SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

1. General
1.1. Principle

The principle of submerged arc welding (SAW) is shown in fig. 1.-1 for the case of welding with a single
wire electrode. The bare electrode wire is fed through a contact nozzle which is surrounded by a funnel
containing the flux. The arc burns between the electrode and the base metal, melting both. It melts also
partially the flux which becomes a molten slag covering the weld pool and the cavity where the arc is
burning. Thus the weld pool is protected against the influence of the air (N2, 02 ).
The slag forms also the bead surface. The slag should remain liquid until the solidification of the weld
pool is completed. If the slag has the higher solidification temperature the bead gets a bad surface (like
the peel of an orange).

The arc does not burn in the middle but in the front of the weld pool.

1.2. Comparison with manual metal arc welding

The SA welding process has several advantages and differences compared to manual shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW) with stick electrodes:

 continuous wire feed

 short distance (about 20 mm) between electrical contact and arc; therefore it is possible to use a current
which is about 4 times as high as with stick electrodes. Stick electrodes have a long distance between the
electrical contact and the arc ( e.g. 450 mm) and need 1 to 2 minutes for melting. During this time the

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 wire becomes more and more red hot if too much current is used. With SA welding the time in which
the wire is heated between electrical contact and arc is only about 1 or 2 s . Thus very high current is
applicable without overheating.
 due to the high current, deposition rate, penetration and dilution of the base metal are higher (bead
on plate: SMAW 40%, SAW 60% dilution)
 possible current variation for 4 mm diameter electrodes:
SMAW: 140 - 180 A (= 160 A + 12%)
SAW: 350 - 900 A ( 600 A + 50%)
 arc voltage: for SMAW: characteristic for certain electrode type (mostly 22 - 28 V depending on
length of arc)
for SAW: 25 - 40 V variable, preset
 welding speed:
SMAW: 10 - 30 cm/min
SAW: 20 - 100 cm/min
 combination wire- flux:
SMAW: type and quantity relation fixed
SAW: one wire can be welded with different fluxes; one flux can be used for welding different
wires. Quantity
 relation flux/wire is depending on welding parameters
 with SAW arc and weld pool are not visible. Therefore (nowadays) all SAW welding is mechanized
(current,voltage and welding speed preset). Weld preparation should therefore also be made by
mechanized methodes.
 no protection from the arc is necessary
 smoke and fumes are almost absent
 welding position: due to the big weld pool and the necessary protection by the flux
 welding is only possible in the flat (1G) and (with flux support) in the horizontal (2G) position

1.3. Applications

The share of SAW is about 8% of all welding consumables in Europe. This share is constant since 20
years. Main applications of SAW are:

 long straight or circumferential welds mainly for wall thickness of more than 6 mm. But in some
special cases also pipes and plates of 3 mm are welded (boiler industry).
 bridge building: mainly fillet welds

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 pipe welding: longitudinal (or spiral) welds in mainly two passes, mostly welded with three or four
wire technique
 pressure vessel construction: longitudinal and circumferential seams up to 250 mm thickness
(narrow gap welding). But also welding of 3 mm boiler tubes for tube-fin-tube walls (fig. 1.-2).
 shipbuilding: prefabrication of big panels from e.g. 8 plates with 7 four-wire heads by one side
welding technique. Welding of stiffeners by fillet welds
 welding of big storage tanks: butt welding of panels in flat position beneath the tank. Welding of
the circumferential seams in horizontal position;
 surfacing e.g. of rolls for continuous casting;
 cladding of pressure vessels with strip electrodes

2. Effect of welding parameters on weld bead shape and on flux consumption

Arc stability in no major problem with SA welding.

Thus many combinations of current and arc volture are possible.

2.1. Effect of current (see fig 2.-1)

An increase in current raises the density of current and thus the force of the arc. Penetration increases
(about 2 mm per 100 A) and also the deposition rate (about 1.5 kg/h per 100 A; see fig. 2.-2)
The flux consumption remains more or less constant. Therefore the specific flux consumption (kg flux
per kg wire) is reduced. Bead width increases only very little.

Welding current range is about wire diameter (mm) x (100-200) (A):

wire diameter current range Wire current range
(mm) (A) diameter (A)
(mm)

1,2 120-250 3 280-650

1,6 160-350 4 350-900
2,0 200-450 5 500-1100
2,5 240-570 6 600-1400

For constant current but smaller wire diameter penetration and deposition rate encrease due to the higher
current density.

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1.10 Page 4 of 47
2.2. Effect of arc voltage

An increase of arc voltage is connected with an increase of the distance between the tip of the electrode
and the base metal. Therefore the arc is spread and has less power for penetration. Beads are wider and
smoother. Absolute and specific flux consumption increase (about 10% per 1 volt). Optimal bead shape is
reached by combining low current with low voltage and high current with higher voltage. Usual voltage
range is between 25 and 40 V.

2.3. Effect of welding speed

Starting at a middle welding speed of about 40 cm/min an increase of welding speed gives smaller beads
with less penetration, width and reinforcement (fig 2.-3).
But with welding speeds lower than 40 cm/min the weld pool flows more and more under the arc and
penetration is reduced. The same effect is known for MIG-welding (fig. 2.-4).

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2.4. Effect of type of current and polarity

Single wire welding is commonly done with direct current (DC), electrode
positive (EP). With electrode negative (EN) penetration is lower and deposition rate
is higher. The result is a lower dilution by the base metal. DCEN is therefore
used for surfacing (mainly for the fhb'. layer).
The effects of alternating current (AC) on bead shape and deposition rate are between electrode
positive and electrode negative. Both - AC and EN - are prone to more porosity. Therefore special
fluxes must be used for AC and EN.

3. Effects on composition and strength of SA weld metal

Composition is a main factor for the strength, the toughness and corrosion resistance of a weld metal.

3.1. Effects of welding parameters

The composition of all weld metal is influenced by chemical reactions which take place mainly between
the molten flux and the (very hot) droplet at the electrode tip. When the droplet falls into the weld pool it
has already the final composition of the all weld metal. Reactions between the molten flux and the weld
pool are negligible.

The alloying effect ("metallurgical behaviour") of the molten flux depends on its quantity in relation to
the quantity of droplets. That is the relation between the consumption of the flux and the melting rate of
the wire called specific flux consumption. As explained in 2.1 and 2.2 the specific flux consumption
increases with increasing arc voltage and decreasing current (fig 3.-1). Therefore the alloying effect of the
flux increases also with increasing arc voltage and decreasing current (fig 3.-2).

The alloying effect of a flux may be an increase (pick-up) of the content of a certain element in the weld
metal but also a decrease (burn-out) (fig 3.-2). This may depend on the content of the specific element in
the wire as shown for manganese (Mn) in fig 3.-3 : a certain flux may be neutral for a wire containing
1% Mn but will give a pick-up of Mn with 0,5% Mn in the wire. An addition of 0,5% Mn in the wire
will give 0,3% Mn more in the all weld metal.

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3.2. Effect of alloying elements on weld metal strength

Weld metal strength is raised by 10 N/rnm2 if the weld metal composition is increased by about:

0,01 % C ; 0,05 % Si or Mo ; 0,10 %Mn

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3.3. Effect of base metal on weld metal strength

Normalized steel needs a higher alloy content (mainly carbon) to achieve a certain strength compared
with weld metal (as welded).

Example: %C % Si %Mn Rm(N/mm2)

German steel St 52 0,20 0,4 1,5 550

SA all weld metal 0,05 0,4 1,5 550

When welding a fillet weld in one layer, the dilution of the base metal into the weld metal is about 60%.
The fillet weld will have the following composition in respect to C:
60% base metal ST 52 = 0,6 x 0,20 % C = 0,12% C
40% SA all weld metal = 0,4 x 0,05 % C = 0,02% C
fillet weld metal 0,14% C
This means (0,14 - 0,05) = 0,09% C more than necessary and 9 x 10 N/mm 2 more strength. When
welding normalized steel with fillet welds in one layer the all weld metal used should have an up to 100
N/mm2 lower strength.

4. Equipment

There are three main types of SA welding machines - self steering tractors

-welding machines mounted on a gantry

-welding machines mounted on a crane

The tractor (fig 4.-1) is the cheapest equipment and versatile for welding long welds like fillet welds for
beams for bridges or butt welds for panels in shipbuilding or on-site welding. The welding speed, the
voltage and the constant wire speed (current) can be adjusted. Maximum diameter of wire is 4 mm. The
power source must be of the constant voltage type. The welding head can be turned, moved on cross
slides up and down and sideways. The tractor drives along the joint leaning with a wheel on one plate of a
fillet weld or driving on a rail etc. Circumferential welds are possible.

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Welding machines mounted on a gantry or a crane (fig. 4.-2) are much more expensive but the adjustment to
the joint is easier. With cranes it is also possible to weld inside a vessel. The welding machines are heavier,
able to weld also with wires up to 6 mm, over 1000 A, with tandem (two welding heads) or with strip
electrodes. Electrode speed may be changed from constant speed to a feedback system to maintain a stable
arc length. This is done by comparing a preset arc voltage with the real arc voltage. If the wire e.g. aproaches
to the plate surface the real arc voltage is lower as the preset one. This difference of voltage is used to reduce
the wire feed speed. The power source must be of the drooping voltage type. The feedback system is
necessary for thicker electrode wires.
Thinner wires are welded with the constant wire feed in connection with a constant voltage power source.
If the wire aproaches the plate surface, the current increases very much and melts the wire quicker. Thus
the arc length is kept constant.

Power sources must be for 100% duty, DC or AC.

Flux recovery units are mounted on SA welding equipment. They have a suction nozzle about 100 mm
behind the arc and work either with an electrical ventilator or with an injector and pressurized air. This air
must be free of oil or humidity.

Positioners are necessary for circumferential welds.

5. Fluxes

There are two types of fluxes according to their manufactur

- fused fluxes

- bonded (agglomerated) fluxes

5.1. Fused fluxes

Fused fluxes are manufactured by melting coarse grained raw materials (minerals like quarz, chalk,
manganese ore, bauxit and fluorspar) in an e.g. arc furnace. The liquid slag is transformed into SA flux in
two ways:
a) it is poored on the floor in a thick layer which breaks into pieces. These are ground and sieved to the
final particle size.

b) it is poored into water where it forms spatter of nearly the necessary particle size. After drying and
grinding and sieving the flux is ready. The method needs less energy for grinding; but the flux
contains more hydrogen within the grain which can only be driven out at high temperatures by the
manufacturer.

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5.2. Bonded (agglomerated) fluxes

Bonded fluxes are manufactured by mixing fine grain raw materials (minerals, metals like ferroalloys)
together with waterglass as a binding agent in a special type of mixer. Spherical particles are formed
which must be dried at 600 - 800°C in a rotary drier. With two sieves particles are removed which are too
coarse or too fine.

5.3. Comparison of fused and bonded fluxes

Flux type

property fused bonded

particle structure particle homogenous firm porous medium
stability1)

low (only at surface of the

moisture pick-up high (also within the particle)
particle)

redrying temperature 200 - 300°C 300 - 400°C

(ferroalloys, desoxidants)
addition of metals not possible possible

specific weight higher lower (exception: high metal content)

flux consume higher lower (exception: high metal content)

1
) = resistance against abrasion during flux recovery

5.4. Other properties of fluxes

 composition: The European standard describes 9 types of fluxes according to their chemical
composition (e.g. manganese silicate, calcium silicate etc.).
 basicity: is mostly calculated according to Bonischewski:

Basic fluxes give higher impact values (lower oxygen content) in the weld metal. Optimum oxygen
content is about 200 ppm. When welding steels containing much Al in few layers a medium basic flux is
necessary to avoid a too low oxygen content.

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 burn-out or pick-up of elements: these may be alloying elements like Si or Mn, but also elements
like P and S (see also chapter 3)
 hydrogen content: both fused and bonded fluxes may give very low (max. 3 m1/100g) or higher
hydrogen contents (up to more than 15 m1/100 g) in the weld metal even after redrying. Welding
with AC instead of DCEN raises the hydrogen content by a factor of about 1.7.
 slag detachability
 current - carrying capacity
 sensibility to rust (or humidity)

5.5. Special types of fluxes

- High speed welding fluxes

- Fluxes suitable for the use with AC (other fluxes will give porosity)

- Fluxes for multiwire welding (high speed, AC)

- Fluxes for fillet welds (not sensible to rust; good flux detachability)

- Fluxes for single or two run technique (mostly highly alloying, therefore not suitable for multipass welding)

- Fluxes for multipass welding: low alloy pick-up or burn-off; basic.

- Fluxes for welding small diameters (give a suitable, not too low slag viscosity)

Rule: First select the flux and afterwards the suitable wire!

5.6. Order of the flux

 Quantity: the specific flux consumption depends on the application (table 5.-1).
 particle size: the particle category of a flux is denoted by the smallest and largest particle size
(table 5.-2). The manufacturers deliver their fluxes mostly in a single particle category.
 package: Mostly paper or plastic bags of 50 kg. There are also barrels for oversea transport.
Redrying of the flux is necessary in all cases.

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5.7. Storage, redrying and recovery of fluxes

 storage: Temperature variations and humidity should be low

 redrying: There are special furnaces for redrying of fluxes. In critical cases a special continuous
operation of such furnaces may be necessary to compensate the inhomogeneous drying effect.
 recovery: only the flux not melted is recovered (see chapter 4). Suction of the flux should not be too
intensive (abrasion of flux particles). The slag may be recovered (only in the case of fused fluxes!) by
grinding and sieving.

6. Wire-flux combinations

6.1. Wire electrodes

The following types of consumables are used for SA-welding:

 wires: bare and tubular wires;

 strips: bare and filled strips;
 iron powder: bare or in iron powder containing fluxes.

Tubular wires are only used for the welding of special steels in small quantities and for hard-surfacing.

Bare wire analysis (and diameters) are specified in the following standards:

Wires for carbon manganese steels e.g. in AWS A 5.17;

wires for low alloy steels e.g. in AWS A 5.23;

wires for CrNi-Steels e.g. in AWS A 5.9.

European standards have different wire analysis in respect to AWS. Their main principle are steps of 0.5%
for Mn,

which provide for steps of 0.3 % Mn or of 30 N/mm2 in the weld metal. Wires are called

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- S 1 for 0.5 % Mn in the wire;

- S 2 for 1% Mn in the wire;

- S 3 for 1.5% Mn in the wire;

- S 4 for 2.0% Mn in the wire.

All low-alloy steel wires are coated with copper for better electrical contact and protection against rust.

Wioe diameters in Europe are 2.0; 2.5; 3.0; 4.0; 5.0 and 6.0 mm. The most important diameter is the 4.0
mm diameter. Thinner diameters are used for thinner plates, thicker ones for thicker plates.

6.2. Wire-flux combinations

The properties of the weld metal produced by wire-flux combinations are also specified in the standards
mentioned for wires. The AWS has a simple classification: Table 6.-1.

All properties specified for the weld metal of a wire-flux combination are valid only for the welding
conditions specified in the standards; e.g. (European Standard):

 joint preparation for all weld metals;

 wire diameter 4 nun;
 580 A, 29 V, 55 cm/min;
 preheat and interpass temperature 100 - 200 °C.

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7. Joint preparation and welding conditions

7.1. Two pass butt welds

In Table 7.-1 joint preparations and welding conditions are listed, among others for two pass butt welds of
6 to 30 mm thickness. Joint preparation is square edge up to 12 mm thickness. With thicker plates there
must be space for the weld metal deposited. In this case a root pass welded by GMAW is advantageous.
Special wire flux combinations may be used for two run welds.
Two pass butt welds are very economical, but preliminary tests are necessary. The same wall thickness
may be welded with different wire diameters but also different combinations of welding speed and
current (Fig. 7.-2). Difficulties may arise not only from burnthrough and lack of penetration. Hot cracking
and low impact values may be a problem if the carbon content in the weld metal exceeds 0.12 % C.
Excessive heat input necessary for welding two pass butt welds may lead to low toughness in the HAZ if
the carbon content of the base metal exceeds 0.12% C. Multilayer butt welds with limited heat input may
be necessary in this case.

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7.2. Multilayer butt welds

Fig. 7.-3 presents examples for joint preparations and welding conditions for multilayer butt welds.
The root pass is mostly welded by SMAW or GMAW. Basic electrodes must be used when welding the
root pass by SMAW. With rutile electrodes pores would develop in the SA weld due to the high
hydrogen content of the root pass.

Welding the root pass by SAW is also possible but only if the joint preparation is precise. Mostly reduced
current and higher welding speed (lower heat input) are used for the root pass to avoid burnthrough.
Before welding from the opposite side backgauging is necessary in all cases except when the cap pass can
be welded with a single pass.

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7.3. Narrow gap welding

Narrow gap welding is a method of multilayer butt welding for thick plates to avoid excessive weld metal
consumption and shrinkage. With GMAW a single pass per layer is usual. With SAW a single pass per
layer is only possible with special fluxes with very good slag detachability which have only limited
basicity. Therefore two passes per layer are usual for SAW.
Joint preparation is like Fig. 7.-2, example on the right, but with an angle of only 2-3° instead of 7°.
Circumferential welds are easier to weld than longitudinal ones (shrinkage, removal of slag).

7.4. One side welding

Single pass welding from one side is usual for thin plates. Single or multiple pass welding is also used for
very large thicker plates where the turning of the panel is difficult (shipbuilding). In all cases of one side
welding a backing is necessary. Examples are given in Fig. 7.-4. One side welding for thicker plates is
only economical for series of welds as a lot of preliminary experiments are necessary to find optimal
welding conditions.

8. Additional welding parameters

8.1. Ground cable contact

Cables for SAW must withstand 100% duty. The ground cable contact must be clean and firm to avoid
weld defects by bad current transfer.
Arc blow effects can be minimized by welding away from the ground cable contact. For long welds
ground cable contacts should be on both ends of the weld. In the case of circumferential welds a central
rotating ground cable contact is used from which 3 or 4 branches lead to 3 or 4 contacts along the seam.

8.2. Flux height

Flux height should be as low as possible, just so that no arc is visible. If the arc is visible, the weld may
become porous. Too big flux height may cause irregular bead shape and also porosity. Optimal flux
height is between 20 mm for low current and voltage and 30 mm for high ones.

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8.3. Electrode stickout

Electrode stickout is mostly the same as flux height (20 - 30 mm).

With long stickout welding the deposition rate may be up to 40 % higher. In this case the
maximum contact tip/plate distance is:

- for electrode diameter 3.2 mm: 76 mm;

- for electrode diameter 4 mm: 128 mm.

An insulated guide for the hot wire between the contact tip and 25 mm above the plate must be provided.

8.4. Ignition of the arc

With common SA welding machines a short circuit is made by contact of the electrode tip with the base
metal. Then the base metal is hidden by the flux. When the current is switched on, the electrode melts at
the tip, and an arc is ignited. The wire feed starts at that moment.
Some SA welding machines are equipped with a high frequency arc ignition. In this case the electrode tip
is moved toward the base metal with the current already switched on. When the electrode tip is near the
base metal surface an arc is ignited by high frequency.

8.5. Circumferential welds

When SA welding with wire electrode in the flat position slight uphill and downhill welding is possible
without a change of the bead surface up to an angle of about 6° (depending on the size of the weld pool).
This possibility is used for SA welding nozzles into the cylindrical part of a vessel. Fig. 8.-1 shows that
when welding uphill, the weld pool remains behind the arc: penetration rises. When welding downhill,
the weld pool (and maybe also the slag) flows into the arc: penetration is low, the danger of slag
inclusions rises.
When welding a circumferential seam the optimal position for the electrode is half the length of the weld
pool (crater) before the highest point on the outside (= welding downhill). On the inner side it is half the
length of the weld pool before the deepest point (= welding uphill).

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9. Welding defects

Table 9.-1 is a check list for SA welding defects, their origin, and measures to avoid them.

9.1. Pores

There are two causes for the formation of pores:

- metallurgical pores caused by the escape of H2, N2 or CO2 during solidification. These pores are
randomly distributed in the bead. In this case it is necessary to dry the flux and avoid rust or scale and
root passes with rutile or cellulose electrodes;
- mechanical pores caused by air or vapor from oil or primers in a gap. These pores come out from the
gap and are concentrated e.g. in the middle of the bead. In this case the gap (e.g. in a butt weld) should be
enlarged so that the gases can escape.

9.2. Cracks by hydrogen

Two types of cracks in welds are caused by hydrogen:

- underbead cracks in the HAZ;

- transversal cracks in the weld metal

- in mild steel weld metal chevron cracks (45° to the surface)

- in high strength weld metal (Rm over about 650 N/mm2) 90° to the surface. With Mn> 1.8 % also < 650
N/mm2.

Transversal cracks in the weld metal are mostly situated 10-20 mm below the weld metal surface of
multilayer welds and are not in the root pass.

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All types of hydrogen induced cracks do not develop immediately but within 24, maybe 48 hours. They
can be avoided by (higher) preheating or postheating (soaking) or by better drying of the flux, the use of a flux
with lower hydrogen content or welding with DC instead of AC.

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9.3. Hot cracks
Longitudinal cracks in the center of the weld bead are hot cracks (solidification cracks). These cracks
develop at a temperature when most of the weld metal is already solid and only low melting films remain
between the metal crystals. Such films contain P, S and C. Hot cracks can be avoided by
- metallurgical measures;
- welding parameters.

9.3.1. Metallurgical measures

Main factor for hot cracks in carbon steels is the carbon content. In the Fe-C diagram up to about 0.12 %
C steel solidifies in the form of delta ferrit, over about 0.12 % C in the form of austenite (Fig. 9.-2) Delta
ferrite can dissolve much more P and S compared to austenite so that no low melting films develop. No
hot cracks develop in a fillet weld with up to about 0.12% C even at a content of 0.10% P or S (Fig. 9-3)

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All weld metals usually contain only 0.04 - 0.10 % C. Therefore a mixture with a base metal with a
higher carbon content is necessary for the development of hot cracks. A danger of hot cracks exists
therefore only when welding - steels with more than about 0.15 % C, especially e.g. ASTM A 516 Gr. 70.
Low strength carbon steels or thermomechanical steels are not harmful (Fig. 9.-4);
- the first layer with about 60 % dilution of the base metal like single pass fillet welds, root passes etc.
(Fig. 9.-5). 0.3

In these cases a wire electrode with low C, P and S and a flux with high burn-off of C (acid flux instead
of basic flux) and low pick-up of P and S will help. S can be compensated by Mn> 20 times S.
(Remark: a weld metal with austenite forming elements like Ni will be more prone to hot cracks; a weld
metal with ferrite forming elements like Cr or Mo will be less prone to hot cracks)

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9.3.2. Welding parameters
A certain weld metal composition may produce hot cracks or not, depending on the shape of the bead.
Deep, narrow beads are prone to hot cracks because the low melting components of the weld metal are
concentrated in the center of the weld by the solidification pattern (Fig. 9.-6). The same applies to a weld
pool which solidifies with an acute angle due to a high welding speed.

Deep, narrow beads (hot cracks) can be avoided by

- lower welding current or higher voltage;

- a V-joint preparation with a higher included angle or a U instead of a V.

Hot cracks can also be avoided by lower welding speed (in spite of the bigger weld pool).

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10. Special applications of SA welding
10.1. SA welding of high strength steels

High strength steels may get their strength by different measures: - alloying with e.g. Ni, Cr, Mo, etc.;

o quenching and tempering;

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o micro-alloying with e.g. Al, V or Nb for fine grain;
o thermomechanical treatment, perhaps in combination with accelerated cooling.

The SA weld metal is chosen independent of these types of high strength steels:

The flux must be basic and should provide for a low content of hydrogen in the weld metal.

10.2. SA welding of low temperature steels

Steels with a strength of about 500 N/mm 2 and good charpy V-notch impact values at -60°C can be
welded with a weld metal containing 1.5 % Mn and highly basic fluxes. 3.5 % Ni-steel (-80°C) is
successfully welded with an SA wire with 2 % Ni. Lower temperatures can only be achieved with
austenitic 18Cr8Ni weld metal.

10.3. SA welding of heat resisting ferritic steels

The heat and hydrogen resistance of ferritic steels depend on their content of Cr and Mo. In this case the
weld metal must have the same content of Cr and Mo as the base metal. The strength of the SA weld
metal in the as-welded stage is therefore very high. Basic fluxes with low hydrogen content must be used
and preheating and postheating are necessary to avoid cracks in the weld metal. The most important steels
are the following:

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10.4. SA welding of austenitic 18Cr8Ni-steels

These steels have a high corrosion resistance due to their content of Cr and an austenitic structure caused by
their content of Ni. This austenitic structure is the origin of their toughness at low temperatures and their heat
resistance. The weld metal must therefore have about the same composition as the base metal. The content of
Cr in the weld metal is usually 1 % higher than in the base metal in order to achieve a higher corrosion
resistance and also a content of 3 - 10 % ferrite. This ferrite content has the purpose to avoid hot cracks in
the weld metal by a primary ferritic solidification. It should not be too high to avoid fragilization
especially of weld metals containing Mo or Nb but also if the steel is to be used for low or high
temperatures.
The SA electrode wire should already have the composition which should be achieved in the weld metal.
The flux should be as neutral as possible in respect to auoying elements like Cr etc. to avoid a change in
alloy content by a change in welding conditions. Special basic fluxes are necessary to avoid a burn-off of
Cr and to achieve a good slag detachability. The latter is especially difficult when welding Ti on Nb
bearing base metals with a weld metal containing Nb as "stabilizing" element.
SA welding of austenitic 18Cr8Ni-steels is very common for plate thicknesses exceeding 6 mm. Due to
the higher electrical resistance, deposition rate and weld reinforcement are higher than with ferritic wire
electrodes.

10.5. Hard surfacing

Low and high alloy bare or cored wires are used for hard surfacing. Due to the use of cored wires,
alloying fluxes have lost importance. Fluxes should have a low pick-up of especially P to avoid hot
cracks in the mostly high carbon weld metal.
Dilution of base metal should be kept low e.g. by welding the first layer with DC, electrode negative.
Base metals are frequently steels with 0.3 to 0.4 % C. In this case a buffer layer with a wire of type 1 %
Mn or 1 % Mn + 0.5 % Mo should be welded to avoid too high hardness in the first layer.

Preheating is necessary to avoid cold cracks in the weld metal.

11. Special SA welding processes

At the beginning of SA welding one tried to achieve high welding efficiency by the use of thick wire
diameters (up to 8 mm) and high welding current to weld e.g. a 50-mm-thick plate in two passes. The
result were welds with very inferior properties due to the very high heat input (low welding speed).

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Today SA welding processes are applied which allow the raising of not only the current but also the
welding speed so that the heat input (bead size) remains almost the same. This is possible e.g. by
welding with 2, 3 or 4 wires of 4 or 5 mm diameter instead of thick wires.

11.1. Parallel wire welding

In parallel wire welding (sometimes called twin arc welding) two wires are fed by the same welding
machine and power source using driving rolls and contacts with two grooves: investment costs are
low. Wire diameter is often 2.5 nun. But (for the sake of few wire diameters on stock) also two wires
of 4 mm diameter in a distance of 8 mm between the axis of the wires can be used. In this case
welding current can be raised up to 900 - 1000 A and the welding speed up to 90 cm/min. Therefore
the bead size is the same as with one wire welded with 600 A, 60 cm/min.

In the case of butt welds the wires are positioned one after the other. In the case of surfacing the wires are
side by side (Fig. 11.-1).

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1.10 Page 29 of 47
11.2. Tandem welding

In the case of tandem welding two wire electrodes are used. Each of them has its own welding machine
and power source. The leading wire is mostly welded with DC, electrode positive, the second with AC (to
avoid a disturbance of the arc). Fig. 11.-2 shows the angles of and distances between the electrodes. The
two arcs burn in the same cavity (Fig. 11.-3). The first one is responsible for the penetration, the second
one for a good bead surface. Typical welding conditions are:

- 1st electrode: diameter 4 mm, 600A, 30V (+)

90 cm/min

- 2nd electrode: diameter 4 mm, 600 A, 32V (—)

The flux must be suitable for AC and high welding speed (multiwire welding).

11.3. Multiwire welding

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3 or 4 wire welding is usual for the welding of the longitudinal seams of pipes. Each additional wire enables
to raise the welding speed (Fig. 11.-4). Welding speeds above 90 cm/min can only be applied with fully
mechanized systems which are usual in the production of pipes (a welding operator could not control the
welding for a longer time). Only AC is used, each electrode connected to another phase.

11.4. Hot wire welding

An additional wire is preheated by a special power source (FiR. 11.-5). Typical welding conditions are:
- electrode: diameter 4 mm, 600 A, 30 V (DC+), 60 cm/min
- hot wire: diameter 4 mm, 150 A, 13 V.

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The hot wire increases the deposition rate by about 20 % without a substantial increase of heat input.

11.5. Iron powder addition

Iron powder can be added to the weld pool to increase the deposition rate by three methods:

- filling the welding groove with iron powder with an extra hopper before the welding flux is deposited;
- addition of the iron powder to the wire within a special welding head. The wire transports the iron
powder by the magnetic field surrounding the wire when the welding current flows;
- use of a welding flux containing iron powder.

11.6. Welding with strip electrodes

SA strip cladding is an important method for weld overlaying (see Chapter B 1.13 and B 2.18 of this
course). SA welding with strip electrodes has also been successfully applied for fillet welds with following
parameters:

- strip 15 x 1 mm
- welding current 700 - 1000 A
- welding speed 70 - 170 cm/min;
- welding position flat for a = 4 - 10 mm
- welding position horizontal for a = 4 - 6 mm.

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 Chapter B 1.11: Submerged arc welding
Questions for the written test

1. SA welding: principle welding positions and principal applications; effect of current, voltage and
speed on penetration, bead width and reinforcement?
2. SA welding: principle welding positions and principal applications; effect of current and voltage on
specific flux consumption and alloying effect?
3. SA welding: principle, welding positions, principal applications and welding equipment?
4. SA welding fluxes: purpose, types of production, properties and redrying. What shall be chosen first:
the proper flux or the proper wire (examples!) ?
5. Causes for hot cracks in SA welds of ferritic steels and measures to avoid these cracks?
6. SA welding: principle, welding positions principal applications and SA welding processes with
higher efficiency?

-......'

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Prinsip :

Wire electrode yang terumpan dari contact nozzle ditimbun oleh flux sehingga busur yang
terjadi antara ujung wire electrode dengan benda kerja tidak kelehatan

Electrode + Flux tercair = Menjadi deposit las yang terlndungi dari p engaruh udara luar
(oleh flux)

Aspek metalurgi pada Weld Deposit :

 Interaksi unsure-unsur logam pada paduan

 Dilusi dari BM + EW + F = timbunan las dengan sifat barunya
 Perbedaan temp. menyebabkan terjadinya perubahan struktur mikro

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1.10 Page 36 of 47
Pengaruh parameter las

1. Amper :
Perobahan amper akan mempengaruhi terhadap penetrasi dan deposit rate.

2. Voltase :
Perobahan voltase busur akan berpengaruh pada tekanan pada busur.

L1 tinggi tekanan pada busur berkurang, akibatnya penetrasi berkurang, pemakaian

spes, fluxbertambah.
L2 rendah tekanan pada busur bertambah, akibatnya penetrasi bertambah, pemakaian spes, flux
berkurang
Terbaik bila : High Current ---------- High Voltage
Low Current ---------- Low Voltage

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1.10 Page 38 of 47
3. Kec.Pengelasan
Kec. Pengelasan mempengaruhi terhadap :
 lebartimbunan las
 penetrasi
 reinsforcement

C1 rendah : akibatnya b1 lebar, R1 tinggi dan P1 dalam

C2 tinggi : akibatnya b2 sempit, R2 rendahdan P1 dangkal

Patokan : C = 40 Cm/mnt

Pengaruh komposisi pada Weld Metal (WM).

 WM = BM + F + EW, dimana : F = f (EW)

 Pengaruh paduan dari F(tercair) + Jumlah tetesan EW = Alloying effect
 Melting Rate (MR) = Jumlah tetesan Wire (tercair)
 Spec.Flex Consumption (SFC) ; EW : F = 1 : 1,2 (dalam berat)
Apabila melebihi perbandingan ini, maka akan mempengaruhi terhadap sifat deposit las (karena
Si & Mn pada deposit las menjadi besar).
 Semakin kecil dia. wire, semakin tinggi deposit rate

Jumlah komposisi F(tercair) dipengaruhi oleh kecairan WE yang jatuh ke-deposit las.
Alloying Effect dari F(tercair) dipengaruhi oleh jumlah tetesan tercair
Jumlah tetesan tercair dsbt : Melting Rate; F(tercair) dsbt : Specific Flux Consumption)

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Pengaruh elemen paduan pada kekuatan weld metal.

Hubungan antara komposisi kimia dengan kekuatan weld metal :

Pengaruh logam dasar pada kekuatan weld metal.

Contoh :

Dilas dengan fillet weld, 1 layer, maka dilusi bisa mencapai 60 % sehingga sambungan fillet tersebut
akan mempunyai komposisi sbb:

Flux

 Diklasifikasikan berdasarkan sifat mekanik dari logam las.

Fungsi :
- Sebagai pelindung WM dari pengaruh udara luar
- Sebagai bahan kimia (tambah) pada deposit las

Ukuran : Ukuran flux bervariasidari 8 x 48 sd 48 x 325 mesh (ukuran flux terbesar dan terkecil)
Pemilihan arus : Tergantungpadaarus, tipe flux, kec. las dan tipe lasan

 ldentifikasi : F XX
F = Flux
X = Kuattarik (x 10.000) Psi
XX = Nilai impact pada F
FX1 = Nilai impact = 20 Ft. Lb pada 0 F

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FX2 = Nilai impact = 20 Ft. Lb pada -20 F
FX3 = Nilai impact = 20 Ft. Lb pada -40 F
FX4 = Nilai impact = 20 Ft. Lb pada -60 F

Wire Electrode

Diklasifikasikan berdasarkan komposisi kimia. Tipe : Bar, tubular, strip, powder.

ldentifikasi : (AWS A.5.17)

EX—XX
E = Electrode
X = Kadar Mn (L = Low, M = Medium , H = High)
XX = Komposisi kimia ==> mis. 12 : %C (0,07 — 0,15) ; %Mn (0,85) ; Si. max (0,05)

Semakin kecil dia. wire, semakin tinggi DR.

EQUIPMENT.

Welding Power :
1. DC - Generator atau rectifier  Variable Voltage (VV)
2. DC - Generator atau rectifier  Constant Voltage (CV)
3. AC — Transformer

Constant Current (CC) = Variable Voltage (VV)

Variasi Voltage menimbulkanhanyasedikitvariasiamper

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Aplikasi.

 Multyple Arc.
Tujuan : Untuk menambah melting rate dan juga menghindari terjadinya arc blow, mengurangi
kecepatan pengelasan, memperkecil terjadinya porosity.

a. Multyple wire parallel technique

b. Two wire series technique

a. Multyple wire parallel technique.

 Kec. Pengisian bertambah 50 % pada las fillet
 Deposit rate tinggi dengan dia. kecil, arus tinggi

b. Two wire series technique.

 Deposit tinggi dengan penetrasi minim
 Digunakan umumnya untuk cladding tahan corosi, tahan gesek dan abrasi

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 Amper semakin tinggi maka density arus semakin besar sehingga gaya pada busur semakin besar.
Akibatnya :
- Penetrasi bertambah (t 2 mm/100.A)
- Deposition Rate bermbah 1,5 Kg/h/100 A

 Voltase bertambah mengakibatkan bertambahnya jarak antara electrode tip dengan logam dasar
Akibatnya :
- Busur berpencar sehingga gaya penetrasinya menurun, timbunan las lebar.
Specific flux consumption bertambah (t !O %/1 volt)
Sebaiknya gunakan low current dengan low voltage ; high current dengan high voltage

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 Kec. Pengelasan bertambah akan mengakibatkan timbunan las semakin kecil dan penetrasi yang lebih
dangkal
Apabila kec.pengelasan < 40 cm/mnt 4 kawah las semakin lebar tetapi penetrasi semakin dangkal

 Komposisi dari weld metal dipengaruhi oleh reaksi kimia antara flux tercair dengan cairan yang
menetes dari elektroda
Hubungan antara konsumsi flux dengan melting rate dari wire dsbt. Specific Flux Consumption (SFC).
 SFC bertambah dengan bertambahnya voltase busur dan berkurangnya amper

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  Pengaruh paduan dari flux bertambah dengan bertambahnya voltase busur dan berkurangnya
amper

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Persiapan sambungan dan kondisi pengelasan.

Butt weld dengan dua pass :

Dengan membuat ketebalan yang sama pada kedua sisinya dapat dilakukan pengelasan dengan
menggunakan dia.wire yang berbeda.  Beda amper da. Kec.pengelasan.
Masalah-masalah yang mungkin terjadi :
- Burn through
- lack of penetration
- hot cracking dan low impact -› bila carbon content pada weld metal > 0,12 % C
- heat input yang berlebih dapat menurunkan toughness pada HAZ

= Mengatasinya : Dengan Multy layers.

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Contoh multy layers :

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