3.6.
1 Temperature Zone Control
Each extruder temperature zone has at least one
heater and possibly multiple heaters controlled by a
thermocouple. A signal from the thermocouple
communicates with the controller, indicating whether the
heater is to be turned on or off. For the controller and
heaters to function properly, the thermocouple must
operate properly. A faulty thermocouple with an open
circuit indicates the temperature is low, resulting in the
heaters staying on and causing substantial overheating. A
closed thermocouple indicates the temperature is high;
heaters remain off and the temperature zone cools. If a
thermocouple is not responding properly, it must be
replaced. (More information is presented on
thermocouples later in this section.) The thermocouple
well in the barrel should be at least 1.2 inches (30 mm)
deep and installed away from the heaters. Never
sandwich the thermocouple between the heater and the
barrel wall; the thermocouple will be responsive to the
heater temperature and not the barrel temperature. Figure
3.25 shows the thermocouple location relative to the
heaters. Thermocouples must be plugged into the correct
temperature controller; otherwise the thermocouple will
control the wrong heaters. For example, if the
thermocouple from zone 2 is plugged
Figure 3.25. Heater and thermocouple assembly.
into the controller for zone 3 while the zone 3
thermocouple is plugged into zone 2, and the temperature
for zone 2 is set at 420°F (216°C) and zone 3 is set at
450°F (232°C), the actual extruder temperatures in zone
2 will be 450°F (232°C) and in zone 3 will be 420°F
(216°C). The melt temperature thermocouple works on
the same principle as the zone temperature
thermocouples, except the melt thermocouples protrude
into the melt stream to obtain an accurate melt
temperature. (This is discussed in more detail later.)
Barrel thermocouples should be spring loaded to
guarantee good contact with the barrel wall and insulated
to minimize heat loss along the thermocouple stem.
Figure 3.26 shows the difference between a conventional
and an insulated thermocouple as a function of thermo-
Figure 3.26. Thermocouple well depth vs. temperature.
couple well depth in the barrel wall. As the thermocouple
well depth increases, the difference between actual barrel
temperature and the measured temperature decreases.
Each extruder temperature zone should contain a
heater ammeter readout. It may be on the control panel or
in a computer-driven control system. With all heaters
functioning properly, the amps drawn in a particular zone
when the heaters are on 100% power is a fixed value.
Assuming a zone has more than one heater and the
ammeter reading is lower than normal, at least one heater
is burnt out or not working properly. Nonfunctioning
heaters need to be replaced as soon as possible to prevent
hot or cold spots along the extruder barrel, resulting in
nonuniform polymer heating. Ammeter readings need to
be checked daily to verify that all heaters are functioning
properly.
If the actual and set temperatures in a particular zone
are very different, this is the extruder’s method of
communicating with the operator to indicate the
following possible scenarios:
• Temperature is not controlling in that
particularzone
• Thermocouple is not operating properly and may
need replacing
• Temperature setting for the material
beingprocessed is wrong
• Excess shear heat is being generated in that zone
• Extruder cooling is not functioning properly
• Thermocouple wire from the extruder is not
connected to the correct controller
• Polymer is being overfed to that section of thescrew
Temperature controllers have evolved over the years
with improvements in electronics to provide very
accurate control (within a couple of degrees) on all zones.
Temperature controllers in general are either direct or
reverse acting. Extruder temperature controllers all are
reverse acting, meaning the output is reduced as the heat To improve on/off controllers, hysteresis is added to
increases. With heat/cool applications, the heat output reduce thermal lag.
opposes the temperature output. This is shown Hysteresis requires the
graphically in Fig. 3.27. temperature on cooling to
exceed the setpoint by a
fixed amount before the
power comes back on. The
hysteresis band can be set to
improve controller
accuracy. Figures 3.29 and
3.30 show the temperature versus power curves Figure
3.29. Power with hysteresis added. curve with hysteresis.
Figure 3.27. Reverse acting controller.

The first temperature controllers were on/off closed

loop or feedback controllers. If the temperature was
below the setpoint, the controller called for 100% power,
and above the setpoint the power was off. This resulted
in significant temperature over- and underride ranges
attributed to the thermal lag caused by the massive barrel
wall, polymer, and screw. (Thermal lag is the time delay Figure 3.30. Addition of hysteresis to controller.
caused by putting high temperature or heat on the barrel
outside surface, and the time it takes to heat the The next improvement in controllers came with
thermocouple. The barrel temperature may be proportional controllers, where the power input is
significantly hotter than the inside barrel surface. When reduced from 100% as the temperature approaches the
the thermocouple communicates with the controller to setpoint. The proportional band, given in percentage
shut the power off, outside surface temperature already about the setpoint, is the temperature range where the
exceeds the setpoint, resulting in the barrel temperature power is on some proportional amount between 0 and
exceeding the setpoint. The same phenomenon occurs on 100%. As an example, a 5% proportional band with a
cooling.) For large extruders the thermal lag could be setpoint of 500°F (260°C) is ±25°F (13°C). The electrical
several minutes, resulting in overheating during heat-up power input curve versus temperature for a proportional
and overcooling when cooling down. A typical con-
temperature/power curve versus time is shown in Fig.
3.28. Shallow-well thermo-

Figure 3.31. Power curve with a proportional controller.

Figure 3.28. Time-temperature power curve.
troller is shown in Fig. 3.31. The gain is the percent of
couples reduce the temperature lag, but the polymer melt
the span given by Eq. (3.4):
temperature has less influence on the barrel temperature
with shallow-well thermocouples.
(3.4)

Smaller proportional bands have higher gains. In

operation, the temperature cycles through increases and
decreases until an equilibrium level is reached. The
difference between the setpoint and the equilibrium level
is called the offset or droop. Narrowing the proportional
band decreases the droop. However, the proportional
band can only be decreased to a certain level before
control instability becomes an issue. Figure 3.32 plots
time versus temperature for a proportional controller.

Figure 3.34. Integral action on power loss and

temperature curves.

the proportional band until the deviation from setpoint to

the power loss curve is zero. Figure 3.35 shows the time
versus temperature curve for a PI controller. Temperature
Figure 3.32. Temperature vs. time for a proportional exceeds the setpoint on start-up, because the automatic
controller.
reset begins at the proportional band lower limit. Integral
In practice, the extruder power requirements are
based on the heat needed to process the polymer plus the
heat lost by the system through conduction, convection,
and radiation. Insulating an extruder and die reduces the
heat loss and power requirements. The heat loss or power
loss curve intersects the proportional band (Fig. 3.33). If
the intersec-

Figure 3.35. Time-temperature curve for a PI controller.

action resets the proportional band until the temperature

is at the setpoint. PI controllers may respond improperly
if the integrator acts on an error signal when the
temperature is outside the proportional limit.
Figure 3.33. Power loss curve combined with
PID controllers combine Proportional + Integral +
proportional band.
Derivative control. Derivative control adds more stability
tion of the proportional band curve is below the setpoint,
to controllers by compensating for rapidly changing
there is a negative offset, while intersection above the
conditions. As mentioned above, PI controllers are slow
setpoint is a positive offset. Automatically resetting the
to respond. Adding the second corrective term to
proportional band so the power loss curve intersects the
proportional controllers results in a faster response time.
proportional band at the setpoint is done by integration,
When the temperature exceeds the setpoint, the
providing long-term controller accuracy with changing
derivative signal changes the sign and the integrator
external and internal conditions. This is a PI controller,
brings the proportional band back into position. The
standing for Proportional + Integral. The integral time
derivative term allows the proportional band to be
constant is the time required for the proportional band to
narrowed while preventing oscillations. Determining PID
move. Movement must occur relatively slowly to assure
parameters for a particular control system is called
oscillations above and below the setpoint are not
tuning. Three methods are available for tuning PID
introduced. Figure 3.34 shows the integral action on the
controllers. The first method is to take the PID
power versus temperature curve. The integrator will
parameters off an existing controller when replacing
continue to adjust
controllers. The second approach is to use “Self Tuning,”
which is a software package to automatically determine
the PID and other control parameters. The third tuning
method is called “adaptive tuning,” which uses a program
to monitor the current PID parameter performance and
calculates new parameters, if necessary. More
information is available on temperature controllers and
tuning from controller manufacturers, e.g., Eurotherm, [1]
Barber Coleman, Omega, Chromalox, and others.
3.6.2 Melt Temperature
Polymer melt temperature control is critical to the
control and reproducibility of the extrusion process. Melt
thermocouples must protrude into the melt stream to
obtain accurate readings. Melt temperature measurement
inside the extruder barrel is not practical because the
turning screw would shear off a melt probe sticking down
in the melt stream. Melt temperature measurements have
been made in barrels with infrared probes that are either
part of a pressure transducer or are sized to fit into a barrel
pressure transducer hole. The accuracy of infrared
measurements depends on the temperature being
recorded and the source emissivity. Arguments are made
that infrared radiation penetrates the polymer and
measures the melt temperature at some specified depth.
This depth, relative to the material present, is somewhat
questionable.
Melt temperature measurements in an adapter,
transition pipe, or die depend on the thermocouple
penetration into the melt stream. Plug flow in the adapter
or transition pipe results in polymer velocity profiles
having higher flow in the middle of the melt stream than
along the walls. As a result, the melt temperature is
normally hotter in the center of the melt stream as the
polymer temperature near the wall approaches the wall
temperature. Heat conduction along the thermocouple
can also lead to erroneous melt temperature readings.
Another factor to consider is the energy dissipation at the
probe due to polymer shear heating resulting from the
polymer flowing around the probe.
The different melt temperature probes available are
shown in Fig. 3.36. The flush mount thermocouple, A,
does
not disrupt the resin flow in the channel; however, the
temperature is more apt to resemble the metal
Figure 3.36. Melt thermocouples.
temperature than the melt temperature. When using a
flush mount probe, the melt temperature is similar to the
adapter, transition, or die temperature, even when these
temperatures are significantly higher or lower than the
extruder barrel temperature. It is likely the temperature
measured is the metal, and not melt. Polymer temperature
at the wall always matches the metal temperature.
Thermocouples B and C in Fig. 3.36 are straight probes
protruding into the melt stream. These are simple, sturdy
thermocouples that provide a good melt temperature in
the channel. Measurement error comes from shear
heating caused by the polymer flowing around the
thermocouple and conduction along the probe.
Thermocouple D in Fig. 3.36 is radially adjustable in the
melt stream. This adjustable thermocouple provides a
way to measure the melt uniformity across the melt
channel, where temperatures may vary up to 20°F (11°C).
When comparing processing data from run to run with
radially adjustable thermocouples, the thermocouple
probe location in the melt stream must be constant.
During process start-up these probes are retracted from
the melt stream to prevent breakage. Currently, radially
adjustable probes are more common in R&D labs and on
process development lines than in production
environments. Finally, thermocouple bridges, E in Fig.
3.36, allow simultaneous measurement at different
locations in the melt stream, providing an instantaneous
cross-channel temperature profile.
Melt temperature is critical to process control and is
a parameter that has to be carefully monitored when
setting up, evaluating, or troubleshooting a process.
Polymer viscosity and flow are directly related to the melt
temperature. Increases in melt temperature result in lower
viscosity, leading to lower resistance to flow in the melt
pipe and die as well as higher back pressure flow in the
extruder. This combination usually results in lower
output. Decreases in melt temperature lead to higher
viscosity and higher resistance to flow in the melt pipe
and die as well as lower back pressure flow in the
extruder. This combination usually results in higher
output. Figure 3.37 shows a K-type melt thermocouple
that protrudes into the melt stream.
Figure 3.37. K-type melt thermocouple.
Thermocouples are made from two dissimilar metal
wires connected at both ends, with one end being at a
different temperature than the other end. An
electromotive force (thermal EMF) is generated,
resulting in an electric current flowing in the closed loop.
With the current flow
being predictable and one connection or junction being kept at a known temperature, it is possible to determine
the other temperature. The wire length or the wire size does not affect temperature measurement. Any two
dissimilar wires can be used to make a thermocouple; however, to obtain reproducible results, the same wire
combination must be used each time. A J-type thermocouple is shown in Fig. 3.38. Thermocouple technology
is possible because

Figure 3.38. Standard thermocouple.

of the Laws of Homogeneous Circuits and Intermediate Metals. The Law of Homogeneous Circuits states that
homogeneous thermocouple conductors are not affected by intermediate temperatures or temperature
differentials along the wires. This allows long thermocouple leads to be used in all temperature environments.
The Law of Intermediate Metals states a third metal can be introduced into the circuit without affecting the
temperature, providing the junctions with the third metal are at the same temperature. This allows the instrument
making the measurement to be a different metal than the thermocouple wires.
Over time, certain metals have been selected for producing standard thermocouples; some are shown in
Table 3.4. The most common type of thermocouple used on extruders is the K thermocouple. Hand-held
pyrometers used in plastic processing are typically either J or K thermocouples. Each thermocouple type has a
unique connector, color, and thermocouple wire. When ordering thermocouple wire, verify that the correct wire
and size is purchased for the thermocouple type and application. It is important to match the thermocouple to
the application.
Three thermocouple junctions, shown in Fig. 3.39, are commercially available, depending on the
application. Grounded junctions are used where electromagnetic induction or radio frequency interference is
present and can interfere with the thermocouple signal or measurement. These

Table 3.4. Some Types of Thermocouples Available

Grounded Insulated Ungrounded Exposed Junction Figure 3.39. Thermocouple junctions.

have faster response times than insulated junctions. A second junction is the insulated ungrounded model with
a slower response time due to the insulation. These are typically used in extruders and hand-held pyrometers.
Exposed junction thermocouples have the fastest response time; however, with the exposed junction they are
easily damaged and susceptible to oxidation and temperature deterioration.
Thermocouple response time depends on the sheath diameter and the junction type. Smaller diameters have
a faster response. The advantages of thermocouples are their ruggedness, inexpensive nature, high
responsiveness, broad temperature range, and tip sensitivity. The disadvantages are that their outputs are not
linear and the accuracy depends on the purity of the metal wires used. The output nonlinearity is not a serious
limitation, as the measurement equipment normally takes this into account when correcting the response to
yield the proper reading.
 The other temperature measurement device is called aresistance
temperature detector (RTD). RTD operation is based on electrical resistance
increasing or decreasing with temperature in a predictable manner. A probe,
shown in Fig. 3.40, is an assembly containing an element, sheath, lead wires,
and connections. The element that measures the temperature is platinum, copper,
or Figure 3.40. RTD probe. nickel wire wound around
a ceramic or glass core. To specify an RTD it is necessary to know the element
length, element diameter, and resistance in ohms at 0°C. Advantages
of RTDs versus thermocouples are the response is more linear and
the signal stability is better. The main disadvantage is slower response
time compared to a thermocouple.

3.6.3 Pressure Measurement

1/4" Diam. Melt pressure measurements at
3/16" Diam. 1/8" Diam. 1/16" Diam.
the extruder head are as critical as
Type/Color Conductors Probe 18 Probe 24 Probe 24 Probe 30
melt temperature. Constant polymer
AWG Wire AWG Wire AWG Wire AWF Wire
melt temperature and pressure at the
J/Black Fe/CuNi 482° C 482° C 371° C 315° C die produce consistent output,
(900° F) (900° F) (700° F) (600° F)
resulting in uniform product cross
sectional
K/Yellow NiCr/NiAl 982° C 982° C 871° C 760° C
(1800° F) (1800° F) (1600° F) (1400° F)

T/Blue Cu/CuNi 287° C 260° C 204° C 148° C

(550° F) (500° F) (400° F) (300° F)

E/Purple NiCr/CuNi 537° C 537° C 426° C 371° C

(1000° F) (1000° F) (800° F) (700° F)

Figure 3.41. Pressure transducer.

dimension, assuming the extruder and puller speeds are properly set. Like melt temperature, melt pressure tells
the operator what is going on inside the extruder and die. Die pressure fluctuations correspond with output
fluctuations and dimensional changes. A Dynisco® pressure transducer is shown in Fig. 3.41.

Figure 3.42. Pressure transducer schematic.

A pressure transducer works on the same principles as a Wheatstone bridge. Pressure in the melt causes the
trans-
Figure 3.43. Schematic of pin configuration.
ducer diaphragm to bend. The stress or strain induced in the diaphragm is transferred to a resistor. As pressure
increases or decreases, the resistance changes, resulting in different pressure readings. Figure 3.42 shows a melt
pressure transducer cross section.
A schematic for the pin configuration in the sensor head is shown in Fig. 3.43.
Pressure measurements are taken before the breaker plate and in the die. If the die pressure is constant, the
output will be constant. Increased pressure before the breaker plate due to screen pack contamination or
blockage causes pressure decreases in the die, as less material is being pumped from the extruder into the die,
resulting in a reduction in the product cross sectional area. To compensate for reduction in die pressure, the
screw speed is increased. While this increases the pressure prior to the breaker plate, it allows a constant output
until a clean screen pack can be installed. In a two-stage extruder, pressure is normally measured at the first-
stage metering section in addition to the extruder head and die.
A pressure transducer located at the end of a 1-inch single screw extruder with the die removed is shown in
Fig. 3.44. Note the cooling fans on the barrel for air cool-

Figure 3.44. Pressure transducer at end of extruder.

ing and the temperature thermocouple near the end of the extruder controlling the last temperature zone.
Typical melt pressure curves recorded at the end of the barrel, the adapter, and the die are shown in Fig.
3.45. At the end of the screw, the pressure variation is
Figure 3.45. Melt pressure.

quite significant due to the extrudate spiraling action coming off the screw. Pressure fluctuations are caused by
the screw flight and the pressure gradient in the screw channel. Low pressure occurs where there is a break in
the melt stream due to the screw flight. High pressure occurs from the material at the edge of the pushing flight.
For this reason, head pressure measurement should not be taken where the flight will pass over the pressure
transducer. A good place to measure the head pressure is between the last flight and the screen pack. The screens
and breaker plate reorient the extrudate flow, reducing the differences between the peaks and valleys observed
at the end of the extruder. As the extrudate flows through the die, the flow channel capacitance further dampens
the high-frequency pressure fluctuations. If the pressure variations in the die were the same as at the end of the
extruder barrel, the product cross sectional dimensions would be constantly changing, and the final product
tolerances would be very broad.
Output as a function of the low-frequency pressure variation measured in the melt pipe or die is given by
Eq. (3.5):

(3.5)

where
∆Q = Change in volumetric output (percent)
∆P = Change in pressure (percent) n = Power law index
Assume the polymer being processed is polypropylene with a power law index of 0.35 (n = 0.35) and the
die pressure is varying from 1,950 to 2,050 psi for a ∆P of 100 psi.

Assuming the process is running at 200 pounds/hour, the variation in output is 29 pounds/hour. This flow
variation would have a major effect on the final product dimension. Head pressure variation should be kept as
low as possible, preferably 1% or less.