UNIT-1

NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

1.1. Introduction
Before going into non-conventional machining process let’s first know what is machining?

Machining is a process in which a piece of raw material is cut into desired shape and size by
controlled material removal process.

If we are going to differentiate between conventional and non-conventional machining process

then it will be like this.

Sl.no Conventional Process Non -Conventional Process

1 The cutting tool and work piece are There is no physical contact between the
always in physical contact with tool and work piece, In some non-
relative motion with each traditional process tool wear exists.
other, which results in friction and
tool wear.
2 Material removal rate is limited by NTM can machine difficult to cut and
mechanical properties of work hard to cut materials like
material. titanium, ceramics, SST, composites,
semiconducting
materials
3 Relative motion between the tool Many NTM are capable of producing
and work is typically rotary or complex 3D shapes and cavities
reciprocating. Thus the shape of
work is limited to circular or
flat shapes. In spite of CNC systems,
production of 3D surfaces is still a
difficult task.
4 Machining of small cavities, slits, Machining of small cavities, slits and
blind holes or through holes are Production of non-circular, micro sized,
difficult. large aspect ratio, shall entry angle holes
are easy using NTM
 5 Use relative simple and inexpensive Non-traditional processes requires
Machinery and readily available expensive tools and equipment as well as
cutting tools skilled labour, which increase the
production cost significantly
6 Capital cost and maintenance cost is Capital cost and maintenance cost is
low. high
7 Traditional processes are well Mechanics of Material removal of Some
established and physics of process is of NTM process are still under research.
well understood
8 Conventional process mostly uses Most NTM uses energy in direct form For
mechanical energy. example: laser, Electron beam in its direct
forms are used in LBM and EBM
respectively.
9 Surface finish and tolerances are High surface finish(up to 0.1 micron) and
limited by machining inaccuracies tolerances (25 Microns)can be achieved
10 High metal removal rate. Low material removal rate.

Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into two groups and they are primary
manufacturing processes and secondary manufacturing processes. The former ones provide
basic shape and size to the material as per designer’s requirement. Casting, forming, powder
metallurgy are such processes to name a few. Secondary manufacturing processes provide the
final shape and size with tighter control on dimension, surface characteristics etc. Material
removal processes are mainly the secondary manufacturing processes.

Material removal processes once again can be divided into mainly two groups and they are
“Conventional Machining Processes” and “Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes”.

Examples of conventional machining processes are turning, boring, milling, shaping,

broaching, slotting, grinding etc. Similarly, Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Ultrasonic
Machining (USM), Water Jet and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (WJM and AWJM), Electro-
discharge Machining (EDM) are some of the Non Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes.
1.1.1. Classification Of Non Traditional Machining Processes

Thus classification of NTM processes is carried out depending on the nature of energy used for
material removal. The broad classification is given as follows:

• Mechanical Processes

⎯ Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

⎯ Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

⎯ Water Jet Machining (WJM)

⎯ Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)

• Electrochemical Processes

⎯ Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

⎯ Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)

⎯ Electro Jet Drilling (EJD)

• Electro-Thermal Processes

⎯ Electro-discharge machining (EDM)

⎯ Laser Jet Machining (LJM)

⎯ Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

• Chemical Processes

⎯ Chemical Milling (CHM)

⎯ Photochemical Milling (PCM) etc.

1.1.2. Need for Non Traditional Machining

Conventional machining sufficed the requirement of the industries over the decades. But new
exotic work materials as well as innovative geometric design of products and components were
putting lot of pressure on capabilities of conventional machining processes to manufacture the
components with desired tolerances economically. This led to the development and
establishment of NTM processes in the industry as efficient and economic alternatives to
conventional ones. With development in the NTM processes, currently there are often the first
choice and not an alternative to conventional processes for certain technical requirements. The
following examples are provided where NTM processes are preferred over the conventional
machining process:

• Intricate shaped blind hole – e.g. square hole of 15 mmx15 mm with a depth of 30 mm

• Difficult to machine material – e.g. same example as above in Inconel, Ti-alloys or carbides.

• Low Stress Grinding – Electrochemical Grinding is preferred as compared to conventional

grinding

• Deep hole with small hole diameter – e.g. φ 1.5 mm hole with l/d = 20

• Machining of composites.

1.2. Electro Chemical Machining Process

Electrochemical Machining (ECM) is a non-traditional machining (NTM) process belonging

to Electrochemical category. ECM is opposite of electrochemical or galvanic coating or
deposition process. Thus ECM can be thought of a controlled anodic dissolution at atomic level
of the work piece that is electrically conductive by a shaped tool due to flow of high current at
relatively low potential difference through an electrolyte which is quite often water based
neutral salt solution. Fig. 2 schematically shows the basic principle of ECM.

Fig.2 Schematic principle of Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)

1.2.1. Process

During ECM, there will be reactions occurring at the electrodes i.e. at the anode or workpiece
and at the cathode or the tool along with within the electrolyte. Let us take an example of
machining of low carbon steel which is primarily a ferrous alloy mainly containing iron. For
electrochemical machining of steel, generally a neutral salt solution of sodium chloride (NaCl)
is taken as the electrolyte. The electrolyte and water undergoes ionic dissociation as shown
below as potential difference is applied.

NaCl ↔ Na+ + Cl-

H2O ↔ H+ + (OH)-

As the potential difference is applied between the work piece (anode) and the tool (cathode),
the positive ions move towards the tool and negative ions move towards the workpiece. Thus
the hydrogen ions will take away electrons from the cathode (tool) and from hydrogen gas as:

2H+ + 2e- = H2↑ at cathode

Similarly, the iron atoms will come out of the anode (work piece) as:

Fe = Fe+ + + 2e-

Within the electrolyte iron ions would combine with chloride ions to form iron chloride and
similarly sodium ions would combine with hydroxyl ions to form sodium hydroxide.

Na+ + OH- = NaOH

In practice FeCl2 and Fe (OH)2 would form and get precipitated in the form of sludge. In this
manner it can be noted that the work piece gets gradually machined and gets precipitated as the
sludge. Moreover there is not coating on the tool, only hydrogen gas evolves at the tool or
cathode. Fig. 2 depicts the electro-chemical reactions schematically. As the material removal
takes place due to atomic level dissociation, the machined surface is of excellent surface finish
and stress free.
 Fig.3 Schematic representation of electro-chemical reactions

The voltage is required to be applied for the electrochemical reaction to proceed at a steady
state. That voltage or potential difference is around 2 to 30 V. The applied potential difference,
however, also overcomes the following resistances or potential drops. They are:

• The electrode potential

• The activation over potential

• Ohmic potential drop

• Concentration over potential

• Ohmic resistance of electrolyte

Fig. 4 shows the total potential drop in ECM cell.

Fig.4 Total potential drop in ECM cell

1.2.2. Equipment

The electrochemical machining system has the following modules:

• Power supply

• Electrolyte filtration and delivery system

• Tool feed system

• Working tank

Fig. 5 schematically shows an electrochemical drilling unit.

Fig.5 Schematic diagram of an electrochemical drilling unit

1.3. Electro Discharge Machining Process

Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) is an electro-thermal non-traditional machining process,

where electrical energy is used to generate electrical spark and material removal mainly occurs
due to thermal energy of the spark.
EDM is mainly used to machine difficult-to-machine materials and high strength temperature
resistant alloys. EDM can be used to machine difficult geometries in small batches or even on
job-shop basis. Work material to be machined by EDM has to be electrically conductive.

1.3.1. Process

Fig. 6 shows schematically the basic working principle of EDM process.

Fig.6 Schematic representation of the basic working principle of EDM process.

In EDM, a potential difference is applied between the tool and workpiece. Both the tool and
the work material are to be conductors of electricity. The tool and the work material are
immersed in a dielectric medium. Generally kerosene or deionised water is used as the
dielectric medium. A gap is maintained between the tool and the workpiece. Depending upon
the applied potential difference and the gap between the tool and workpiece, an electric field
would be established. Generally the tool is connected to the negative terminal of the generator
and the workpiece is connected to positive terminal. As the electric field is established between
the tool and the job, the free electrons on the tool are subjected to electrostatic forces. If the
work function or the bonding energy of the electrons is less, electrons would be emitted from
the tool (assuming it to be connected to the negative terminal). Such emission of electrons are
called or termed as cold emission. The “cold emitted” electrons are then accelerated towards
the job through the dielectric medium. As they gain velocity and energy, and start moving
towards the job, there would be collisions between the electrons and dielectric molecules. Such
collision may result in ionisation of the dielectric molecule depending upon the work function
or ionisation energy of the dielectric molecule and the energy of the electron. Thus, as the
electrons get accelerated, more positive ions and electrons would get generated due to
collisions. This cyclic process would increase the concentration of electrons and ions in the
dielectric medium between the tool and the job at the spark gap. The concentration would be
so high that the matter existing in that channel could be characterised as “plasma”. The
electrical resistance of such plasma channel would be very less. Thus all of a sudden, a large
number of electrons will flow from the tool to the job and ions from the job to the tool. This is
called avalanche motion of electrons. Such movement of electrons and ions can be visually
seen as a spark. Thus the electrical energy is dissipated as the thermal energy of the spark.

The high speed electrons then impinge on the job and ions on the tool. The kinetic energy of
the electrons and ions on impact with the surface of the job and tool respectively would be
converted into thermal energy or heat flux. Such intense localised heat flux leads to extreme
instantaneous confined rise in temperature which would be in excess of 10,000oC.

Such localised extreme rise in temperature leads to material removal. Material removal occurs
due to instant vaporisation of the material as well as due to melting. The molten metal is not
removed completely but only partially.

As the potential difference is withdrawn as shown in Fig. 6, the plasma channel is no longer
sustained. As the plasma channel collapse, it generates pressure or shock waves, which
evacuates the molten material forming a crater of removed material around the site of the spark.

Thus to summarise, the material removal in EDM mainly occurs due to formation of shock
waves as the plasma channel collapse owing to discontinuation of applied potential difference.

Generally the workpiece is made positive and the tool negative. Hence, the electrons strike the
job leading to crater formation due to high temperature and melting and material removal.
Similarly, the positive ions impinge on the tool leading to tool wear.

In EDM, the generator is used to apply voltage pulses between the tool and the job. A constant
voltage is not applied. Only sparking is desired in EDM rather than arcing. Arcing leads to
localised material removal at a particular point whereas sparks get distributed all over the tool
surface leading to uniformly distributed material removal under the tool.

1.4. Plasma Arc Machining Process

It is one of the thermal machining process as the material removal occurs here due to the intense
heat generated during the machining process. But here the method of heat generation is
different than the EBM and LBM process.

1.4.1. Working Principle Of PAM

Before going into the working principle of plasma arc machining lets know what is plasma?
Arc plasma is the temporary state of a gas. The gas gets ionized after passage of electric current
through it and it becomes a conductor of electricity. In ionized state atoms break into electrons
(−) and cations (+) and the system contains a mixture of ions, electrons and highly excited
atoms. The degree of ionization may be between 1% and greater than 100% i.e.; double and
triple degrees of ionization. Such states exist as more electrons are pulled from their orbits.

Fig.7 Working principle and process details of PAM

In this process gases are heated and charged to plasma state. Plasma state is the superheated
and electrically ionized gases at approximately 5000oC. These gases are directed on the
workpiece in the form of high velocity stream. Working principle and process details are shown
in Figure7.

1.4.2. Process Details of PAM

Details of plasma arc machining process are described below.

Plasma Gun:-

Gases are used to create plasma like, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen or mixture of these gases. The
plasma gun consists of a tungsten electrode fitted in the chamber. The electrode is given
negative polarity and nozzle of the gun is given positive polarity. Supply of gases is maintained
into the gun. A strong arc is established between the two terminals anode and cathode. There
is a collision between molecules of gas and electrons of the established arc. As a result of this
collision gas molecules get ionized and heat is evolved. This hot and ionized gas called plasma
is directed to the workpiece with high velocity. The established arc is controlled by the supply
rate of gases.
Power Supply and Terminals:-

Power supply (DC) is used to develop two terminals in the plasma gun. A tungsten electrode
is inserted to the gun and made cathode and nozzle of the gun is made anode. Heavy potential
difference is applied across the electrodes to develop plasma state of gases.

Cooling Mechanism:-

As we know that hot gases continuously comes out of nozzle so there are chances of it’s over
heating. A water jacket is used to surround the nozzle to avoid its overheating.

Tooling:-

There is no direct visible tool used in PAM. Focused spray of ho0t, plasma state gases works
as a cutting tool.

Workpiece:-

Workpiece of different materials can be processed by PAM process. These materials are
aluminum, magnesium, stainless steels and carbon and alloy steels. All those material which
can be processed by LBM can also be processed by PAM process.

1.4.3. Applications of PAM

The chief application of this process is profile cutting as controlling movement of spray focus
point is easy in case of PAM process. This is also recommended for smaller machining of
difficult to machining materials.

1.4.4. Advantages of PAM Process

Advantages of PAM are given below :

(a) It gives faster production rate.

(b) Very hard and brittle metals can be machined.

(c) Small cavities can be machined with good dimensional accuracy.

1.4.5. Disadvantages of PAM Process

(a) Its initial cost is very high.

(b) The process requires over safety precautions which further enhance the initial cost of the
setup.

(c) Some of the workpiece materials are very much prone to metallurgical changes on excessive
heating so this fact imposes limitations to this process.

(d) It is uneconomical for bigger cavities to be machined.

1.5. Laser Beam Machining

LASER- Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

Laser Beam Machining or more broadly laser material processing deals with machining and
material processing like heat treatment, alloying, cladding, sheet metal bending etc. Such
processing is carried out utilizing the energy of coherent photons or laser beam, which is mostly
converted into thermal energy upon interaction with most of the materials. Laser beam can very
easily be focused using optical lenses as their wavelength ranges from half micron to around
70 microns. Focussed laser beam as indicated earlier can have power density in excess of 1
MW/mm2. As laser interacts with the material, the energy of the photon is absorbed by the
work material leading to rapid substantial rise in local temperature. This in turn results in
melting and vaporisation of the work material and finally material removal.

1.5.1. Lasing Medium

Many materials can be used as the heart of the laser. Depending on the lasing medium lasers
are classified as solid state and gas laser. Solid-state lasers are commonly of the following type

• Ruby which is a chromium – alumina alloy having a wavelength of 0.7 μm

• Nd-glass lasers having a wavelength of 1.64 μm

• Nd-YAG laser having a wavelength of 1.06 μm

These solid-state lasers are generally used in material processing.

The generally used gas lasers are

• Helium – Neon
• Argon

• CO2 etc.

Lasers can be operated in continuous mode or pulsed mode. Typically CO2 gas laser is operated
in continuous mode and Nd – YAG laser is operated in pulsed mode.

1.5.2. LBM Process

Fig. 8 shows a typical Nd-YAG laser. Nd-YAG laser is pumped using flash tube. Flash tubes
can be helical, as shown in Fig. 8, or they can be flat. Typically the lasing material is at the
focal plane of the flash tube. Though helical flash tubes provide better pumping, they are
difficult to maintain.

Fig.8 Solid-state laser with its optical pumping unit

Fig. 9 shows the electrical circuit for operation of a solid-state laser. The flash tube is operated
in pulsed mode by charging and discharging of the capacitor. Thus the pulse on time is decided
by the resistance on the flash tube side and pulse off time is decided by the charging resistance.
There is also a high voltage switching supply for initiation of pulses.

Fig. 10 shows a CO2 laser. Gas lasers can be axial flow, as shown in Fig. 10, transverse flow
and folded axial flow as shown in Fig. 11. The power of a CO2 laser is typically around 100
Watt per metre of tube length. Thus to make a high power laser, a rather long tube is required
which is quite inconvenient. For optimal use of floor space, high-powered CO2 lasers are made
of folded design.

In a CO2 laser, a mixture of CO2, N2 and He continuously circulate through the gas tube. Such
continuous recirculation of gas is done to minimize

Fig.9 Working of solid state laser

Fig. 10 Construction of a CO2 Laser

consumption of gases. CO2 acts as the main lasing medium whereas Nitrogen helps in
sustaining the gas plasma. Helium on the other hand helps in cooling the gases.

As shown in Fig. 9. high voltage is applied at the two ends leading to discharge and formation
of gas plasma. Energy of this discharge leads to population inversion and lasing action. At the
two ends of the laser we have one 100% reflector and one partial reflector. The 100% reflector
redirects the photons inside the gas tube and partial reflector allows a part of the laser beam to
be issued so that the same can be used for material processing. Typically the laser tube is cooled
externally as well.

As had been indicated earlier CO2 lasers are folded to achieve high power. Fig.11 shows a
similar folded axial flow laser. In folded laser there would be a few 100% reflective turning
mirrors for manoeuvring the laser beam from gas supply as well as high voltage supply as
shown in Fig. 11.

Fig.11 Construction of folded gas laser

1.5.3. Applications

Laser can be used in wide range of manufacturing applications

• Material removal – drilling, cutting and tre-panning

• Welding
• Cladding

• Alloying

Drilling micro-sized holes using laser in difficult – to – machine materials is the most dominant
application in industry. In laser drilling the laser beam is focused over the desired spot size.
For thin sheets pulse laser can be used. For thicker ones continuous laser may be used.

1.5.4. Advantages

• In laser machining there is no physical tool. Thus no machining force or wear of the tool takes
place.

• Large aspect ratio in laser drilling can be achieved along with acceptable accuracy or
dimension, form or location

• Micro-holes can be drilled in difficult – to – machine materials

• Though laser processing is a thermal processing but heat affected zone specially in pulse laser
processing is not very significant due to shorter pulse duration.

1.5.5. Limitations

• High initial capital cost

• High maintenance cost

• Not very efficient process

• Presence of Heat Affected Zone – specially in gas assist CO2 laser cutting

• Thermal process – not suitable for heat sensitive materials like aluminium glass fibre
laminate.

1.6. Abrasive Jet Machining(AJM)

In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), abrasive particles are made to impinge on the work material
at a high velocity. The jet of abrasive particles is carried by carrier gas or air. The high velocity
stream of abrasive is generated by converting the pressure energy of the carrier gas or air to its
kinetic energy and hence high velocity jet. The nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a controlled
manner onto the work material, so that the distance between the nozzle and the work piece and
the impingement angle can be set desirably. The high velocity abrasive particles remove the
material by micro-cutting action as well as brittle fracture of the work material. Fig. 12
schematically shows the material removal process.

Fig.12 Schematic representation of AJM

AJM is different from standard shot or sand blasting, as in AJM, finer abrasive grits are used
and the parameters can be controlled more effectively providing better control over product
quality.

In AJM, generally, the abrasive particles of around 50 μm grit size would impinge on the work
material at velocity of 200 m/s from a nozzle of I.D. of 0.5 mm with a stand off distance of
around 2 mm. The kinetic energy of the abrasive particles would be sufficient to provide
material removal due to brittle fracture of the work piece or even micro cutting by the abrasives.