UNIT-IV

Thermal Metal Removal Processes

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)
1. Definition of EDM

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) is the process of machining electrically conductive

materials by using precisely controlled sparks that occur between an electrode and a
workpiece in the presence of a dielectric fluid. The electrode may be considered the cutting
tool. Figure 1 illustrates the basic components of the EDM process.

Figure 1 Basic components of EDM.

EDM differs from most chip-making machining operations in that the electrode does not
make physical contact with the workpiece for material removal. Since the electrode does
not contact the workpiece, EDM has no tool force. The electrode must always be spaced
away from the workpiece by the distance required for sparking, known as the sparking gap.
Should the electrode contact the workpiece, sparking will cease and no material will be
removed.
During EDM process, work piece or job is fixed in the fixture or directly on the table of
machine and tool ‘generally known as electrode’ is fixed to the ram of machine. A servo-
control mechanism operated by control panel of machine is used to control the movement
of tool in downward direction towards the work piece, so that a constant gap (10-100µm) is
maintained between the two electrodes.

During EDM process, materials of both electrodes i.e. work piece and tool should be
conductor of electricity. A spark (thermo-electric energy) is generated when the suitable
voltage is applied across the anode and cathode. The location of produced spark is
determined by the closet point between the two electrodes. Sparking occurs in a frequency
range from 2,000 to 500,000 sparks per second causing it to appear that many sparks are
occurring simultaneously. In normal EDM, the sparks move from one point on the electrode
to another as sparking takes place. Figure 2 illustrates that each spark occurs between the
closest points of the electrode and the workpiece.

Figure 2. Sparking occurs at closest points between the electrode and workpiece.

The spark removes material from both the electrode and workpiece, which increases the
distance between the electrode and the workpiece at that point. This causes the next spark
to occur at the next-closest points between the electrode and workpiece. Figure 3 illustrates
how this works.
EDM is a thermal process; material is removed by heat. Heat is introduced by the flow of
electricity between the electrode and workpiece in the form of a spark. Material at the
closest points between the electrode and workpiece, where the spark originates and
terminates, are heated to the point where the material vaporizes.

A dielectric material is required to maintain the sparking gap between the electrode and
workpiece. This dielectric material is normally fluid. Die-sinker type EDM machines usually
use hydrocarbon oil, while wire-cut EDM machines normally use deionized water.

Figure 3. Next spark occurs at closest points between electrode and workpiece.

The main characteristic of dielectric fluid is that it is an electrical insulator until enough
electrical voltage is applied to cause it to change into an electrical conductor. The dielectric
fluids used for EDM machining are able to remain electrical insulators except at the closest
points between the electrode and the workpiece. At these points, sparking voltage causes
the dielectric fluid to change from an insulator to a conductor and the spark occurs. The
time at which the fluid changes into an electrical conductor is known as the ionization point.
When the spark is turned off, the dielectric fluid deionizes and the fluid returns to being an
electrical insulator. This change of the dielectric fluid from an insulator to a conductor, and
then back to an insulator, happens for each spark. Figure 4 illustrates the EDM spark
occurring within an ionized column of the dielectric fluid.
As each spark occurs, a small amount of the electrode and workpiece material is vaporized.
The vaporized material is positioned in the sparking gap between the electrode and
workpiece in what can be described as a cloud. When the spark is turned off, the vaporized
cloud solidifies. Each spark then produces an EDM chip or a very tiny hollow sphere of
material made up of the electrode and workpiece material. Figures 5, 6, and 7 illustrate the
spark producing the vapor cloud, the cloud in suspension, and the vaporized cloud being
cooled and forming into an EDM chip.

Figure 4. Spark occurs within a column of ionized dielectric fluid.

Figure 5. Spark ON: electrode and workpiece material vaporized.

Figure 6. Spark OFF: vaporized cloud suspended in dielectric fluid.

 Figure 7. Spark-OFF: vaporized cloud solidifies to form EDM chip.

For efficient machining, the EDM chip must be removed from the sparking area. Removal of
this chip is accomplished by flowing dielectric fluid through the sparking gap.

2. Working Principle of EDM Process

When pulsed DC voltage of 80-100 volt at approximately 5Hz- 5 kHz frequency is passed
through the two electrodes, intense electric field at the narrowest gap is produced. Negatively
charged particles (electrons) detached from the cathode moves in the direction of anode
surface under the influence of electric field forces. During this movement, there have a
collision of electrons with the neutral molecules of the dielectric. Further, electrons also
detached from these neutral molecules of the dielectric resulting in still more ionization, thus,
a very narrow ionization channel is formed of continuous conductivity. This narrow
ionization channel is also known as plasma channel. In this plasma channel, there is a
considerable amount of continuous flow of electrons to the anode (positive terminal), and that
of ions towards the cathode (negative terminal). Due to this issue, kinetic energy is produced
which is converted into thermal energy, thus, heating of anode due to bombardment of
electrons and heating of cathode due to bombardment of ions take place. Thus, it ends up in
momentary current impulse resulting in a discharge which may be an arc or spark. The spark
energy raises the temperature of localized area very high (8000 to 12,0000C or as high as
20,0000C) causing melting, or melting as well as vaporization of material at both ends. At
the end of on-time plasma channel collapses, due to turn off pulsating current, causing sudden
fall in temperature. Thus, the surface of both poles gets cool due to continuously flow of
dielectric, and maximum amount of vaporized material are removed from poles by flushing in
the form of microscopic debris. However, some amounts of un-flushed materials are attached
with the surface of work piece and tool depending on the machining conditions. Generally, a
component produced by EDM is machined in two stages:

 Rough machining at high MRR which may have poorer surface finish.

 Finish machining at low MRR with high surface finish.

The amounts of material eroded from both terminals are in the form of small craters which
depends upon the machining conditions. Generally, the MRR varies in the range of 2 -400
mm3/min, while the cubic material removed per spark varies in the range of 10-6-10-4 mm3
depending on the setting of machine input parameters.
Figure 8 shows the Rc circuit used in EDM

Figure 8 A schematic diagram of EDM using relaxation circuit

3. Major EDM Process Parameters

3.1 Peak Current (Ip)

It is one of the most important parameter, highly affected the EDM performance. When the
current increases and it reaches at a preset level during each pulse-on-time, termed as peak
current. It is measured in units of ampere (A), and is generally represented by ‘Ip’. It means
peak current is the maximum amount of current available for each pulse during spark.
Higher value of Ip is always required for rough machining. Though, machining with higher
peak current can increase the MRR, but SR as well as TWR also be increased, which is not
desirable.

3.2 Pulse-on-time (Ton)

Each machining cycle has two times (i) pulse-on-time (Ton) and (ii) pulse-off-time (Toff). The
unit of both times is microsecond (µs). Tonis the duration of time in which actual machining is
performed, because during this period current start to flow to the end of discharge when
dielectric insulation condition is broken down between the two electrodes. Since machining is
performed during this period, the duration of these pulses are very important for effectively
machining.Here, on-time is divided in to two parts; (a) ionization time, (b) discharge time

Figure : An Illustration of Ton and Toff

3.3 Pulse-off-time (Toff)

It is the time period where the machining cycle is completed. The duration off-time affects
the machining efficiency in terms of speed and stability of the process. During this period,
molten metal solidifies and clean the spark gap due to circulating dielectric. Although, short
duration ofoff-time increases the cutting efficiency, but eroded material will not be wash out
by the flowing dielectric and circulating dielectric will not be de-ionized. Moreover, due to
short off-time, the next spark will be unstable, causing erratic machining. Pulse off-time has
two phases; (c) deionization time and (d) idle time as shown in Figure .
3.4 Electrode polarity
Two types of electrode polarity can be used during EDM. It can be either negative or
positive. In the normal polarity (straight polarity) tool-electrode is –ve and work piece is +ve
or vice versa. Both types of polarity are shown in Figure. Generally, polarity depends on
material of tool and work piece, current and duration of pulse.
Straight polarity: in which electrode is usually a cathode (-). Here, work surface energy can
be controlled by controlling the current so that anode drop energy provides proper wear
and desired surface finish. Where as in reverse polarity: in which electrode anode (+) and
work (-), in which rough cut higher cutting rates can be obtained with virtually no electrode
wear

Figure : Normal and Reverse Polarity in EDM

3.5 Dielectric Fluid
The function of the dielectric fluid is to clean the spark gap by removing the debris produced
during machining. The fluids commonly used as dielectric are transformer oils, paraffin oils,
kerosene, lubricating oils etc. Recently, distilled water has also been used in place of
dielectric fluids and this has been found to permit very high MRR but also causes high TWR
and poor surface finish. De-ionized water has special characteristics such as low viscosity
and free from carbon particles is frequently used as dielectric medium for wire-EDM
operation, but some time it is also used in conventional EDM where high precision is
required. Moreover, to enhance the machining efficiency, powder mixed dielectric also used
as dielectric. Filtering of dielectric before re-circulation is necessary to filter out 2 –5 μm
debris particles. Some of the important characteristics of a good dielectric are listed as under:
 High dielectric strength
 Minimum ignition delay time
 Minimum deionization time
 Effective coolant
 High degree of fluidity
 De-ionize the gap immediately after the spark has occurred.
 Have high flash point and low viscosity.
Dielectric Fluids
 Transformer oil
 Paraffin oil
 Lubricating oil
 Kerosene oil
 Deionized water→ HighMRR, high TWR, corrosive, good coolant →used in
wire EDM
Dielectric system→
 Dielectric fluid
 Reservoir
 Filters
 Pump
 Delivery devices
3.6 Flushing
Flushing is the process of introducing clean dielectric fluid into and through the spark gap.
This serves several purposes:
 introduces fresh dielectric to the cut
 flushes away the debris from the spark gap
 cools the electrode and work-piece
Techniques for Proper Flushing

 Suction through tool / work piece

 Pressure through tool/work piece
 Jet flushing
 Rotating disk electrode
 Alternating forced flushing
4. Selection of electrode material

The selection of the most appropriate electrode material is a key decision in EDM. The
important variables to be considered for selection of electrode material are material
removal rate, tool wear rate, surface roughness, machinability and material cost.
Electrode material should have the basic properties like electrical and thermal conductivity,
a high melting temperature, low wear rate, and resistance to deformation during machining.

Since electric current is cutting tool, in EDM, higher conductivity promotes more
efficient cutting.

In fact, there is a vast range of materials used for manufacturing electrodes like brass,
tungsten carbides, electrolytic copper, copper-tungsten alloys, silver-tungsten alloy,
tellurium-copper alloys, copper-graphite alloys, graphite etc. The five commonly used
electrodes are: copper, brass, tungsten, zinc, and graphite. In addition, some electrode
materials are combined with other metals in order to cut more efficiently. Tungsten has a
melting point similar to graphite, but tungsten is highly difficult to machine. Metallic
electrodes usually work best for machining materials which have low melting points as
aluminum, copper, and brass. As for steel and its alloys, graphite is preferred. The general
rule is: metallic electrodes should be applied for low temperature alloys and graphite
electrodes should be applied for high temperature alloys. However, exceptions also exist.

Tool material requirements

 Easily machinable
 Low wear rate
 Good conductor of electricity and heat
 Cheap and readily available

5. Applications
 Any material → electrically conductive
 Aerospace, automobiles, tools and die making industries
 Thin fragile components ← no danger of damage
6. Advantages of EDM include machining of:
 Complex shapes that would otherwise be difficult to produce with conventional
cutting tools.
 Extremely hard material to very close tolerances.
 Very small work pieces where conventional cutting tools may damage the part from
excess cutting tool pressure.
 There is no direct contact between tool and work piece. Therefore, delicate sections
and weak materials can be machined without perceivable distortion.
 A good surface finish can be obtained; a very good surface may be obtained by
redundant finishing paths.
 Very fine holes can be attained.
 Tapered holes may be produced.
 Pipe or container internal contours and internal corners down to R .001".
7. Disadvantages of EDM include:
 The slow rate of material removal.
 Potential fire hazard associated with use of combustible oil based dielectrics.
 The additional time and cost used for creating electrodes for ram/sinker EDM.
 Reproducing sharp corners on the workpiece is difficult due to electrode wear.
 Specific power consumption is very high.
  Power consumption is high.
 "Overcut" is formed.
 Excessive tool wear occurs during machining.
 Electrically non-conductive materials can be machined only with specific set-up of
the process.

PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM)

Plasma-arc machining (PAM) employs a high-velocity jet of high-temperature gas to melt

and displace material in its path called PAM; this is a method of cutting metal with a plasma-
arc, or tungsten inert-gas-arc, torch. The commonly used gases are nitrogen, hydrogen, air,
mixture or nitrogen – hydrogen and argon – hydrogen etc. The torch produces a high
velocity jet of high-temperature ionized gas called plasma that cuts by melting and removing
material from the work piece. Temperatures in the plasma zone range from 20,000° to
50,000° F (11,000° to 28,000° C). It is used as an alternative to oxyfuel-gas cutting,
employing an electric arc at very high temperatures to melt and vaporize the metal.

Equipment:

A plasma arc cutting torch has four components:

 The electrode carries the negative charge from the power supply.
 The swirl ring spins the plasma gas to create a swirling flow pattern.
 The nozzle constricts the gas flow and increases the arc energy density.
 The shield channels the flow of shielding gas and protects the nozzle from metal
spatter.

Principle of operation:

PAM is a thermal cutting process that uses a constricted jet of high-temperature plasma gas
to melt and separate metal. The plasma arc is formed between a negatively charged
electrode inside the torch and a positively charged work piece. Heat from the transferred
arc rapidly melts the metal, and the high-velocity gas jet expels the molten material from
the cut.
There are two types of plasma are torches. They are

I. Direct arc plasma torches (or) Transferred arc type.

II. Indirect arc plasma torches (or) Non- transferred are type.

Transferred type:

In transferred arc type process, electrode is connected to the negative terminal of the
D.C power supply and workpiece is connected to the positive terminal of a D.C power
supply (refer Fig a), so, more electrical energy is transferred to the work, thus giving
more heat to the work.

Non- transferred are type

In non- transferred are type, electrode is connected to the negative terminal of a D.C.
power supply and nozzle is connected to the positive terminal of a D.C. power supply
(refer Fig b). When the working gas passing through the nozzle, a part of the working gas
becomes heated, ionized and emerges from the torch as the plasma jet. This plasma
feeds the heat to the workpiece. This type of torches is used for non- conducting
materials.

(a) Transferred type and (b) Non- transferred are type

Process Details of PAM

Plasma Gun

Gases are used to create plasma like, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen or mixture of these gases.
The plasma gun consists of a tungsten electrode fitted in the chamber. The electrode is
given negative polarity and nozzle of the gun is given positive polarity. Supply of gases is
maintained into the gun. A strong arc is established between the two terminals anode and
cathode. There is a collision between molecules of gas and electrons of the established arc.
As a result of this collision gas molecules get ionized and heat is evolved. This hot and
ionized gas called plasma is directed to the workpiece with high velocity. The established arc
is controlled by the supply rate of gases.

Power Supply and Terminals

Power supply (DC) is used to develop two terminals in the plasma gun. A tungsten electrode
is inserted to the gun and made cathode and nozzle of the gun is made anode. Heavy
potential difference is applied across the electrodes to develop plasma state of gases.

Cooling Mechanism

As we know that hot gases continuously comes out of nozzle so there are chances of it’s
overheating. A water jacket is used to surround the nozzle to avoid its overheating.

Tooling

There is no direct visible tool used in PAM. Focused spray of hot, plasma state gases works
as a cutting tool.

Workpiece

Workpiece of different materials can be processed by PAM process. These materials are
aluminum, magnesium, stainless steels and carbon and alloy steels. All those material which
can be processed by LBM can also be processed by PAM process.

Applications of PAM
  It is used for cutting alloy steels, stainless steel, cast iron, copper, nickel, titanium.
Aluminum and alloy of copper and nickel, etc.,
 It is used for profile cutting.
 This is also recommended for smaller machining of difficult to machining materials.

Advantages of PAM Process

 It gives faster production rate.

 Very hard and brittle metals can be machined.
 Small cavities can be machined with good dimensional accuracy

Disadvantages of PAM Process

 Its initial cost is very high.

 The process requires over safety precautions which further enhance the initial cost
of the setup.
 Some of the workpiece materials are very much prone to metallurgical changes on
excessive heating so this fact imposes limitations to this process.
 It is uneconomical for bigger cavities to be machined.

LASER BEAM MACHINING

Laser beam machining is a thermal machining process which uses laser beam to produce
heat. In this machining process metal is removed by melting and vaporization of metal
particle from surface of work piece. It is a non-conventional machining process in which no
tool is used. It is used to machine both metallic and non-metallic material. It is mostly used
in cutting and drilling operation.

Working Principle:

The word laser stands for Light amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. When an
electron of atom absorbed energy form an external source, the electron which are in its
original energy level, jump to a higher energy level. This is not a stable condition of atom so
this electron emits the absorbed energy in form of photons and come back to its original
state. If an atom which is already at higher energy level absorbs energy, it will emit double
energy to return at its original state. The energy emitted by the atom has same frequency
and wavelength as the stimulating energy. This is fundamental of laser. When the laser
material placed in presence of some other energy source, it absorb energy at some extant
and release it when reaches its absorbing limit. This high amplified light beam is called laser.

This machining process works on basic property of laser. It uses a laser beam, which is a
narrow, monochromatic high intense light which can cut or machine any metal and non-
metal. It can use to cut any material irrespective to hardness of work piece. It can also use
to cut diamond which is hardest known material on earth.

Equipment’s:

Power Supply:It provides the energy for excitation of electron from lower energy level to
higher energy level. This gives power to xenon flash lamps, which produce light energy. The
laser materials are exposed in light energy to keep storing energy.

Laser Discharge Tube:The laser material filled in lased discharge tube. The excitation of
electron and come back to its original state process takes place in it. It’s one side is partially
transparent for laser opening and other side is 100% reflected. It is situated between flash
lamp.
 Figure: Laser Beam Machining

Laser Material: There are many different type of laser material available but in later
machining mostly CO2(Pulsed or continuous waves) and Nd: YAG is Used. Carbon die oxide is
a laser material that emits light in infrared region. It can provide up to 25 KW power in
continuous wave mode. The other one is called Neodymium doped Yttrium Aluminum
Garnet is a solid state laser which can delivery light through optical fiber. It can generate
about 50 KW power in pulsed mode and 1 KW power in continuous mode.

Focusing Lens:A focusing lens is used in laser machining operation. It is a convex lens which
focus is at work piece.

Working of LBM:

As we know in laser energy is used to remove metal from workpiece. Its process can be
summarized as follow.

 First laser material CO2 or other gases filled into laser discharge tube.
 Now switch on the power supplied which is connected by flash lamp. This lamp
produces light energy which used to excite electrons of atom.
  The atoms of laser material absorb energy from the light energy produced by flash
lamp. It leads jump of orbital electron of atom form low energy level to high energy
level. This is unstable condition of atom.
 This energy initially blind up in laser material. When the atoms absorb sufficient
energy it start emit energy continuously. This is high amplified same frequency and
same wavelength coherent light.
 This laser light collected by the focus lens and directed toward the work piece.
 Now the laser impinging on work piece start machining process by melting or
vaporize material from contact surface.

Laser Beam Machining – Advantages

 It can cut all material.

 No tooling cost because no physical tool is required.
 It produces finish part or high surface finish.
 No tool wears because no physical tool is used.
 Micro holes can be drilled accurately.
 Complex shape can be machined easily because laser can be move in any path.
 Very hard material can be cut through laser beam machining.
 High accuracy can be achieved.
 It can be easily automated and flexible.

Laser Beam Machining – Limitations

 It is uneconomical when high volume of same shape to be cut compare to stamping.

 High capital and maintenance cost.
 It cannot use to produce blind hole.
 Laser can leads to safety hazards.

Laser Beam Machining – Application

Laser can be used in wide range of manufacturing applications

  Used to drill small hole of diameter about 0.005 mm in refectory and ceramic
materials.
 It is used in drilling and cutting for both metals and non-metals.
 It is extensively used in electronic and automotive industries.
 It is mostly used in aerospace industries.
 Used to machine complex profile where machining by tool is not possible.

ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING

It is a non-traditional machining process in which no physical tool is used. Electron beam

machining is same as laser beam machining process in which except laser, high speed
electron beam impinges on work piece. This will generate high heat energy and melts and
vaporize metal from work piece. This whole process takes place in vacuum chamber. It is
mostly used to drill holes in any shape.

Principle:

This machining process works on basic principle of conversion of kinetic energy of electron
into heat energy. When a high speed electron impinges on a work piece, they convert its
kinetic energy into heat energy. This heat energy used to vaporize material at contact
surface. This process is carried out in vacuum otherwise the electron will collide with air
particle and loses its energy before impinging on work material. This is basic principle of
EBM machining.

Equipment’s:

Electron Gun:It is called heart of electron beam machining. It is used to generate electron. It
is simply a cathode ray tube which generates electron, accelerate them to sufficient velocity
and focus them at small spot size. In this gun cathode is made by tungsten or tantalum. This
cathode filament heated up to 2500 degree centigrade which accelerate to electron
emission by thermionic reaction. There is very low vacuum in the chamber
Annular Bias Grid: It is next element of EBM. It is just after the electron gun. It is a anode
which is connected by the negative bias so the electron generated by the cathode do not
diverge from its path and approach to the next element. When the electrons leave this
section, the velocity of electron is almost half the velocity of light.

Magnetic Lenses: After the anode, magnetic lenses are provided which shape the beam and
does not allow diverging electron or reducing the divergence of beam. These lenses allow to
pass only convergent electron, thus a high focused beam is obtained. They also capture low
energy electron, thus increase the quality of beam.

Electromagnetic lens and deflection coil: Electromagnetic lens is used to focus the electron
beam at a spot. They use to focus beam at a spot on work piece so a high intense beam
reaches at work surface, which produces more heat and improve machining. The defecting
coil does not allow to beam deflect and take care of all electrons moves in series thus form a
high intense beam.
Work piece and work holding device:It can machine both metallic and non-metallic
material. The work piece is hold by suitable fixture which is mounted on a CNC table. This
table can be move in all three direction which control the shape of machining.

Working of EBM:

Its working can be summarizing into following points.

 First electron gun produces high velocity electron particles. These electron particles
move towards anode which is placed after cathode tube.
 Now this high intense electron beam passes through magnetic lenses. There are a
series of lenses which take care of only convergent electron passes through it. It
absorb all divergent electron and low energy electron. It provides a high quality
electron beam.
 This electron beam now passes through electromagnetic lens and deflecting coil. It
focuses the electron beam at a spot.
 The high intense electron beam impinges on the work piece where kinetic energy of
electrons converts into thermal energy.
 The material is removed from contact surface by melting and vaporization due to
this high heat generated by conversion of kinetic energy into thermal energy. This
whole process take place in a vacuum chamber otherwise these electron collide with
air particle between path and loses its kinetic energy.

Application of EBM:

 It is used to produce very small size hole about 100 micro meters to 2 millimeter.
 It is used to produce holes in diesel injection nozzle.
 Used in aerospace industries for producing turbine blade for supersonic engines and
in nuclear reactors.

Advantages of EBM:

 It can be used for produce very small size hole in any shape.
 It can machining any material irrespective its hardness and other mechanical
properties.
  It provides good surface finish. No any surface finishing process is required after
EBM.
 Highly reacting material can be machine easily because machining is done under
vacuum.

Disadvantages of EBM:

 High capital cost.

 High skill operator required.
 Low material removal rate.
 Regular maintenance is required
 Material removal rate is very low compare to other conventional process.
 It is difficult to produce perfect vacuum.

HOT MACHINING

Hot machining is one of the unusual approaches in machining of difficult-to-cut materials

like heat-resistant alloys, superalloys, hardened steels and various metal alloys. The external
heat source is applied to cutting zone during machining process that will assist to increase
machining performance. The achievement of hot machining is now remarkable and will
extent the position in machining operations in future. Many external heating techniques are
available and each type has advantages/disadvantages.

Hot machining is the process which is used for easy machining and to eliminate the
problems of low cutting speeds, feeds and heavy loads on the machine bearings. This
problem arises when machining process is being done on the new and tough materials. The
basic principle behind this process is the surface of the work piece which is to be machined
is to be pre heated to a temperature below the re-crystallization temperature. By this
heating the shear forces gets reduces and machining process becomes easy.

Advantages of hot machining:

  Easy formation of chip
 Lessened shocks to the tools
 Good surface finish of the work piece

Disadvantage ofhot machining:

The main disadvantage of this process is the work piece’s micro structure may get disturbed
due to heating.

Precautions:

To be taken are

1. Heat generated should be localized

2. Heating is to be done just before the machining

The heat requirements for this process should satisfy the following conditions

1) Heat input rate should be very high such that the work piece gets heated up in very short
time

2) The heat generated should heat only the shear zone. If heat generated penetrates to
higher depths then there may be a problem of thermal damage.

3) Constant temperatures over a wide range should be generated

4) The installation cost and operating cost should be less

5) It should be easy to set up and control.

Methods of heat generation

Flame heating

It is one of the easiest methods of heating. In this process oxyacetylene (or) propylene (or)
town gas is employed. Multi-jet head is employed when high concentration of heat is
required. The equipment required for this method is relatively inexpensive and is very
effective in milling narrow jobs. But when it is employed for wider jobs problem of
localization of heat arises. Another problem which may arise due to this process is oxidation.
If this happens post machining is required

D.C. Arc heating

This method is employed for machining non magnetic (or) refractory materials. A carbon
(or) tungsten electrode is used for making an electric arc. In this process the negative
terminal of the arc is connected to work piece and positive terminal is connected to an
electrode which keep moving the electric arc forward. Magnetic field may also be used for
removing the problems of wandering. The main disadvantage in this process is maintenance
of constant temperature is very difficult.

Plasma arc welding

Though the initial cost of the equipment is very high the method is very effective. In this
method the plasma arc contains a restricted arc through which the gas selected is allowed
to flow. In this process temperatures of very high range can be generated (20,000 K). Low
permeable materials are machined by this method as heat flow can be easily controlled.
High speed and depth machining can be done if adequate power and gas supply is given
proper safety measures are to be taken to avoid the radiations affecting us.

Furnace heating

In this process a furnace is employed for heating the work piece. The work piece material is
placed in the furnace and is heated till the surface temperature gets equal to furnace
temperature. Then the work piece is taken out and is machined. This process is economical
when the required furnace is already there. The machine on which machining operation will
be done should be placed near to the furnace such that the temperature loss of the work
piece is very less. There are problems in this method

1) Heat cannot be regulated

2) The whole body gets heated

3) Damage of work piece

Resistance heating
In this method 50 cycle A.C current is passed through the work piece body to heat it. Much
difficulty is required in maintaining a constant temperature. A proper cooling is required
otherwise damage occurs. In this process arcing should be strictly restricted. This is an
inexpensive process and is more suitable in milling process.

Radio frequency resistance heating

Radio frequency currents are employed in this process. These currents follow low
impedance paths. So by this process the heating can be done to only the pre determined
area as current doesn’t flow to other directions. The low impedance can be quite easily
obtained by placing a current carrying conductor near to the work piece. This current
carrying conductor generates reverse currents. The main advantage of this method is heat
can be localized. This method is gaining importance now-a-days. Similar to resistance
welding arcing should be restricted.

Induction heating

This method uses an alternating current of 3000C/s to 1.2 MC/s for the generation of heat.
Transformer action is used for inducing the current. Localization of heat is not so difficult.
Temperature control, depth of heat zone can be repeated without any undue problems. The
equipment can also be used for various other engineering works but it is very costly.