UNIT 1

1.0. Remote sensing

1.1. Introduction
This unit gives an overview of how the remote sensing system works. Remote sensing is
described as a technique used to acquire aerial photographs or images and provides
specialized capabilities for manipulating, analyzing, and visualizing those images. Remote
sensing will be described starting from the source of electromagnetic radiation, interaction of
the electromagnetic radiation with the atmosphere, interaction of the radiation with the
earth’s surface, reflected radiation, sensors and platforms, images or aerial photographs, and
image or aerial photograph manipulating, analyzing, and visualizing.
1.2. Objectives
By the end of this unit student should be able to;
 Define remote sensing
 Describe the remote sensing system
 Understand the data structures of remote sensing products
1.3. Scope of remote sensing system
Remote sensing (RS) is the science and art of acquiring information an object, area or
phenomenon without actually being in contact with it. RS involves using sensors to record
reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing and applying the information. Remote
sensing devices may be carried on a variety of platforms. Characteristics of both the platform
and sensing device determine the type of the remotely sensed data: spectral, spatial,
radiometric and temporal aspects of data resolution and extent. Remotely sensed images have
a number of features which make them ideal land resources inventory and GIS data sources
 Remote sensing provides a regional view
 Remote sensing provides repetitive looks at the same area
 Remote sensors "see" over a broader portion of the spectrum than the human eye Sensors
can focus in on a very specific bandwidth in an image
 They can also look at a number of bandwidths simultaneously
 Remote sensors often record signals electronically and provide geo-referenced, digital,
data
1.4. Types of remote sensing
There are two main types which are active and passive remote sensing system, Active remote
sensing devices, such as radar, direct radiation of a particular form towards an object and then
detect the amount of that energy which is radiated by the object. Passive remote sensing
relies on the radiation originating from some other source, principally the sun
1.5. The remote sensing system
Remote sensing normally acquires image from an overhead perspective.The image is a result
of detecting electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted from the earth’s surface. Figure
1.1 below describes the remote sensing system.

Figure 1.1: Remote Sensing System

1.5.1. The Electromagnetic radiation
Principally is the energy from the sun of different wavelength (spectrum). EM energy is
characterized by wavelength and frequency. The energy travels in waves at the speed of light.
Wavelength is the distance between successive crests and is measured in metres (m). The
number of cycles of the waves passing a fixed point is known as frequency. Frequency is
specified as cycles per second (Hz). Long waves have low frequency and short waves have
high frequency. The EM radiation of different wavelength may be classified and studied
separately. The reflectivity properties of matter depend on the wavelength and it is important
to characterize the EM by wavelength. Figure 1.2 describes the EM spectrum
Figure 1.2: Electromagnetic Spectrum
The EM spectrum lists categories of all possible sizes of EM waves and their names. Only a
portion of these will be useful for RS.
The Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is the shortest wavelength with practical application in
remote sensing. Some Earth surface materials, primarily rocks and minerals, fluoresce or emit
visible light when illuminated by UV radiation. The Visible region is defined by a wave
range from approximately 0.4 to 0.7 mm. The longest visible wavelength is red and the
shortest is violet. Common wavelengths of what we perceive as particular colors from the
visible portion of the spectrum are Violet (0.4-0.446μm), Blue (0.446-0.500μm), Green (0.5-
0.578 μm), Yellow (0.578-0.592 μm), Orange (0.592-0.629 μm) and Red (0.620-0.7 μm).
The Infrared region (IR) covers the wavelength range from 0.7 to 100 μm. The infrared
region is divided into two sub-regions the reflected-IR (0.7 to 3 μm) and thermal-IR (3-10
μm). In remote sensing the reflective IR spectrum is used in similar way to the visible
spectrum. The source of energy for the thermal infrared RS is the object itself and it is used
for temperature measurement. The Microwave region is a region which has gained much
importance in remote sensing applications in recent times. The microwave region extends
from 1mm to 1m wavelength. This covers the longest wavelengths used for remote sensing.
The properties of shorter wavelengths are similar to thermal infrared region while the longer
one is similar to radio waves. Thermal infrared and micro waves are utilized for radar and
microwave radiometry.
RS maybe classified accurately to wavelength as
 Visible and reflective infrared RS
 Thermal infrared RS
 Microwave RS
The energy source to the visible and reflective infrared is the sun. The detective of objects is
based on their reflectance. The source of energy for the thermal infrared RS is the object
itself. Any object with a normal temperature will emit EM radiation with a peak of 10 μm. A
sensor may detect both reflected and emitted energy.
1.5.2. Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the atmosphere
As energy travels from the sun through the atmosphere to the objects on earth it is reflected
and travels again through the atmosphere to the air borne sensor. As EM waves travel through
the atmosphere they may be scattered, absorbed or transmitted.
1.5.2.1. Absorption and transmission
Part of the EM radiation is absorbed by Ozone, Carbon dioxide and water vapour. The
absorption depends on wavelength. As a result some ranges of wavelength cannot be used for
RS because energy at such wavelength is totally absorbed. The part of EM spectrum that is
not absorbed by atmospheric gas and available for RS is known as atmospheric window.
The atmospheric window includes;
 Window in the visible and reflected IR region (0.4 to 2 μm) used by optical RS.
 Windows in the thermal IR region between 3 to 5 μm (two windows) and between 8 to 14
μm.
Energy detected by the sensor may be taken in different ways, direct from the sun, reflection
from the ground, reflection by clouds, and emission from atmosphere. Gases in the
atmosphere absorb solar radiation such that the energy received on earth is different from that
can be measured from the outer space.
1.5.2.2. Atmospheric scattering
Scattering occurs when particles of gaseous molecules in the atmosphere causes EM waves to
be re-directed from their original path. Amount of scattering depends on wavelength, amount
of particles and distance. There are 3 types of scattering, namely, Rayleigh scattering, Mie
scattering and non selective scattering. Rayleigh scattering occurs when EM radiation
interacts with particles that are smaller than wavelength of incoming light. Examples of
particles which cause Rayleigh scattering are: nitrite, Oxygen. Rayleigh scattering causes the
sky to look blue because all short wavelengths (blue) and diminishes the contrast in photos.
Mie scattering is caused by particles which are about the same size as the radiation
wavelength such as aerosol (a mixture of gases) water vapour and dust. It is restricted from
lower atmosphere where larger particles are more abundant and dominate under overcast
cloud formation and affects entire spectral region from the near UV up to and including near
IR. Non selective scattering occurs when the size of the particle being much larger than the
radiation wavelength. All the wavelengths are scattered equally as a result. Objects which
cause non selective scattering such as clouds appear white in colour
1.5.3. Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with the earth’s surface
We see things only when there is light, it is the reflected light that makes objects visible. All
matter reflects, absorbs and transmits electro-magnetic radiation in a unique way this is
because all matter is composed of atoms and molecules with a particular composition
therefore the appearance of all matter is characteristic. Remote sensing is concerned with the
reflected portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Reflectance is defined as the ratio of
incident radiation on a sample surface to reflected radiation from the surface. Reflectance
with respect to wavelength is called spectral reflectance.
A basic assumption in remote sensing is that spectral reflectance is unique and different from
one object to an unlike object. When a surface is smooth we get specular or mirror-like
reflection where all (or almost all) of the energy is directed away from the surface in a single
direction. Diffuse reflection occurs when the surface is rough and the energy is reflected
almost uniformly in all directions. Most earth surface features lie somewhere between
perfectly specular or perfectly diffuse reflectors.
1.5.3.1. Spectral reflectance curves
Spectral reflectance curves shows fraction of incident radiation that is reflected as a function
of wavelength. They are used to determine the specifications of the sensor that can be used to
monitor a target.
1.5.3.1.1. Reflectance properties of vegetation
Reflectance of vegetation depends on leave orientation, structure of the canopy, cell structure
of the leaves, leaf development and water content in the plant. Reflection of red and blue is
low as compared to green and plants have high reflectance of the near IR. In the middle
infrared reflection is determined by free water in leaf tissue, more free water results in less
reflectance. Plants look yellow towards harvest time because there is more reflection of red
portion of EM spectrum (no photosynthesis) and also leaves are dry and there is high
reflectance of the middle IR portion. The spectral characteristics of the plant allow its health
and type to be studied from optical RS data. Figure 1.3 below is a typical Spectral reflectance
curve of vegetation.
Figure 1.3: Spectral reflectance curve for vegetation
1.5.3.1.2. Reflectance properties of soil
Soil reflectance depends on; organic matter content which exhibits absorption in all
wavelengths in the visible but with higher absorption in the green part due to antho-cynin
compounds created by breakdown of chlorophyll.The higher the organic matter, the lower the
reflectance, moisture content which selectively absorbs at all wavelengths and increases
absorption at longer wavelengths. Reflectance is low when the soil is wet, chemical content
which affects reflectance due to selective absorption; the most obvious are ferric compounds
that absorb green and blue bands therefore appearing red. Surface roughness on which rough
surfaces reflect lower than fine textured ones due to shadowing
1.5.3.1.3. Reflectance properties of water
Water reflects less incoming radiation as compared to vegetation and soil. Longer wavelength
visible and near infrared radiation is absorbed more by water than shorter visible
wavelengths. Water typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger reflectance at shorter
wavelengths, and darker if viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths. Suspended sediment
in the upper layers of the water body, gives a brighter appearance to water. Absorbs all
energy beyond 1200 nm and high reflection in water indicates presence of impurities
including silt, algae or sediments. Figure 1.4 describes the reflectance properties of different
features
Figure 1.4: Reflectance properties different land features
1.5.3.2. Spectral response and object identification
The objective of remote sensing is to identify objects or features on the surface. Target can
reflect different wavelength energy which can be used to detect them with special sensors
which are a sensitive at reflected wavelength
Objects or features can be viewed at different wave lengths depending on their reflectivity.
The reflectivity will also depend on the condition of the surface. The identification of objects
or features therefore involves selecting the wavelengths (window) which will reveal more
clearly the desired features. The colour of the features or objects will differ if looked at
different wave lengths and clarity of the images will also differ. Remote sensing devices are
equipped with sensors which can detect reflected/emitted radiation at different wave lengths
in order to utilize different properties of the features and objects at different wave lengths to
identify them. The specific window where EM radiation is monitored is known as channels or
bands. A spectral channel is a discrete portion of the spectrum measured by a satellite
instrument, defined by a filter function (wavelength). Satellite channels have a finite width,
typically ranging from around 0.2 to 10
1.5.4. Sensors and platforms
Given recent developments in sensors, a variety of platforms are now available for the
capture of remotely sensed data. Remote sensing devices may be carried on a variety of
platforms. Characteristics of both the platform and sensing device determine the type of the
remotely sensed data in terms of spectral, spatial, radiometric and temporal aspects of data
resolution and extent.
1.5.4.1 Sensors
These are devices that measure and record EM energy. This is the primary focus of RS
because the recorded energy is the data that will be used to identify the types of targets or
objects. They are divided into passive and active types. Passive sensors depend on external
source of energy, so they depend on reflected or emitted energy. Active sensors have their
own source of energy. Figure 1.5 describes the two types of sensors that are used in remote
sensing.

Figure 1.5 Passive and active sensors

1.5.4.2. Platforms
These are structures which bear the sensors, maybe stable or moving. Most common for RS
are aircrafts and satellites which give rise to two major types of RS namely airborne and
space borne. Airborne observations are carried out using air craft carrying camera or
scanners, other vehicles may include balloons, airships or kites. Aircrafts present difficulty in
RS because of difficulty in navigation. Comparatively satellites have no problem of
navigation and will produce more geometrically good data.
Airborne RS is possible from 100m to 40 km. In space borne RS Satellites for earth
observation are placed at 150 to 36000 km altitude. The specific orbit depends on the
objective of the mission for example continuous observation of large areas or detailed
observation of small areas. Different types of satellites available include: Weather satellites;
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (launched by USA), METEOR
(launched by RUSSIA), Land Observation satellites; LANDSAT (launched by USA),
Système Pour L'Observation de la Terre (SPOT) (launched by France), IRS (launched by
India), ERS (launched by European Union) and Marine observation Satellites; MOS (Marine
Observation satellite) to mention a few.
Activity 1.1

1. Define the terms active and passive remote sensing

2. What are the functions of a sensor?
3. Outline the reflectance properties o vegetation, water and soil
4. What is the significance of studying remote sensing?

1.6. Remote sensing images

Images are as a result of recording electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted by an
object. These images are found in analogue and digital form. Images from scanners are in
digital form in contrast analogue images from cameras. Analogue images are a pictorial
representation of surface/feature. The image is created by using light sensitized material or
ink/electrostatic plots. Digital image is representation of surface/feature by numerals
representing the level of intensity of response received on photo diode or similar. Image is
stored in raster format with the intensity of each cell or pixel represented by digital number
DN. Choice between Analogue and Digital depends on the wavelength of energy source
measures and the desired method of analysis. Advantages of digital images is that Image
processing can be done using computer automatically and Image appearance may be
enhanced for visual interpretation
1.6.1. Digital images
Remote sensing image data are measurements of Electromagnetic energy; the image data are
stored in a regular grid or raster format. The single elements are called pixels (picture
elements). For each pixel the measurements are stored in digital number (DN) values for each
wavelength (band). Each image exists in several bands and the number of bands depends on
the type of the sensor. For example a LANDSAT image has seven bands. Figure 1.6 shows
the data structure of a digital image.
Figure 1.6: Data structure of satellite image
The 'quality' of image data is determined by image resolution, separated into; spatial, spectral,
radiometric and temporal resolution. Spatial resolution is the size of the smallest possible
feature that can be detected. Objects that are smaller than cell resolution cannot be detected.
Images where only large objects are visible are said to have low or coarse resolution while
images where smaller objects can be see are said to have fine or high resolution. Spectral
resolution is defined as the number and width (wavelength) of bands of electromagnetic
energy detectable by a given sensor. Spectral resolution can range from one to hundreds of
channels in a digital sensor, from the upper end of the ultraviolet light to the thermal infrared
for optical sensors.
Radiometric resolution of an imaging system describes its ability to discriminate differences
in energy. Sensors with finer radiometric resolution are more sensitive and can detect small
differences in reflected or emitted energy. The satellite images are made up of recorded
brightness values which represent the magnitude of the reflected electromagnetic energy in a
given channel. The radiometric resolution here would refer to the sampling rate of the
brightness values from low brightness say (0 for black) to highest brightness (say 16 or 256
for white). Radiometric resolution differs according to the way a sensor stores the image.
Two most common types of images are 4-bit and 8-bit. 4-bit images records brightness values
with values from 0 to 15 while 8-bit images records values from 0 to 255) 8-bit image have
higher resolution than 4-bit image and present more clear details. Temporal resolution is the
time between two successive image acquisitions over the same location on earth. This time
differ from satellite to satellite. This time is also known as revisit time.
1.6.2. Analogue images
Aerial photography is the oldest and most widely used method of remote sensing. Cameras
mounted in light aircraft flying between 200 and 15,000 m capture a large quantity of detailed
information. Aerial photos provide an instant visual inventory of a portion of the earth's
surface and can be used to create detailed maps. Aerial photographs commonly are taken by
commercial aerial photography firms which own and operate specially modified aircraft
equipped with large format mapping quality cameras. Camera and platform configurations
can be grouped in terms of oblique and vertical.
1.6.2.1. Oblique aerial photograph
A photograph taken at an angle to the ground. The resulting images give a view as if the
observer is looking out an airplane window. These images are easier to interpret than vertical
photographs, but it is difficult to locate and measure features on them for mapping purposes.
High oblique photograph is taken with the axis of the camera intentionally tilted so as to
include the horizon it is useful where panoramic views of large areas are required as visual
aids to supplement existing maps or vertical air photographs. Low oblique photography is
taken with the axis of the camera tilted to a lesser angle so as not to include the horizon. It
has specific application in various fields of photo interpretation. Although the oblique tend to
present the ground in a natural way, their major disadvantage is that the incorporate a lot of
“dead ground” in areas where there is intervening high terrain or vegetation
1.6.2.2. Vertical aerial photograph
A photograph taken with the axis of the camera perpendicular to the ground. The resulting
images depict ground features in plan form and are easily compared with maps. Vertical
aerial photos are always highly desirable, but are particularly useful for resource surveys in
areas where no maps are available. Aerial photos depict features such as field patterns and
vegetation which are often omitted on maps. Comparison of old and new aerial photos can
also capture changes within an area over time. Vertical aerial photos contain subtle
displacements due to relief, tip and tilt of the aircraft and lens distortion.
Aerial Photographs exist as Contact prints which is the first development of a film. The
general size of a contact print is 230mm x 230mm and a scale of is 1: 25 000. These are
vertical images taken with overlap, typically about 60 percent along the flight line and at least
20-30 percent between lines. Overlapping images can be viewed with a stereoscope to create
a three-dimensional view, called a stereo model. It is the basic unit from which all maps are
produced. Their primary use is in pairs for the extraction of physical data under a stereoscope
such as drainage and crests, non-arable and wetlands, homogeneous areas, vegetation types,
to mention a few.

Figure 1.7: Contact print image structure

Activity 1.2

1. Define the following terms

a. Analogue image
b. Digital image
2. Download a recent LANDSAT image and order an overlapping pair of contact prints
from The Surveyor General.
3. Describe the Landsat Thematic Mapper / Enhanced TM image in terms of band width,
spatial resolution, temporal resolution, radiometric resolution and applications in
agricultural land resources inventory
4. Describe the significance of information registered on contact print
5. Compare and contrast satellite image and contact print as sources of information for land
resources inventory.

1.7. Summary
Remote sensing is the art and science of deriving information about the earth’s surface using
devices that are not in contact with the earth’s surface. Sensors mounted on various platforms
records the electromagnetic radiation emitted or reflected by objects to produce data in the
form of images. A feature on the earth’s surface reflects or emits radiation in a unique
bandwidth hence the ability of remote sensing to differentiate features on the earth’s surface.
Further Reading
Carver, A. J. (1981), Air photography for land use planning, Department of Conservation and
Extension, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Campbell, J.B. 1996. Introduction to Remote Sensing. Taylor & Francis, London.
Colwell, R.N. (Ed.) 1983. Manual of Remote Sensing. Second Edition. Vol I: Theory,
Instruments and Techniques. American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
ASPRS, Falls Church.
Curran, P.J. 1985. Principles of Remote Sensing. Longman Group Limited, London.
Elachi, C. 1987. Introduction to the Physics and Techniques of Remote Sensing. Wiley Series
in Remote Sensing, New York.
Joseph, G. 1996. Imaging Sensors. Remote Sensing Reviews, 13: 257-342.
Lillesand, T.M. and Kiefer, R.1993. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation. Third Edition
John Villey, New York.
Manual of Remote Sensing. IIIrd Edition. American Society of Photogrammtery and Remote
Sensing.
Sabins, F.F. 1997. Remote Sensing and Principles and Image Interpretation. WH Freeman,
New York.
Jensen, J.R. (1986), introductory digital image processing, a remote sensing perspective,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.