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Classification of Isometries
From our work in Chapter 1 we know that reflections, translations, glide reflec-
tions and rotations are isometries. Furthermore, the Fundamental Theorem tells
us that every isometry is a product of three or fewer reflections. In this chapter
we consider the following question: Is there a way to compose three reflections
and obtain an isometry other than a reflection, translation, glide reflection or
rotation? As we shall soon see, the surprising answer is no! We begin with
a special case of the Angle Addition Theorem, which will be discussed in full
generality later in this chapter.
59
60 CHAPTER 3. CLASSIFICATION OF ISOMETRIES
2 = 2P> = P>2 =
Since 2 = we have
P>2 = >
in which case 2 5 0 = 360 and 5 180 = Therefore the rotation is a halfturn
as claimed.
Figure 3.1.
3.1. THE ANGLE ADDITION THEOREM, PART I 61
Proof. If D = E> then F = D and the result was proved earlier in Propo-
#$
sition 71. So assume that D 6= E and let c = DE= By Corollary 85, there exist
unique lines p and q passing through D and E> respectively, such that
Figure 3.2.
The measure of the directed angle from p to c is 12 and the measure of the
directed angle from c to q is 12 = Since 12 ( + ) ? 180 > lines p and q intersect
at some unique point F= The Exterior Angle Theorem applied to 4DEF implies
that the measure of the angle from p to q is 12 ( + )= Hence
Exercises
£¤ £¤
1. Let R = 00 and F = 20 =
a. Find equations of lines c> p and q such that F>90 = p q and
R>90 = c p =
b. Find {|-coordinates of the point G such that *G = R>90 F>90 =
c. Find {|-coordinates for the point H such that *H = F>90 R>90 =
£¤ £¤
2. Let R = 00 and F = 01 =
a. Find equations of the lines c> p and q such that *R = p c and
F>120 = q p =
b. Find {| coordinates for the point G and the angle of rotation such
that G> = F>120 *R =
c. Find {|-coordinates for the point H and the angle of rotation such
that H> = F>120 R>60 =
£¤ £¤
3. Let D = 40 and E = 04 =
a. Find equations of lines c> p and q such that D>90 = p c and
E>120 = q p =
b. Find {| coordinates for the point F and the angle of rotation such
that F> = E>120 D>90 =
c. Find {|-coordinates for the point G and the angle of rotation such
that G> = D>90 E>120 =
4. If c> p and q are the angle bisectors of a triangle, prove that the line s
such that s = q p c is perpendicular to a side of the triangle.
3.2 Parity
An isometry has even parity if it factors as an even number of reflections; other-
wise it has odd parity. In this section we shall observe that every even isometry
is the identity, a non-identity translation, or a non-identity rotation and every
odd involutory isometry is a reflection. The case of non-involutory isometries
with odd parity will be addressed in a later section.
Before we can make the notion of parity precise, we must be sure that a
product of reflections with an even number of factors can never be simplified to
3.2. PARITY 63
an odd number of factors and visa-versa, which is the point of our next lemma
and theorems that follow.
Lemma 100 Given a point S and lines d and e> there exist lines f and g with
f passing through S such that
e d = g f =
2
B
4
4
Figure 3.3.
u t = u0 t0 =
Next apply Lemma 100 to the point S and lines u0 and v to obtain lines u00 and
p with u00 passing through S such that
v u0 = p u00
64 CHAPTER 3. CLASSIFICATION OF ISOMETRIES
Q
RR'
4 4
l
2 )
T
SS'
Figure 3.4.
Since s> t 0 > and u00 are concurrent at point S> Corollary 86 tells us that there
p c = v u t s = w >
which contradicts our earlier conclusion that two reflections can never equal one
reflection. Therefore a product of three reflections can never equal a product of
two reflections.
In light of Corollary 103, Theorem 78, and Theorem 83, we see that every
even isometry is the identity, a non-identity translation, or a non-identity rota-
tion.
Theorem 105 Every even involutory isometry is a halfturn; every odd involu-
tory isometry is a reflection.
Figure 3.5.
66 CHAPTER 3. CLASSIFICATION OF ISOMETRIES
Definition 106 An orientation of the plane is a choice of ordered basis {u> v}.
Given an orientation {u> v} > let be the measure of the (undirected) angle
with initial side u and terminal side v= The orientation is negative if 180 ?
? 0 and positive if 0 ? ? 180 .
n £ ¤ £ ¤o
Theorem 107 The sign of an orientation u = xx12 > v = yy12 is the sign of
the determinant
det [u|v] = x1 y2 x2 y1 =
which is negative if and only if 180 ? ( ) ? 0 and positive if and only
if 0 ? ( ) ? 180 =
The following fact is intuitively obvious. We leave the proof to the reader
as a series of exercises in this and the next sections (see Exercises 10, 11, 9 and
10).
Exercises
In problems 1-5, the respective equations of lines s> t> u and v are given. In each
case, find lines c and p such that p c = v u t s and identify the
isometry p c as a translation, a rotation or the identity.
7. In the diagram below, use a MIRA to construct lines c and p such that
p c = v u t s .
68 CHAPTER 3. CLASSIFICATION OF ISOMETRIES
S
T
Q R
9. Prove that an even isometry fixing two distinct points is the identity.
11. Prove that the reflection in a line through the origin reverses orientation.
3. translating from R to F=
Thus
F> = OC R> 1
OC > (3.2)
i.e., F> is the conjugate of R> by OC = Indeed, since rotations and trans-
lation do not commute, the equations for rotations about F have a form quite
dierent from those for rotations about R=
Here are some algebraic properties of conjugation.
Theorem 111
so (S ) is a fixed point for the halfturn *S 1 and is consequently its
center, i.e.,
*S 1 = *(S ) =
2
W(2)
3
3 ' = W (3)
Figure 3.6: Conjugation of *S by =
3.3. THE GEOMETRY OF CONJUGATION 71
c 1 = (c) =
3
3 ' = W-1 (3)
Figure 3.7: Conjugation of c by =
AB 1 = A0 B0 =
AB = *P *D
A0 B0 = *P 0 *D0 =
72 CHAPTER 3. CLASSIFICATION OF ISOMETRIES
# $
$ ' = Vl ($)
2
# ' = Vl (#)
Figure 3.8: Conjugation of AB by c =
F> = q p
Figure 3.9.
Hence
u F> u = u q p u = ( u q u ) (u p u )
u (F) = p _ u (q)=
Since the measure of the directed angle from p to q is 12 > the measure of the
directed angle from p to u (q) is 12 = So by Theorem 82 the right-hand side
in (3.3) becomes
u (q) p = u (F)>
and we conclude that
u F> u = u (F)> = (3.4)
Case 3: Let u> v> and w be lines. Since = w v u is odd, we must show
that F> 1 = (F)> = This time, three successive applications of (3.4)
in the manner of Case 2 give the result, as the reader can easily check.
Example 116 Look again at the discussion on the equations for general rota-
tions above. Equation (3.2) indicates that OC R> 1
OC = F> = Since OC
is even and OC (R) = F we have
OC R> 1
OC = OC (R)> >
Theorem 117 Two non-identity commuting rotations have the same center of
rotation.
Theorem 118 Let m and n be lines. Then the reflections p and q commute
if and only if p = q or pBq=
p q = q p
and equivalently
q p q = p = (3.5)
By Theorem 113,
q p q = q (p) = (3.6)
By combining (3.5) and (3.6) we obtain
p = q (p) =
3.3. THE GEOMETRY OF CONJUGATION 75
Exercises
1. Given a line d and a point E o d> construct the line e such that *E d
*E = e =
2. Given a line e and a point D o e> construct the point E such that e
*D e = *E =
4. Let D and E be distinct points and let f be a line. Prove that D>E f =
f D>E if and only if D>E (f) = f=
10. Using Exercise 9, prove Proposition 109: Even isometries preserve orien-
tation; odd isometries reverse orientation.
Thus pkq since c is transverse to p and q with equal corresponding angles and
G> F> = ( q c ) ( c p ) = q p
3.4. THE ANGLE ADDITION THEOREM 77
Theorem 119 (The Angle Addition Theorem, part II): If F and G are
distinct points and + = 0 then G> F> is a translation.
Theorem 120 (The Angle Addition Theorem, part III): The composi-
tion of a non-identity rotation of and a translation (in either order) is a
rotation of .
Exercises
1. Given distinct points D and E> use a MIRA to construct a point S such
that D>60 = S>E E>60 =
2. Given distinct non-collinear points D> E and F> use a MIRA to construct
the point G such that G>60 = D>E F>60 =
78 CHAPTER 3. CLASSIFICATION OF ISOMETRIES
a. is a glide reflection.
b. is a non-identity translation fixing some line f followed by a reflection
f> or vise versa.
c. is a reflection in some line d followed by a halfturn about some point E
o d= The axis of is the line through E perpendicular to d=
d. is a halfturn about some point D followed by a reflection in some line e
o D= The axis of is the line through D perpendicular to e=
Proof. Statement (a) and the first statement in (b) are equivalent by defin-
ition. To establish the equivalence of the two statements in (b), choose distinct
3.5. THE CLASSIFICATION THEOREM 79
= f e d = e f d = e d f = 2AB f =
To show that statement (a) implies statements (c) and (d), note that
*D = d f = f d and *E = e f = f e =
= f e d = *E d >
= f e d = e f d = e f d = e *D >
2 ' = V (2)
B
$ M (2 ') = J2)
$
Figure 3.11: = *E d =
Conversely, if = *E d with point E o d> let f be the line through E
perpendicular to d> let e be the line perpendicular to f at E and let D = d _ f=
Then d and e are distinct since E is on e and o d> and
*E d = f e d = f 2AB
e *D = e d f = 2AB f
Theorem 123 Let be a glide reflection with axis f and glide vector v=
c. 2 is a non-identity translation.
= f 0 = f 0 = f 0 = =
Proof. Implication (,) was settled in the preceding remark. To prove the
converse, assume that lines s> t> and u are neither concurrent nor parallel and
show that = u t s is a glide reflection. We consider two cases:
Case 1: Suppose that lines s and t intersect at point T= Since s> t> and u are
not concurrent, T lies o u= Let S be the foot of the perpendicular from T to
u> and let p be the line through S and T. By Corollary 86, there is a (unique)
line c passing through T such that
t s = p c =
s t u = *S c =
Hence,
with point S o c is once again a glide reflection by Theorem 122 (part c).
Proof. Suppose that is a glide reflection with axis f and let be any
isometry. Consider the line (f); then
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
1 ((f)) = 1 (f) = ( ) (f) = ((f)) = (f)
Exercises
1. Identify the isometries that are dilatations and explain.
2. Given a translation with vector v, find the glide vector and axis of a
glide-reflection such that 2 = .
C < B
# 4 ) $
D
4. Prove Theorem 123 (a): If is a glide reflection with axis f and glide
vector v> then 1 is a glide reflection with axis f and glide vector v=
5. Let D and E be distinct points and let f be a glide reflection with axis
f. Prove that D>E f = f D>E if and only if D>E (f) = f=