Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from about one meter to one millimeter;

with frequencies between 300 MHz (1 m) and 300 GHz (1 mm).[1][2][3][4][5] Different sources define different frequency
ranges as microwaves; the above broad definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter wave) bands. A more common
definition in radio engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz (wavelengths between 0.3 m and 3 mm).[2] In all
cases, microwaves include the entire SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum. Frequencies in the microwave
range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations: S, C, X, Ku, K, or Ka band, or by similar NATO or EU
designations.

Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. It can
be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. A
radar system consists of a transmitter producing electromagnetic waves in the radio or microwaves domain, a
transmitting antenna, a receiving antenna (often the same antenna is used for transmitting and receiving) and
a receiver and processor to determine properties of the object(s). Radio waves (pulsed or continuous) from the
transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver, giving information about the object's location and
speed.

Terrestrial television is a type of television broadcasting in which the television signal is transmitted by radio
waves from the terrestrial (Earth-based) transmitter of a television station to a TV receiver having an antenna.
The term terrestrial is more common in Europe and Latin America, while in the United States it is
called broadcast or over-the-air television (OTA). The term "terrestrial" is used to distinguish this type from
the newer technologies of satellite television (direct broadcast satellite or DBS television), in which the
television signal is transmitted to the receiver from an overhead satellite, cable television, in which the signal is
carried to the receiver through a cable, and Internet Protocol television, in which the signal is received over
an Internet stream or on a network utilizing the Internet Protocol. Terrestrial television stations broadcast
on television channels with frequencies between about 52 and 600 MHz in the VHF and UHF bands. Since
radio waves in these bands travel by line of sight, reception is limited by the visual horizon to distances of 40–
60 miles (64–97 km).

Microwave oven (also commonly referred to as a microwave) is an electric oven that heats and cooks food
by exposing it to electromagnetic radiation in the microwave frequency range.[1] This induces polar
molecules in the food to rotate and produce thermal energy in a process known as dielectric heating.
Microwave ovens heat foods quickly and efficiently because excitation is fairly uniform in the outer 25–38
mm (1–1.5 inches) of a homogeneous, high water content food item.
 Incident ray is a ray of light that strikes a surface. The angle between this ray and the perpendicular
or normal to the surface is the angle of incidence.

Reflected ray corresponding to a given incident ray, is the ray that represents the light reflected by the
surface. The angle between the surface normal and the reflected ray is known as the angle of reflection. The
Law of Reflection says that for a specular (non-scattering) surface, the angle of reflection always equals the
angle of incidence.

Ultraviolet Radiation

Our eyes can see a lot, but they can't see everything. The light our eyes can see is made up of
electromagnetic radiation, but there's a lot more our eyes can't see. Beyond the red end of the spectrum there
is infrared radiation, microwaves and radio waves, and beyond the violet there is ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma
rays. The full electromagnetic spectrum is shown in the following image:
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Ultraviolet literally means beyond violet in Latin, because it is nothing more than electromagnetic radiation just
beyond what our eyes can see on the violet side of the rainbow. The sun is our main source of ultraviolet,
though the more dangerous wavelengths of ultraviolet are absorbed by the atmosphere, particularly the Ozone
Layer.

X-rays are a type of radiation called electromagnetic waves. X-ray imaging creates pictures of the inside of your
body. The images show the parts of your body in different shades of black and white. This is because different
tissues absorb different amounts of radiation. Calcium in bones absorbs x-rays the most, so bones look white.
Fat and other soft tissues absorb less, and look gray. Air absorbs the least, so lungs look black.

The most familiar use of x-rays is checking for broken bones, but x-rays are also used in other ways. For
example, chest x-rays can spot pneumonia. Mammograms use x-rays to look for breast cancer.

When you have an x-ray, you may wear a lead apron to protect certain parts of your body. The amount of
radiation you get from an x-ray is small. For example, a chest x-ray gives out a radiation dose similar to the
amount of radiation you're naturally exposed to from the environment over 10 days.
Visible Spectrum is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human
eye. Electromagnetic radiation in this range of wavelengths is called visible light or simply light. A
typical human eye will respond to wavelengths from about 380 to 740 nanometers.[1] In terms of frequency, this
corresponds to a band in the vicinity of 430–770 THz.
The spectrum does not contain all the colors that the human eyes and brain can distinguish. Unsaturated
colors such as pink, or purple variations like magenta, for example, are absent because they can only be made
from a mix of multiple wavelengths. Colors containing only one wavelength are also called pure colors or
spectral colors.

Multi-image is the now largely obsolete practice and business of using 35mm slides (diapositives) projected
by single or multiple slide projectors onto one or more screens in synchronization with an audio voice-over or
music track. Multi-image productions[1] are also known as multi-image slide presentations, slide
shows and diaporamas and are a specific form of multimedia or audio-visual production.

One of the hallmarks of multi-image was the use of the wide screen panorama. Precisely overlapping slides
were placed in slide mounts with soft-edge density masks; when the resulting images were projected, the
images would blend seamlessly on the screen to create the panorama. By cutting and dissolving between
images in the projectors, animation effects were created in the panorama format.
The term multi-image is sometimes used to describe digital photo image computer programs that combine or
change images on-screen, for photo montages, and image stitching.

Specular and Diffuse Reflection

The amount of light reflected by an object, and how it is reflected, is highly dependent upon the smoothness or
texture of the surface. When surface imperfections are smaller than the wavelength of the incident light (as in
the case of a mirror), virtually all of the light is reflected equally. However, in the real world most objects have
convoluted surfaces that exhibit a diffuse reflection, with the incident light being reflected in all directions. This
interactive tutorial explores how light waves are reflected by smooth and rough surfaces.

The tutorial initializes with a beam of white light (represented by a spectrum composed of all wavelengths
between 400 and 700 nanometers) being reflected by a diffuse, or rough, red surface demonstrating Diffuse
Reflection. In order to operate the tutorial, use the slider bars to adjust the color and texture of the surface
appearing in the window between a range of zero (smooth) and 100 percent (maximum roughness). By
translating the Surface Color slider, the color of the grid-laden surface is altered to produce corresponding
changes in the wavelength spectrum of light reflected from the surface. When the slider labeled Surface
Roughness is moved to the right, the texture of the surface becomes more irregular and light is reflected at a
greater number of angles and wavelengths. Moving the slider to the left produces a progressive smoother
surface. At the far left boundary of the Surface Roughness slider, the surface becomes totally flat and exhibits
specular reflection of all incident wavelengths that match the color of the surface.

Most things that we see (people, cars, houses, animals, trees, etc.) do not themselves emit visible light but
reflect incident natural sunlight and artificial light. For instance, an apple appears a shiny red color because it
has a relatively smooth surface that reflects red light and absorbs other non-red (such as green, blue, and
yellow) wavelengths of light. The reflection of light can be roughly categorized into two types of
reflection: specular reflection is defined as light reflected from a smooth surface at a definite angle,
and diffuse reflection, which is produced by rough surfaces that tend to reflect light in all directions (as
illustrated in Figure 1). There are far more occurrences of diffuse reflection than specular reflection in our
everyday environment.

To visualize the differences between specular and diffuse reflection, consider two very different surfaces: a
smooth mirror and a rough reddish surface. The mirror reflects all of the components of white light (such as
red, green, and blue wavelengths) almost equally and the reflected specular light follows the same angle from
the normal, as does the incident light. The rough reddish surface, however, does not reflect all wavelengths
because it absorbs most of the blue and green components, and reflects the red light. Also, the diffuse light
that is reflected from the rough surface is scattered in all directions.

Perhaps the best example of specular reflection, which we encounter on a daily basis, is the mirror
image produced by a household mirror that people might use many times a day to view their appearance. The
mirror's smooth reflective glass surface renders a virtual image of the observer from the light that is reflected
directly back into the eyes. This image is referred to as "virtual" because it does not actually exist (does not
produce light) and appears to be behind the plane of the mirror due to an assumption that the brain naturally
makes. The way in which this occurs is easiest to visualize when looking at the reflection of an object to one
side of the observer, so that the light from the object strikes the mirror at an angle and is reflected at an equal
angle to the viewer's eyes. As the eyes receive the reflected rays, the brain assumes that the light rays have
reached the eyes in a direct straight path. Tracing the rays backward toward the mirror, the brain perceives an
image that is positioned behind the mirror. An interesting feature of this reflection artifact is that the image of an
object being observed appears to be the same distance behind the plane of the mirror as the actual object is in
front of the mirror.
Curved Mirror is a mirror with a curved reflecting surface. The surface may be either convex (bulging
outward) or concave (recessed inward). Most curved mirrors have surfaces that are shaped like part of
a sphere, but other shapes are sometimes used in optical devices. The most common non-spherical type
are parabolic reflectors, found in optical devices such as reflecting telescopes that need to image distant
objects, since spherical mirror systems, like spherical lenses, suffer from spherical aberration. Distorting
mirrors are used for entertainment. They have convex and concave regions that produce deliberately distorted
images. They also provide highly magnified or highly diminished images when the object is placed at certain
distances.

Spherical Mirrors
A spherical mirror is a mirror which has the shape of a piece cut out of a spherical surface. There
are two types of spherical mirrors: concave, and convex. These are illustrated in Fig. 68. The most
commonly occurring examples of concave mirrors are shaving mirrors and makeup mirrors. As is
well-known, these types of mirrors magnify objects placed close to them. The most commonly
occurring examples of convex mirrors are the passenger-side wing mirrors of cars. These type of
mirrors have wider fields of view than equivalent flat mirrors, but objects which appear in them
generally look smaller (and, therefore, farther away) than they actually are.

Concave Mirror
A concave mirror is curved inward. Since it’s curved inward, when one looks at a concave mirror, it looks like the person
islooking into a cave.

A concave mirror is also known as a “Converging Mirror” since in these type of mirrors light rays converge at a point after
they strike and are reflected back from the reflecting surface of the concave mirror. In the majority of the cases, a concave
mirror produces real and inverted images except when the object is placed very near to the mirror i.e. pole (p) and the focus (f)
where the image produced is virtual and erect. Many examples of concave mirrors can be seen in our daily life; few such
examples are torch used to reflect light, shaving mirrors, concave mirrors are also used in telescopes and more. Can you find
out more such examples?

Example of a Concave mirror (Source: Martinhurxford.com)

Convex Mirror
A concave mirror is curved outward. Since it’s curved outward, it looks like one is looking at the bump of a car.

(Source: TradeIndia)

A convex mirror is also known as a “Diverging Mirror” since here light rays diverge after it strikes the reflecting surface of
the convex mirror. Convex mirrors “always” form virtual, erect and diminished regardless of the distance between the object
and mirror. Few examples of convex mirrors can also be seen in our daily life such as the rearview mirror in a car, street light
reflectors and more. Can you find more such examples for convex mirrors too?

Electricity and magnetism

Electricity and magnetism are manifestations of a single underlying electromagnetic force. Electromagnetism is a branch
of physical science that describes the interactions of electricity and magnetism, both as separate phenomena and as a
singular electromagnetic force. Amagnetic field is created by a moving electric current and a magnetic field can induce
movement of charges (electric current). The rules of electromagnetism also explain geomagnetic and electromagnetic
phenomena by explaining how charged particles of atoms interact.

An electromagnetic field (also EMF or EM field) is a physical field produced by moving electrically charged
objects.[1] It affects the behavior of non-comoving charged objects at any distance of the field. The
electromagnetic field extends indefinitely throughout space and describes the electromagnetic interaction. It is
one of the four fundamental forces of nature (the others are gravitation, weak interaction and strong
interaction).

A metal detector is an electronic instrument which detects the presence of metal nearby. Metal detectors are
useful for finding metal inclusions hidden within objects, or metal objects buried underground. They often
consist of a handheld unit with a sensor probe which can be swept over the ground or other objects. If the
sensor comes near a piece of metal this is indicated by a changing tone in earphones, or a needle moving on
an indicator. Usually the device gives some indication of distance; the closer the metal is, the higher the tone in
the earphone or the higher the needle goes. Another common type are stationary "walk through" metal
detectors used for security screening at access points in prisons, courthouses, and airports to detect
concealed metal weapons on a person's body.

Induction cooking

Induction cooking is performed using direct induction heating of cooking vessels, rather than relying on indirect
radiation, convection, or thermal conduction. Induction cooking allows high power and very rapid increases in
temperature to be achieved, and changes in heat settings are instantaneous.
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a transducer converts

a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.[1]

Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control systems, where
electrical signals are converted to and from other physical quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion,
position, etc.). The process of converting one form of energy to another is known as transduction.[2]
Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields. Electric
currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, which acts
on other currents and magnetic moments. The most familiar effects occur in ferromagnetic materials,
which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be magnetized to become
permanent magnets, producing magnetic fields themselves. Only a few substances are
ferromagnetic; the most common ones are iron, cobalt and nickel and their alloys. The prefix ferro-
refers to iron, because permanent magnetism was first observed in lodestone, a form of natural iron
ore called magnetite, Fe3O4.

In electricity generation, a generator[1] is a device that converts motive power (mechanical energy)
into electrical power for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas
turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, wind turbines and even hand cranks. The first
electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was invented in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday.
Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids.
Magnetic recording, method of preserving sounds, pictures, and data in the form of electrical signals through
the selective magnetization of portions of a magnetic material. The principle of magnetic recording was first
demonstrated by the Danish engineer Valdemar Poulsen in 1900, when he introduced a machine called
the telegraphone that recorded speech magnetically on steel wire.

Hans Christian Ørsted (/ˈɜːrstɛd/ UR-sted,[2] Danish: [hæns kʰʁæstjæn ˈɶɐ̯stɛð]; often rendered Oersted in English; 14
August 1777 – 9 March 1851) was a Danish physicist and chemist who discovered that electric currents create magnetic
fields, which was the first connection found between electricity and magnetism. Oersted's law and the oersted (Oe) are
named after him.
A leader of the Danish Golden Age, Ørsted was a close friend of Hans Christian Andersen and the brother of politician
and jurist Anders Sandøe Ørsted, who served as Prime Minister of Denmark from 1853 to 1854.

Magnetic storage or magnetic recording is the storage of data on a magnetized medium. Magnetic storage
uses different patterns of magnetisation in a magnetisable material to store data and is a form of non-volatile
memory. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads.
As of 2017, magnetic storage media, primarily hard disks, are widely used to store computer data as well
as audio and video signals. In the field of computing, the term magnetic storage is preferred and in the field of
audio and video production, the term magnetic recording is more commonly used. The distinction is less
technical and more a matter of preference. Other examples of magnetic storage media include floppy disks,
magnetic recording tape, and magnetic stripes on credit cards.
 Electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric
motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire
winding to generate force in the form of rotation of a shaft. Electric motors can be powered by direct
current (DC) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by alternating current (AC)
sources, such as a power grid, inverters or electrical generators. An electric generator is mechanically identical
to an electric motor, but operates in the reverse direction, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Electric generator, also called dynamo, any machine that

converts mechanical energy to electricity for transmission and
distribution over power lines to domestic, commercial, and industrial
customers. Generators also produce the electrical power required
for automobiles, aircraft, ships, and trains.
Electromagnetic Induction or Induction is a process in which a conductor is put in a particular position and magnetic field keeps varying
or magnetic field is stationary and a conductor is moving. This produces a Voltage or EMF (Electromotive Force) across the electrical
conductor. Michael Faraday discovered Law of Induction in 1830. Let us now study the Electromagnetic Induction in detail.
Charged particle is a particle with an electric charge. It may be an ion, such as a molecule or atom with a
surplus or deficit of electrons relative to protons. It can also be an electron or a proton, or another elementary
particle, which are all believed to have the same charge[1] (except antimatter). Another charged particle may be
an atomic nucleus devoid of electrons, such as an alpha particle.
A plasma is a collection of charged particles, atomic nuclei and separated electrons, but can also be a gas
containing a significant proportion of charged particles.
 Incident ray is a ray of light that strikes a surface. The angle between this ray and the perpendicular
or normal to the surface is the angle of incidence.
Reflected ray corresponding to a given incident ray, is the ray that represents the light reflected by
the surface. The angle between the surface normal and the reflected ray is known as the angle of
reflection. The Law of Reflection says that for a specular (non-scattering) surface, the angle of
reflection always equals the angle of incidence.
A magnet is a material or object that produces
a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible but is
responsible for the most notable property of a
magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic
materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other
magnets.
 MODULE 3
LIGHT:
MIRRORS
&
LENSES
MODULE 2

ELECTRO-
MAGNETIC

SPECTRUM
MODULE 1

ELECTRICITY
AND
MAGNETISM