alloys. London, U.K.: Institute of Metals, 1986, pp. 602–609.
161. Vasudevan A.K., Miller A.C., Kersker M.M. Contribution of Na segregation to fracture
behavior of Al–11,4 at % Li All. Proceedings of the Second Internnational Aluminium-
Lithium Conference. Monterey, CA, 1983, pp. 181–199.
162. Fridliander I.N., Grushko O.E., Berstenev V.V., Sheveleva L.M., Ivanova L.A. Influence
of structure type on the properties of cold-rolled aluminum alloys sheets. Tekhnologiia
legkikh splavov, 2002, 4, 47–52 (in Russian).
163. Shamrai V.F., Grushko O.E., Sheveleva L.M., Samsonov V.D. Structure and the abil-
ity of sheet extrusion from Al-Mg-Si alloys, containing calcium alloying additives.
Perspektivnye materialy, 2004, 5, 16–21 (in Russian).
164. Steing E. Determination of trace elements in zone-feined aluminium bynon destructive
activation analysis. Proceedings of Institute of Atom Energy. Kjeller, Norway: Kjeller
Research Establishment, 1985, pp. 125–138.
165. Iahihara M., Mukaiki H. Analysis of elements in aluminium. Transactions of AIME,
1966, 236(2), 192–194.
166. Zolotarevskii B.C., Mansurov Iu.I., Gusarov I.N. Development and research of sec-
ondary casting magnaly. Voprosy aviatsionnoi nauki i tekhniki [Aviation Science and
Technology Issues]. Moscow, Russia: VILS, 1987, i. 3, pp. 67–71 (in Russian).
167. Denisov B.S., Meilakh A.I. Test Method of materials to reveal tendency to form hot
cracks in the heat affected zone of welded joints. Author’s Certificate No. 4008819
(USSR), March 22, 1986 (in Russian).
168. Alov A.A. On the estimate of the weldability of aluminum alloy semi-finished prod-
ucts by a hot test. Metallovedenie i tekhnologiia legkikh splavov [Metal Science and
Technology of Light Alloys]. Moscow, Russia: Nauka Publishers, 1976, pp. 34–38 (in
Russian).
169. Grushko O.E., Zasypkin V.A., Ivanova L.A. et al. Aluminium alloys treatment method.
Author’s Certificate No. 936627 (USSR), February 1, 1980, No. 2931422.
170. Vorob’ev G.M., Gol’shtein P.M., Maurite I.I. The influence of impurities on the
basic mechanical properties of silumins. Tsvetnye metally, 1963, 3, 83–86 (in
Russian).
171. Gunter B., Jlirgens H. Einflus geringer Beimengungen auf mechanische Eigenschaften,
Gefugeausbildungs und Eatarungsform der euteatischen naheutclitichen Al-Si-
Gusslegierung. Giesaerai, 1980. Bd. 67, N 1, P. 8–13.
172. Taran Iu.N., Mazur V.I. The Structure of the Eutectic Alloys. Moscow, Russia:
173. Mal’tsev M.V. Modification of the Structure of Metals and Alloys. Moscow, Russia:
174. Thall B.M., Chalmers B. Modification in aluminium-silicon alloys. Journal of the
Institute of Metals, 1959, 77(1), 79–86.
175. Groaley P.B., Mondoflo L.P. The modification of aluminum-silicon alloys. Modern
Casting, 1966, 49(3), 89–100.
176. Chadwik G.A. Eutetic alloy solidification. Progress in Materials Science, 1965, 12(2),
159–169.
177. Gokhshtein M.B., Vasil’eva L.S. On the mechanism of silumins modification.
Metallovedenie i termicheskaia obrabotka metallov, 1970, 7, 42–43 (in Russian).
178. Gosh S., Kondic V. Some aspects of solidification on structure of aluminum-silicon
eutetic alloys. Modern Casting, 1963, 43(2), 37–39.
179. Mazur V.I. To phenomenological theory of silumins modifying. Proceedings II All-
Union Conference Laws of Eutectic Alloys Structure Formation. Dnepropetrovsk,
Ukraine: DMI, 1982, pp. 20–23 (in Russian).
180. Fridliander I.N., Grushko O.E., Sheveleva L.M. Aluminium based alloy. Patent Russia
No. 2038405, June 27, 1995 (in Russian).
181. Ovsyannikov B.V., Zamiatin V.M., Smirnov V.P., Mushnikov B.C. Thermal and
microstructural analysis of Al-Mg-Li system alloys. Rasplavy, 2008, 4, 28–30 (in
Russian).
182. Makarov G.S., Teitel’ I.L., Shvadov I.V., Iunyshev V.K. To the issiue concerning the
vacuum degassing of aluminum alloy in molten cooling conditions. Tekhnologiia leg-
kikh splavov, 1978, 4, 12–13 (in Russian).
183. Webster D. The effect of low melting point impurities on the properties of aluminium-
lithium alloys. Metallurgical Transactions, 1987, 18A, 2181–2193.
184. Gubkin S.I. Plastic Deformation of Metals. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgiia Publisher,
185. Smith U.K. Basics of Metal Physics. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgizdat, 1959, 456p. (in
Russian).
186. Grishkovets Ia.G. Preventive measures of exfoliations in aluminum alloy semi-finished
products. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1972, 1, 32–35 (in Russian).
187. Likhtman V.I. Physical and Chemical Metals Mechanics. Moscow, Russia: AN SSSR
Publisher, 1962, 172p.
188. Iakovlev V.I. Study of local damage nature during plastic deformation. Extended
abstract of PhD thesis. Moscow, Russia: VIAM, 1975, 25p. (in Russian).
189. Gordeeva T.A., Zhegina I.P. Analysis of Fractures When Assessing the Materials
Reliability. Moscow, Russia: Mashinostroenie Publisher, 1978, 300 C.
190. Murzov A.I. The mechanism of exfoliation formation in plastic deformation of alumi-
num alloys. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1972, 1, 32–35 (in Russian).
191. Kuz’michev L.V. Gassing defects formation in billets and semi-finished from alumi-
num and its alloys. Extended abstract of PhD thesis. Moscow, Russia: VIAM, 1970,
22p. (in Russian).
192. Drits M.E., Korol’kov A.M., Guk Iu.P. et al. Destruction of Aluminum Alloys Under
Tensile Stresses. Moscow, Russia: Nauka Publishers, 1973, 214p. (in Russian).
193. Kuritsyna G.I. Influence of concentration and structural heterogeneity on exfoliation
appearance. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1972, 1, 25–27 (in Russian).
194. Kuzmichev L.V. Influence of Nonequilibrium Eutectic Precipitates on Exfoliation
Formation, 1972, 1, 31–32 (in Russian).
195. Grushko O.E., Sheveleva L.M. and others. A method for plate processing from
aluminum-magnesium-lithium system alloys. Author’s Certificate No. 1360285
(USSR), October 15, 1983 (in Russian).
196. Korneev N.I. Metal Deformation by Forging. Moscow, Russia: Oborngiz Publisher,
197. Guk G.Ia. Theoretical Foundations of Pressure Metal Treatment. Moscow, Russia:
198. Novikov I.I., Zolotorevskii B.C., Tykochinskii D.S. The study of intermetallic com-
pounds plasticity at bending and stretching. Fizika metallov i metallovedenie, 1963,
15(i), C. 813–817 (in Russian).
199. Grushko O.E., Sheveleva L.M., Gribkov A.N. Production technology of forgings and
die forgings from 1420 alloy. Proizvodstvo polufabrikatov s ispol’zovaniem osadki
v vypuklo-vognutykh plitakh. [Manufacturing of Semi-Finished Products Using
Upsetting in Convex-Concave Plates]. Moscow, Russia: All-Russian Research Institute
of Aviation Materials Publisher, 1985, pp. 57–63 (in Russian).
200. Kaibyshev O.A. Plasticity and Superplasticity of Metals. Moscow, Russia: Metallurgiia
Publisher, 1975. 280p. (in Russian).
201. Andreev A.D. Interconnection of exfoliation and destruction of metal during deforma-
tion. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 1972, 1, 22–23 (in Russian).
202. Gel’man A.S. Electric Resistance Welding Technology. Moscow, Russia: Mashgiz
203. Kliachkin Ia.L. Welding of Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys. Moscow, Russia:
Mashinostroenie, 1964, 335p. (in Russian).
204. Gurevich S.M. Manual Welding Non-Ferrous Metals. Endorsed by V.N. Zamko, i.
2, revised and amended. Kiev, Ukraine: Nauka dumka Publisher, 1990, 512p. (in
Russian).
205. Kainova G.E., Malinkina T.I. Svarivaemost’ aliuminievogo splava 01420 [01420 alu-
minium alloy weldability]. Metallovedenie i termicheskaia obrabotka metallov, 1969,
i. 2, pp. 22–24 (in Russian).
206. Ovchinnikov V.V., Petrov A.V., Redchits V.V., Fediunin S.M. The mechanism and the
reasons of subsurface pores formation at nonpressure welding of aluminum alloys and
their influence on the mechanical properties of welded joints. Svarochnoe proizvodstvo
[Welding Production], 1990, 11, 44–46 (in Russian).
207. Grinin V.V., Ovchinnikov V.V., Shiriaeva N.V. Influence of various factors on pore
formation process during nonpressure welding of 1420 alloy sheets. Proceedings
of Electric Welding Institute named after E.O. Paton. Kiev, Ukraine: Nauka dumka
Publisher, 1989, pp. 14–17 (in Russian).
208. Ovchinnikov V.V., Petrov A.V., Shiriaeva N.V., Gabidullin P.M., Grinin V.V., Gureeva
M.A. The mechanism of pores formation at welding 1420 alloy. Svarochnoe proizvod-
stvo, 1988, 3, 35–36 (in Russian).
209. Savostikov A.I., Riazantsev V.I., Fedoseev V.A. Assessment of Gases and Moisture
Content on Aluminum Alloy Elements Surface before Welding, 1982, 11, 37–38 (in
Russian).
210. Riazantsev V.I., Fedoseev V.A. On the Mechanism of Pore Formation in Welded Joints,
1984, 8, 41–43 (in Russian).
211. Bokshtein S.Z., Bronfin M.B., Kaganov L.N. The influence of heat treatment in vacuum
on 1420 aluminum alloy tendency to formation of pores at welding. Avtomaticheskaia
svarka, 1975, 9, pp. 52–54 (in Russian).
212. Mironenko V.N., Evstifeev B.C., Vlasova T.A., Sharapov V.V. Heat Treatment in
Vacuum of 1420 Aluminum Alloy in Order to Prevent the Formation of Pores at
Welding, 1977, 9, 47–50 (in Russian).
213. Bokshtein S.Z., Bronfin M.B., Kurochko R.S. et al. Improving of Welded Joints Quality
in 01420 Aluminum Alloy, 1978, 6, 34–39 (in Russian).
214. Mironenko V.N., Evstifeev V.S., Lubenei G.I. The influence of heat treatment in vacuum
on aluminum alloy weldability. Svarochnoe proizvodstvo, 1979, 1, 21–23 (in Russian).
215. Mironenko V.N., Kolchanova I.F. Heat treatment modes in vacuum before welding
1420 alloy. Avtomaticheskaia svarka, 1979, 7, 61–64 (in Russian).
216. Fridliander K.N., Sandler B.C. Near-surface layer examination of aluminum alloy.
Metally, 1978, 2, 37–40 (in Russian).
217. Riazantsev V.I., Filatov Iu.A., Ignat’ev Iu.E. On the choice of filler wire for arc welding
of Al-Mg and Al-Cu aluminum alloys. Aviatsionnaia promyshlennost’, 2003, 2, 43–45
(in Russian).
218. Riazantsev V.I., Ovchinnikov V.V., Grinin V.V. On the estimate of aluminum alloys
weldability. Svarochnoe proizvodstvo, 1989, 9, 19–23 (in Russian).
219. Iliushenko R.V., Tretiak I.G. Influence of filler materials composition on hot brittleness of
aluminum–lithium alloys weld joints. Avtomaticheskaia svarka, 1991, 7, 27–29 (in Russian).
220. Riazantsev V.I., Fedoseev V.A. Aluminium alloys welded cryogenic fuel tanks produc-
tion. Aviatsionnaia promyshlennost’, 1995, 7/8, 9–12 (in Russian).
221. Drits A.M., Krymova T.V., Ovchinnikov V.V. Experience in the use of aluminum–lith-
ium alloy. Tsvetnye metally, 1997, 11/12, 44–47 (in Russian).
222. Ovchinnikov V.V., Gureeva M.A., Grushko O.E., Egorov R.V. Heat treatment influence
on residual stresses, structural-phase state and performance chcracteristics of 1420
alloy welded joints. Zagotovitel’nye proizvodstva v mashinostroenii, 2008, 11, 20–24,
223. Ishchenko A.Ia., Chaiun A.G., Beletskii V.M. et al. Mechanical properties of 01420
aluminum alloy welded joints at welding with tungsten electrode. Avtomaticheskaia
svarka, 1977, 6, 56–58 (in Russian).
224. Riazantsev V.I., Slavin G.A., Ovchinnikov V.V. New Technology and Equipment for
Arc Welding of Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys, 1991, 7, 36–38 (in Russian).
225. Bykov A.N., Mishenkov V.A. Determination of the effective value of welding arc
asymmetrical heteropolar current at its feeding from thyristor converters of OAPC
type. Problemy tekhnicheskoi elektrodinamiki. [Technical Electrodynamics Issues].
Kiev, Ukraine: Nauk a dumka Publisher, 1977, i. 62, pp. 59–62.
226. Ishchenko A.Ia., Chaiun A.G., Mishenkov V.A. Argon arc welding of 01420 aluminum
alloy by heteropolar rectangular current pulses. Avtomaticheskaia svarka, 1978, 10,
227. Shtrikman M.M. NIAT contribution to the arc welding technology creation for aircraft.
Aviatsionnaia promyshlennost’, 2000, 3, 60–66 (in Russian).
228. Drits A.M., Ovchinnikov V.V. The research results of high-strength Al-Cu-Li-Mg
alloys weldability alloyed with silver, scandium and zirconium. Tekhnologiia legkikh
splavov, 2011, 1, 29–38 (in Russian).
229. Rabkin D.M. Nonpressure Welding Metallurgy of Aluminum and Its Alloys. Kiev,
Ukraine: Nauk a dumka Publisher, 1986, 256p. (in Russian).
230. Pentegov I.V., Chaiun A.G., Legostaev V.A., Stemkovskii E.P. Asymmetry ratio of
argon arc welding modes and their effect on the properties of 01420 alloy compounds.
Avtomaticheskaia svarka, 1979, 5, 20–22 (in Russian).
231. Abralov M.A., Abdurakhmanov R.U., Iuldashev A.T. Influence of Electromagnetic
Effect on the Properties and Structure of 01420 Alloy Welded Joints, 1977, 5, 21–24.
(in Russian).
232. Ovchinnikov V.V., Grinin V.V., Petrov A.V. et al. The properties of 1420 alloy welded
joints made by scanning arc. Svarochnoe proizvodstvo, 1986, 6, 22–24 (in Russian).
233. Ovchinnikov V.V., Alekseev V.V. Plasma welding method of aluminum alloys. Patent
Russia No. 2292256, January 25, 2005 (in Russian).
234. Ovchinnikov V.V., Alekseev V.V., Gureeva M.A., Demidov L.A. Plasma torch for flat
parts extended connections welding. Useful model Patent Russia No. 69789, April 2,
2007 (in Russian).
235. Ishchenko A.Ia. Prospects for welding of high-strength light alloys. Izbrannye problemy
prikladnoi mekhaniki. [Selected Problems of Applied Mechanics]. Moscow, Russia: All-
Union Institute of Scientific and Technical Information Publisher, 1974, 28p.
236. Ishchenko A.Ia. Corrosion resistance of 1201 alloy welded joints under stress.
Avtomaticheskaia svarka, 1978, 4, 36–39 (in Russian).
237. Shiganov I.N., Shakhov S.V., Tarasenko D.V., Plokhikh A.I. The influence of laser
welding speed on aluminum alloys structure and properties alloyed with lithium and
scandium. Tekhnologiia mashinostroeniia, 2005, 10, 23–27 (in Russian).
238. Ueyama T., Tong K., Yazawa I., Hirami M. Aluminium alloy sheet welding by the laser
AC pulsed MIG hybrid process. Journal of Light Metal Welding and Construction,
2003, 41(12), 567–574 (in Russian)
239. Shtpaufer G. Laser hybrid welding. Welding and Connection: New materials and new
perspectives. Proceedings of the International Conference Israel, July 18–20, 2000.
Moscow, Russia: Russian Scientific and Technical Welding Society Publisher, 2000,
pp. 53–61.
240. Tusek J. Synergic operation of welding arc and laser beam for practical application or
for scientific research only? Varilna Tehnika, 1996, 45(2), 39–46.
241. Diebold T.P., Albright C.E. Laser-GTA welding of aluminum alloy 5052. Welding
Journal, 1984, 63(6). 18–24.
242. Dilthey V., Lueder F. Expended capabilities in welding of aluminum alloys with laser-
MIG hybrid process. Aluminum, 1999, 75(1/2), 64–75.
243. Ueiama T., Tong X., Iadzava I. et al. Hybrid welding (laser + pulse AC MIG) of thin
sheet aluminum alloys. Svarka legkikh metallov, 2003, i. 41, 12, 9–16 (in Russian).
244. Paton B.E., Gvozdetskii B.C., Krivtsun I.V. et al. Hybrid laser-microplasma welding of
small thicknesses metals. Avtomaticheskaia svarka, 2002, 3, 5–9 (in Russian)
245. Rabkin D.M., Lozovskaia A.V., Sklabinskaia I.E. Metallurgy of Aluminum Alloys
Welding. Kiev, Ukraine: Nauk a dumka Publisher, 1992, 160 C (in Russian).
246. Edward D., Nicholas G. Developments in the friction stir welding of metals. Aluminum
Alloys, 2005, 1(3), 139–151.
247. Tretiak I.G. Friction stir welding of aluminum alloys (review). Avtomaticheskaia
248. Stepanov V.V., Konkevich V.Iu., Frolov V.A. Compounds formation at friction stir
welding method. Tekhnologiia legkikh splavov, 2003, 1, 58–67 (in Russian).
249. Drits A.M., Ovchinnikov V.V. The Research Results of Al-Cu-Li-Mg High-Strength
Alloys Weldability, Alloyed with Silver, Scandium, Zirconium, 2011, 1, 29–38 (in
Russian).
250. Drits A.M., Ovchinnikov V.V. Weldability and properties of Al-Cu-Li-Mg high-
strength alloys compounds, alloyed with silver, scandium, zirconium. Zagotovitel’nye
proizvodstva v mashinostroenii, 2011, 7, 18–25 (in Russian).
251. Drits A.M., Ovchinnikov V.V. Weldability and properties of A1-Cu-Li high-strength
aluminum alloys welded joints. Metallovedenie i termicheskaia obrabotka metallov,
2011, 9, 45–49 (in Russian).
252. Drits A.M., Ovchinnikov V.V. 1460 alloy overlap joints friction stir welding.
Zagotovitel’nye proizvodstva v mashinostroenii, 2012, 1, 11–16 (in Russian).
253. Ovchinnikov V.V., Lukin V.I., Ioda E.N. et al. B-1469 high-strength aluminum–lithium
alloy friction stir welding. Svarochnoe proizvodstvo, 2012, 4, 45–48 (in Russian).
254. Ovchinnikov V.V., Lukin V.I., Ioda E.N. et al. Features of Welded Joint Forming at
B-1469 Aluminum Alloy Friction Stir Welding, 2012, 6, 30–36 (in Russian).
255. Nikolaev G.A., Fridliander I.N., Arbuzov Iu.P. Weldable Aluminium Alloys. Moscow,
Russia: Metallurgiia Publisher, 1990, 206p. (in Russian).
256. Babaev A.V. The influence of pores on welded joints fatigue resistance. Avtomaticheskaia
257. Frolov V.A., Nikitina E.V. The influence of weld backing runs on the properties of
aluminum–lithium alloys welded joints. Svarochnoe proizvodstvo, 2013, 5, 34–37 (in
Russian).
258. Ovchinnikov V.V., Redchits VV. The Influence of Weld Backing Runs on the Properties
of 1420 Aluminum Alloy Welded Joints, 1992, 6, 30–32 (in Russian).
259. Lozovskaia A.V., Sklabinskaia I.E., Vasil’ev V.T., Doroshenko L.K. The temperature
range of melting and crystallization of metal welded joint when 1420 alloy welding
using various filler wires. Avtomaticheskaia svarka, 1990, 12, 21–23 (in Russian).
260. Glazov S.I., Liushinskii A.V., Magnitov B.C., Oboznoe V.V., Chuklinov S.V. The
Technology Basics of Electron Beam and Diffusion Welding. Rybinsk, Russia: Saturn
Research and Development Company Publisher, 2001, 281p.
261. Grinin V.V., Ovchinnikov V.V., Ivanov V.I., Korotkoe V.E. Electron beam welding
of variable section units. Elektronno-luchevaia svarka v sudovom mashinostroenii.
[Electron Beam Welding in Ship Machine Engineering]. Nikolaev, Ukraine: Nikolaev
Polytechnic Institute Publisher, 1987, pp. 113–119 (in Russian).
262. Ovchinnikov V.V. Electron beam welding features of high strength aluminum alloys.
Application of electron beam, laser and plasma treatment in mechanical engineering.
Moscow, Russia: Mashinostroenie Publisher, 1990, pp. 2–15 (in Russian).
263. Ovchinnikov V.V., Magnitov B.C., Ioda E.N. et al. Features of electron beam welding
of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu high strength aluminum alloy forged strips. Zagotovitel’nye proizvod-
stva v mashinostroenii, 2009, 11, 9–13 (in Russian).
264. Ovchinnikov V.V., Egorov R.V., Magnitov B.C., Lukin V.I. Structure and properties of
V-1469 aluminum alloy welded joints produced by electron beam welding. Svarka i
diagnostika, 2011, 3, 22–27 (in Russian).
265. Grushko O.E., Ovchinnikov V.V., Alekseev V.V., Magnitov B.C., Egorov R.V. The struc-
ture and properties of V-1469 aluminum alloy welded joints produced by electron-beam
welding. Zagotovitel’nye proizvodstva v mashinostroenii, 2012, 5, 7–11 (in Russian).

Aluminum Lithium Alloy Welding Process Features

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aluminum Lithium Alloy Welding Process Features

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

8 Aluminum–Lithium Alloy

Welding Process Features

8.1 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY ELECTRIC

FIGURE 8.1 Aluminum alloy spot welding connection types.

During the welding of aluminum–lithium alloys, minimum heat release at the

aluminum–lithium alloys may be welded applying one of two techniques: inter-

welding of aluminum–lithium alloys requires considerable current in the welding

8.2 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM SHEET SEMIFINISHED

At 0.03–0.06 mm depth from the sheet surface, some micro-discontinuities occur

Gas release cm /100 g

The modification of alloy quenching temperatures from 450°C to 400°C enables

8.3 WIRE-FILLER SELECTION FOR ALUMINUM–LITHIUM

8.4 WELDING METHOD VERSUS ALUMINUM–LITHIUM

Imax dir > Imax rev Imax p > Imax rev

FIGURE 8.10 Asymmetric rectangular current parameter alteration charts.

ki = [(1 − Imax rev/Imax dir):(1 + Imax rev/Imax rev)].

The impulse duration asymmetry factor is determined similarly:

kval = [(1 − Ival rev/Ival dir):(1 + Ival rev/Ival dir)].

nmin = 45(RK /VCB).

mechanicals properties of seams of the unetched base metal may be obtained. In

FIGURE 8.14 Plasma generator for alloy 1420 panel welding.

8.5 TRANSFORMATIONS AT HEAT INFLUENCE ZONE AT

8.6 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY LASER BEAM

FIGURE 8.22 Microstructure of transition zone of alloy 1420 at a welding speed of

Basic metal Weld

Basic metal Weld

Alloy 1420 joints produced by welding with wire-fillers exhibit considerable

8.7 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY FRICTION

Core of weld Basic metal

Zone of thermomechanical influence Heat-affected zone

FIGURE 8.31 Fracture of V-1469 welded joint after tensile test.

6xx 3xx 2xx 5xx 7xx 8xx

FIGURE 8.32 Interconnection of formability and weldability of aluminum alloys under

8.8 WELD BACKUPS VERSUS ALUMINUM–LITHIUM

FIGURE 8.33 Main and backup seam locations.

Note: The table contains the average values of testing of 20 samples.

8.9 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY MULTIPASS WELDING

discontinuities in the zone of mutual solidification developed despite using wire-

Metallographic analysis assumes that the variation of wire-filler composition

8.10 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY ELECTRON BEAM WELDING

600 700 800

FIGURE 8.38 Variation of hydrogen solubility in aluminum at different temperatures.

1. Thorough preparation of the welded joint surfaces by etching, scrapping,

Short length of the softening zone during electron-beam welding of heat-hardenable

Source: Ovchinnikov, V.V. et al., Zagotovitel’nye proizvodstva v mashinostroenii, 11, 9, 2009.

with subdendritic microstructure to 0.59 cm3/100 g, and in the dendritic microstruc-

Source: Grushko, O.E. et al., Zagotovitel’nye proizvodstva v mashinostroenii, 5, 7, 2012.

1. Prevention of reworking of the extruded profiles, as during welding one part

FIGURE 8.49 Electron-beam welding of complicated joints of aluminum–lithium alloys

156. Grashchenko N.F. Aluminum alloys mechanical properties improvement. Legkie

You might also like

8.1 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY ELECTRIC

8.2 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM SHEET SEMIFINISHED

8.3 WIRE-FILLER SELECTION FOR ALUMINUM–LITHIUM

8.4 WELDING METHOD VERSUS ALUMINUM–LITHIUM

8.5 TRANSFORMATIONS AT HEAT INFLUENCE ZONE AT

8.6 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY LASER BEAM

8.7 ALUMINUM–LITHIUM ALLOY FRICTION

8.8 WELD BACKUPS VERSUS ALUMINUM–LITHIUM