MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, MECHANIZATION AND

IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE EDUCATION AND

FARMER TRAINING

REMOTE SENSING AND

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
SYSTEM FOR AGRICULTURE

MODULE

DIPLOMA IN AGRICULTURE

WRITER : JAHURE F. B
YEAR : 2017
EDITOR : MADZIME N.

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Acknowledgements

This module would not have been possible without cited books, journals and websites; I
gratefully appreciate their work.

I also gratefully acknowledge my coordinator and editor N. Madzime for her generous help and
contribution to my ability to complete the work.

My sincere thanks go to the Director of the Department Of Agriculture Education And Farmer
Training, Mr. Nyamangara for his support.

I also wish extend my gratitude to my colleagues; Farm and Agribusiness Management

Lecturers, appreciate your support.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................... i
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms .............................................................................................. v
List of figures ................................................................................................................................. vi
List of tables ................................................................................................................................. viii
Module overview ........................................................................................................................... ix
UNIT 1 ............................................................................................................................................ 1
1.0. Remote sensing ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 1
1.3. Scope of remote sensing system .............................................................................................. 1
1.4. Types of remote sensing .......................................................................................................... 2
1.5. The remote sensing system ...................................................................................................... 2
Activity 1.1 ..................................................................................................................................... 9
1.6. Remote sensing images ............................................................................................................ 9
Activity 1.2 ................................................................................................................................... 12
1.7. Summary ................................................................................................................................ 13
Further Reading ............................................................................................................................ 13
UNIT 2 .......................................................................................................................................... 14
2.0. Image interpretation ............................................................................................................... 14
2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 14
2.2. Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 14
2.3. Factors affecting image quality.............................................................................................. 14
2.4. Image pre- processing ............................................................................................................ 15
Activity 2.1 ................................................................................................................................... 16
2.5. Digital image processing........................................................................................................ 16
Activity 2.2 ................................................................................................................................... 21
Activity 2.3 ................................................................................................................................... 24
2.6. Analogue image processing ................................................................................................... 24
Activity 2.4 ................................................................................................................................... 27
2.7. Image Interpretation ............................................................................................................... 27

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Activity 2.5 ................................................................................................................................... 36
2.8. Summary ................................................................................................................................ 36
Further Reading ............................................................................................................................ 36
UNIT 3 .......................................................................................................................................... 37
3.0. Land resources field survey ................................................................................................... 37
3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 37
3.2. Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 37
3.3. Soil survey ............................................................................................................................. 37
Activity 3.1 ................................................................................................................................... 41
Activity 3.2 ................................................................................................................................... 47
3.4. Vegetation survey .................................................................................................................. 47
Activity 3.3 ................................................................................................................................... 48
Activity 3.4 ................................................................................................................................... 50
Activity 3.5 ................................................................................................................................... 52
3.5. Summary ................................................................................................................................ 53
Further Reading ............................................................................................................................ 53
UNIT 4 .......................................................................................................................................... 54
4.0. Coordinate System and Global Positioning System (GPS) ................................................... 54
4.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 54
4.3 Geographic coordinate system ................................................................................................ 54
4.4. Plane coordinates system ....................................................................................................... 55
4.5. Map projections ..................................................................................................................... 56
Activity 4.1 ................................................................................................................................... 60
4.6. Global Positioning System ..................................................................................................... 60
Activity 4.2 ................................................................................................................................... 63
4.7. Summary ................................................................................................................................ 63
Further reading .............................................................................................................................. 63
UNIT 5 .......................................................................................................................................... 64
5.0. Geographical Information System ......................................................................................... 64
5.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 64
5.2. Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 64

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5.3. The scope of GIS ................................................................................................................... 64
5.4. Models of representing geographic data ................................................................................ 68
Activity 5.1 ................................................................................................................................... 73
5.5. Spatial data input subsystem .................................................................................................. 73
Activity 5.2 ................................................................................................................................... 75
Activity 5.3 ................................................................................................................................... 77
5.6. Spatial data management subsystem ...................................................................................... 77
5.7. Spatial data analysis subsystem ............................................................................................. 78
Activity 5.4 ................................................................................................................................... 83
Activity 5.5 ................................................................................................................................... 85
Activity 5.6 ................................................................................................................................... 86
Activity 5.7 ................................................................................................................................... 91
5.8. Spatial data output subsystem ................................................................................................ 91
5.9. Summary ................................................................................................................................ 99
Further reading .............................................................................................................................. 99

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List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
DBMS Database Management System
DEM Digital Elevation Model
DN digital number
DTM Digital Terrain Model
EM Electromagnetic
ET Evapotranspiration
GCPs Ground Control Points
GIS Geographical Information System
GPS Global Positioning System
I.C.A Intensive Conservation Area
IR Infrared
LANDSAT Land Observation satellites
Lat Latitude
LCC Land capability classification
Long longitude
LU Livestock Unit
MOS Marine Observation satellite
NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
NIR Near Infrared
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
RMSE Root Mean Square Error
RS Remote Sensing
SEBAL Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land
SPOT Système Pour L'Observation de la Terre
TM Thematic Mapper
TOA Time of Arrival
UTM Universal Transverse Mercator
λ lambda
μm Micrometer
φ phi

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List of figures
Figure 1.1: Remote Sensing System ............................................................................................... 2
Figure 1.2: Electromagnetic Spectrum ........................................................................................... 3
Figure 1.3: Spectral reflectance curve for vegetation ..................................................................... 6
Figure 1.4: Reflectance properties different land features .............................................................. 7
Figure 1.5 Passive and active sensors ............................................................................................. 8
Figure 1.6: Data structure of satellite image ................................................................................. 10
Figure 1.7: Contact print image structure ..................................................................................... 12
Figure 2.1: Image enhancement by stretch ................................................................................... 17
Figure 2.2: Colour Composites ..................................................................................................... 18
Figure 2.3: Digital Elevation Models............................................................................................ 21
Figure 2.4: Operational product in the field of global monitoring of soil moisture ..................... 34
Figure 3.1: Standard Soil Code ..................................................................................................... 41
Figure 3.2: Criteria for land classes I to IV for Natural Region II &IV ....................................... 45
Figure 3.3: Criteria for land classes MI to MIV for low rainfall areas of Natural Regions IV .... 46
Figure 4.1: Geographic coordinates .............................................................................................. 55
Figure 4.2: Plane coordinate system ............................................................................................. 56
Figure 4.3: Spheres, spheroids, geoid and ellipsoids .................................................................... 57
Figure 4.4: Classes of map projections ......................................................................................... 58
Figure 4.5: Cylindrical map projection ......................................................................................... 58
Figure 4.6: UTM systems ............................................................................................................. 59
Figure 4.7 GPS in determining location ....................................................................................... 61
Figure 5.1: GIS in the process of planning ................................................................................... 65
Figure 5.2: Components of GIS .................................................................................................... 67
Figure 5.3: Vector Data Model ..................................................................................................... 69
Figure 5.4 Vector data model database structure .......................................................................... 70
Figure 5.5: Spaghetti and Topological models ............................................................................. 71
Figure 5.6 Topology spatial relationships ..................................................................................... 71
Figure 5.7 Raster data model ........................................................................................................ 72
Figure 5.8: Manual digitizing ....................................................................................................... 76
Figure 5.9: Querying Attribute data .............................................................................................. 80

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Figure 5.10: Boolean Logic .......................................................................................................... 80
Figure 5.11: Topological relations ................................................................................................ 81
Figure 5.12: Buffer zones ............................................................................................................. 84
Figure 5.13: Polygon-on-polygon overlay .................................................................................... 89
Figure 5.14: Raster overlay by addition ........................................................................................ 90
Figure 51:5.15: Abstracted symbols ............................................................................................. 92

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List of tables
Table 2.1: Error Matrix 24
Table 3.1: Use of land according to capabilities 42
Table 3.2: Description of vegetation code 50
Table 3.3: Soil-vegetation relationships 52
Table 5.1: GIS software 67
Table 5.2: Sources of primary and secondary spatial data 73
Table 5.3: File format 74
Table 5.4: Example of reclassification table of slope 82
Table 5.5: Neighbourhood analysis tools 83
Table 5.6: Vector-based proximity analysis tools 85
Table 5.7: Raster-base proximity analysis tools 86
Table 5.8: Surface analysis tools 87
Table 5.9: hydrologic analysis tools 88
Table 5.10: Vector-based overlay analysis tools 90
Table 5.11: raster-based overlay analysis tools 91

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Module overview
Remote sensing is the art and science of deriving information about the earth’s surface (land)
using sensors on airplanes or satellites. These sensors collect data in the form of images and
provide specialized capabilities for manipulating, analyzing, and visualizing those images.
Land comprises the physical environment, including climate, relief, soils, hydrology and
vegetation, to the extent that these influence potential for land use. Remote sensing and field
survey are used to carryout periodic assessments of the status and changing conditions of the
land for sustainable agricultural production. Remote sensing and field surveys are sources of
geographical data about the land for Geographical Information System which is a computer
based system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or
geographic data.

In this module I explain the concepts of remote sensing, field survey and GIS and how these are
linked to provide land resources information for effective agricultural planning, decision making
and management. That is we want to study the process acquiring aerial images, preprocessing
and processing of the images, image interpretation and extraction of physical data. We want also
to study the process of carrying out soil and vegetation field survey, the analysis and reporting of
the information derived from the two processes. Summary of main topics that are covered in this
module are remote sensing system, aerial image interpretation, soil and vegetation survey, map
projections and Global Positioning System and Geographic Information System.

The aim of this module is to acquaint students with the basic scientific, technical and institutional
knowledge to assess, evaluate, plan and manage agricultural landscape resources as to maximize
crop and animal and environmental sustenance. Students who successfully complete this module
would be able to analyse remote sensing products (images), assess and evaluate landscape
vegetation, soils and topography as to compile and map out the given area to understand using
Geographic Information System software.

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UNIT 1
1.0. Remote sensing
1.1. Introduction
This unit gives an overview of how the remote sensing system works. Remote sensing is
described as a technique used to acquire aerial photographs or images and provides specialized
capabilities for manipulating, analyzing, and visualizing those images. Remote sensing will be
described starting from the source of electromagnetic radiation, interaction of the
electromagnetic radiation with the atmosphere, interaction of the radiation with the earth’s
surface, reflected radiation, sensors and platforms, images or aerial photographs, and image or
aerial photograph manipulating, analyzing, and visualizing.
1.2. Objectives
By the end of this unit student should be able to;
 Define remote sensing
 Describe the remote sensing system
 Understand the data structures of remote sensing products
1.3. Scope of remote sensing system
Remote sensing (RS) is the science and art of acquiring information an object, area or
phenomenon without actually being in contact with it. RS involves using sensors to record
reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing and applying the information. Remote
sensing devices may be carried on a variety of platforms. Characteristics of both the platform and
sensing device determine the type of the remotely sensed data: spectral, spatial, radiometric and
temporal aspects of data resolution and extent. Remotely sensed images have a number of
features which make them ideal land resources inventory and GIS data sources
 Remote sensing provides a regional view
 Remote sensing provides repetitive looks at the same area
 Remote sensors "see" over a broader portion of the spectrum than the human eye Sensors can
focus in on a very specific bandwidth in an image
 They can also look at a number of bandwidths simultaneously
 Remote sensors often record signals electronically and provide geo-referenced, digital, data

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1.4. Types of remote sensing
There are two main types which are active and passive remote sensing system, Active remote
sensing devices, such as radar, direct radiation of a particular form towards an object and then
detect the amount of that energy which is radiated by the object. Passive remote sensing relies on
the radiation originating from some other source, principally the sun
1.5. The remote sensing system
Remote sensing normally acquires image from an overhead perspective.The image is a result of
detecting electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted from the earth’s surface. Figure 1.1
below describes the remote sensing system.

Figure 1.1: Remote Sensing System

1.5.1. The Electromagnetic radiation
Principally is the energy from the sun of different wavelength (spectrum). EM energy is
characterized by wavelength and frequency. The energy travels in waves at the speed of light.
Wavelength is the distance between successive crests and is measured in metres (m). The
number of cycles of the waves passing a fixed point is known as frequency. Frequency is
specified as cycles per second (Hz). Long waves have low frequency and short waves have high
frequency. The EM radiation of different wavelength may be classified and studied separately.
The reflectivity properties of matter depend on the wavelength and it is important to characterize
the EM by wavelength. Figure 1.2 describes the EM spectrum

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Figure 1.2: Electromagnetic Spectrum
The EM spectrum lists categories of all possible sizes of EM waves and their names. Only a
portion of these will be useful for RS.
The Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is the shortest wavelength with practical application in remote
sensing. Some Earth surface materials, primarily rocks and minerals, fluoresce or emit visible
light when illuminated by UV radiation. The Visible region is defined by a wave range from
approximately 0.4 to 0.7 mm. The longest visible wavelength is red and the shortest is violet.
Common wavelengths of what we perceive as particular colors from the visible portion of the
spectrum are Violet (0.4-0.446μm), Blue (0.446-0.500μm), Green (0.5-0.578 μm), Yellow
(0.578-0.592 μm), Orange (0.592-0.629 μm) and Red (0.620-0.7 μm). The Infrared region (IR)
covers the wavelength range from 0.7 to 100 μm. The infrared region is divided into two sub-
regions the reflected-IR (0.7 to 3 μm) and thermal-IR (3-10 μm). In remote sensing the
reflective IR spectrum is used in similar way to the visible spectrum. The source of energy for
the thermal infrared RS is the object itself and it is used for temperature measurement. The
Microwave region is a region which has gained much importance in remote sensing applications
in recent times. The microwave region extends from 1mm to 1m wavelength. This covers the
longest wavelengths used for remote sensing. The properties of shorter wavelengths are similar
to thermal infrared region while the longer one is similar to radio waves. Thermal infrared and
micro waves are utilized for radar and microwave radiometry.

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RS maybe classified accurately to wavelength as
 Visible and reflective infrared RS
 Thermal infrared RS
 Microwave RS
The energy source to the visible and reflective infrared is the sun. The detective of objects is
based on their reflectance. The source of energy for the thermal infrared RS is the object itself.
Any object with a normal temperature will emit EM radiation with a peak of 10 μm. A sensor
may detect both reflected and emitted energy.
1.5.2. Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the atmosphere
As energy travels from the sun through the atmosphere to the objects on earth it is reflected and
travels again through the atmosphere to the air borne sensor. As EM waves travel through the
atmosphere they may be scattered, absorbed or transmitted.
1.5.2.1. Absorption and transmission
Part of the EM radiation is absorbed by Ozone, Carbon dioxide and water vapour. The
absorption depends on wavelength. As a result some ranges of wavelength cannot be used for RS
because energy at such wavelength is totally absorbed. The part of EM spectrum that is not
absorbed by atmospheric gas and available for RS is known as atmospheric window.
The atmospheric window includes;
 Window in the visible and reflected IR region (0.4 to 2 μm) used by optical RS.
 Windows in the thermal IR region between 3 to 5 μm (two windows) and between 8 to 14
μm.
Energy detected by the sensor may be taken in different ways, direct from the sun, reflection
from the ground, reflection by clouds, and emission from atmosphere. Gases in the atmosphere
absorb solar radiation such that the energy received on earth is different from that can be
measured from the outer space.
1.5.2.2. Atmospheric scattering
Scattering occurs when particles of gaseous molecules in the atmosphere causes EM waves to be
re-directed from their original path. Amount of scattering depends on wavelength, amount of
particles and distance. There are 3 types of scattering, namely, Rayleigh scattering, Mie
scattering and non selective scattering. Rayleigh scattering occurs when EM radiation interacts
with particles that are smaller than wavelength of incoming light. Examples of particles which

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cause Rayleigh scattering are: nitrite, Oxygen. Rayleigh scattering causes the sky to look blue
because all short wavelengths (blue) and diminishes the contrast in photos.
Mie scattering is caused by particles which are about the same size as the radiation wavelength
such as aerosol (a mixture of gases) water vapour and dust. It is restricted from lower atmosphere
where larger particles are more abundant and dominate under overcast cloud formation and
affects entire spectral region from the near UV up to and including near IR. Non selective
scattering occurs when the size of the particle being much larger than the radiation wavelength.
All the wavelengths are scattered equally as a result. Objects which cause non selective
scattering such as clouds appear white in colour
1.5.3. Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with the earth’s surface
We see things only when there is light, it is the reflected light that makes objects visible. All
matter reflects, absorbs and transmits electro-magnetic radiation in a unique way this is because
all matter is composed of atoms and molecules with a particular composition therefore the
appearance of all matter is characteristic. Remote sensing is concerned with the reflected portion
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Reflectance is defined as the ratio of incident radiation on a
sample surface to reflected radiation from the surface. Reflectance with respect to wavelength is
called spectral reflectance.
A basic assumption in remote sensing is that spectral reflectance is unique and different from one
object to an unlike object. When a surface is smooth we get specular or mirror-like reflection
where all (or almost all) of the energy is directed away from the surface in a single direction.
Diffuse reflection occurs when the surface is rough and the energy is reflected almost uniformly
in all directions. Most earth surface features lie somewhere between perfectly specular or
perfectly diffuse reflectors.
1.5.3.1. Spectral reflectance curves
Spectral reflectance curves shows fraction of incident radiation that is reflected as a function of
wavelength. They are used to determine the specifications of the sensor that can be used to
monitor a target.
1.5.3.1.1. Reflectance properties of vegetation
Reflectance of vegetation depends on leave orientation, structure of the canopy, cell structure of
the leaves, leaf development and water content in the plant. Reflection of red and blue is low as
compared to green and plants have high reflectance of the near IR. In the middle infrared

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reflection is determined by free water in leaf tissue, more free water results in less reflectance.
Plants look yellow towards harvest time because there is more reflection of red portion of EM
spectrum (no photosynthesis) and also leaves are dry and there is high reflectance of the middle
IR portion. The spectral characteristics of the plant allow its health and type to be studied from
optical RS data. Figure 1.3 below is a typical Spectral reflectance curve of vegetation.

Figure 1.3: Spectral reflectance curve for vegetation

1.5.3.1.2. Reflectance properties of soil
Soil reflectance depends on; organic matter content which exhibits absorption in all
wavelengths in the visible but with higher absorption in the green part due to antho-cynin
compounds created by breakdown of chlorophyll.The higher the organic matter, the lower the
reflectance, moisture content which selectively absorbs at all wavelengths and increases
absorption at longer wavelengths. Reflectance is low when the soil is wet, chemical content
which affects reflectance due to selective absorption; the most obvious are ferric compounds that
absorb green and blue bands therefore appearing red. Surface roughness on which rough
surfaces reflect lower than fine textured ones due to shadowing
1.5.3.1.3. Reflectance properties of water
Water reflects less incoming radiation as compared to vegetation and soil. Longer wavelength
visible and near infrared radiation is absorbed more by water than shorter visible wavelengths.
Water typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger reflectance at shorter wavelengths, and
darker if viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths. Suspended sediment in the upper layers of

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the water body, gives a brighter appearance to water. Absorbs all energy beyond 1200 nm and
high reflection in water indicates presence of impurities including silt, algae or sediments. Figure
1.4 describes the reflectance properties of different features

Figure 1.4: Reflectance properties different land features

1.5.3.2. Spectral response and object identification
The objective of remote sensing is to identify objects or features on the surface. Target can
reflect different wavelength energy which can be used to detect them with special sensors which
are a sensitive at reflected wavelength
Objects or features can be viewed at different wave lengths depending on their reflectivity. The
reflectivity will also depend on the condition of the surface. The identification of objects or
features therefore involves selecting the wavelengths (window) which will reveal more clearly
the desired features. The colour of the features or objects will differ if looked at different wave
lengths and clarity of the images will also differ. Remote sensing devices are equipped with
sensors which can detect reflected/emitted radiation at different wave lengths in order to utilize
different properties of the features and objects at different wave lengths to identify them. The
specific window where EM radiation is monitored is known as channels or bands. A spectral
channel is a discrete portion of the spectrum measured by a satellite instrument, defined by a
filter function (wavelength). Satellite channels have a finite width, typically ranging from around
0.2 to 10

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1.5.4. Sensors and platforms
Given recent developments in sensors, a variety of platforms are now available for the capture of
remotely sensed data. Remote sensing devices may be carried on a variety of platforms.
Characteristics of both the platform and sensing device determine the type of the remotely sensed
data in terms of spectral, spatial, radiometric and temporal aspects of data resolution and extent.
1.5.4.1 Sensors
These are devices that measure and record EM energy. This is the primary focus of RS because
the recorded energy is the data that will be used to identify the types of targets or objects. They
are divided into passive and active types. Passive sensors depend on external source of energy,
so they depend on reflected or emitted energy. Active sensors have their own source of energy.
Figure 1.5 describes the two types of sensors that are used in remote sensing.

Figure 1.5 Passive and active sensors

1.5.4.2. Platforms
These are structures which bear the sensors, maybe stable or moving. Most common for RS are
aircrafts and satellites which give rise to two major types of RS namely airborne and space
borne. Airborne observations are carried out using air craft carrying camera or scanners, other
vehicles may include balloons, airships or kites. Aircrafts present difficulty in RS because of
difficulty in navigation. Comparatively satellites have no problem of navigation and will produce
more geometrically good data.
Airborne RS is possible from 100m to 40 km. In space borne RS Satellites for earth observation
are placed at 150 to 36000 km altitude. The specific orbit depends on the objective of the mission

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for example continuous observation of large areas or detailed observation of small areas.
Different types of satellites available include: Weather satellites; National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (launched by USA), METEOR (launched by RUSSIA),
Land Observation satellites; LANDSAT (launched by USA), Système Pour L'Observation de la
Terre (SPOT) (launched by France), IRS (launched by India), ERS (launched by European
Union) and Marine observation Satellites; MOS (Marine Observation satellite) to mention a few.
Activity 1.1

1. Define the terms active and passive remote sensing

2. What are the functions of a sensor?
3. Outline the reflectance properties o vegetation, water and soil
4. What is the significance of studying remote sensing?

1.6. Remote sensing images

Images are as a result of recording electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted by an object.
These images are found in analogue and digital form. Images from scanners are in digital form in
contrast analogue images from cameras. Analogue images are a pictorial representation of
surface/feature. The image is created by using light sensitized material or ink/electrostatic plots.
Digital image is representation of surface/feature by numerals representing the level of intensity
of response received on photo diode or similar. Image is stored in raster format with the intensity
of each cell or pixel represented by digital number DN. Choice between Analogue and Digital
depends on the wavelength of energy source measures and the desired method of analysis.
Advantages of digital images is that Image processing can be done using computer automatically
and Image appearance may be enhanced for visual interpretation
1.6.1. Digital images
Remote sensing image data are measurements of Electromagnetic energy; the image data are
stored in a regular grid or raster format. The single elements are called pixels (picture elements).
For each pixel the measurements are stored in digital number (DN) values for each wavelength
(band). Each image exists in several bands and the number of bands depends on the type of the
sensor. For example a LANDSAT image has seven bands. Figure 1.6 shows the data structure of
a digital image.

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Figure 1.6: Data structure of satellite image
The 'quality' of image data is determined by image resolution, separated into; spatial, spectral,
radiometric and temporal resolution. Spatial resolution is the size of the smallest possible
feature that can be detected. Objects that are smaller than cell resolution cannot be detected.
Images where only large objects are visible are said to have low or coarse resolution while
images where smaller objects can be see are said to have fine or high resolution. Spectral
resolution is defined as the number and width (wavelength) of bands of electromagnetic energy
detectable by a given sensor. Spectral resolution can range from one to hundreds of channels in a
digital sensor, from the upper end of the ultraviolet light to the thermal infrared for optical
sensors.
Radiometric resolution of an imaging system describes its ability to discriminate differences in
energy. Sensors with finer radiometric resolution are more sensitive and can detect small
differences in reflected or emitted energy. The satellite images are made up of recorded
brightness values which represent the magnitude of the reflected electromagnetic energy in a
given channel. The radiometric resolution here would refer to the sampling rate of the brightness
values from low brightness say (0 for black) to highest brightness (say 16 or 256 for white).
Radiometric resolution differs according to the way a sensor stores the image. Two most
common types of images are 4-bit and 8-bit. 4-bit images records brightness values with values
from 0 to 15 while 8-bit images records values from 0 to 255) 8-bit image have higher resolution
than 4-bit image and present more clear details. Temporal resolution is the time between two
successive image acquisitions over the same location on earth. This time differ from satellite to
satellite. This time is also known as revisit time.

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1.6.2. Analogue images
Aerial photography is the oldest and most widely used method of remote sensing. Cameras
mounted in light aircraft flying between 200 and 15,000 m capture a large quantity of detailed
information. Aerial photos provide an instant visual inventory of a portion of the earth's surface
and can be used to create detailed maps. Aerial photographs commonly are taken by commercial
aerial photography firms which own and operate specially modified aircraft equipped with large
format mapping quality cameras. Camera and platform configurations can be grouped in terms of
oblique and vertical.
1.6.2.1. Oblique aerial photograph
A photograph taken at an angle to the ground. The resulting images give a view as if the observer
is looking out an airplane window. These images are easier to interpret than vertical photographs,
but it is difficult to locate and measure features on them for mapping purposes. High oblique
photograph is taken with the axis of the camera intentionally tilted so as to include the horizon it
is useful where panoramic views of large areas are required as visual aids to supplement existing
maps or vertical air photographs. Low oblique photography is taken with the axis of the camera
tilted to a lesser angle so as not to include the horizon. It has specific application in various fields
of photo interpretation. Although the oblique tend to present the ground in a natural way, their
major disadvantage is that the incorporate a lot of “dead ground” in areas where there is
intervening high terrain or vegetation
1.6.2.2. Vertical aerial photograph
A photograph taken with the axis of the camera perpendicular to the ground. The resulting
images depict ground features in plan form and are easily compared with maps. Vertical aerial
photos are always highly desirable, but are particularly useful for resource surveys in areas
where no maps are available. Aerial photos depict features such as field patterns and vegetation
which are often omitted on maps. Comparison of old and new aerial photos can also capture
changes within an area over time. Vertical aerial photos contain subtle displacements due to
relief, tip and tilt of the aircraft and lens distortion.
Aerial Photographs exist as Contact prints which is the first development of a film. The general
size of a contact print is 230mm x 230mm and a scale of is 1: 25 000. These are vertical images
taken with overlap, typically about 60 percent along the flight line and at least 20-30 percent
between lines. Overlapping images can be viewed with a stereoscope to create a three-

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dimensional view, called a stereo model. It is the basic unit from which all maps are produced.
Their primary use is in pairs for the extraction of physical data under a stereoscope such as
drainage and crests, non-arable and wetlands, homogeneous areas, vegetation types, to mention a
few.

Figure 1.7: Contact print image structure

Activity 1.2

1. Define the following terms

a. Analogue image
b. Digital image
2. Download a recent LANDSAT image and order an overlapping pair of contact prints
from The Surveyor General.
3. Describe the Landsat Thematic Mapper / Enhanced TM image in terms of band width,
spatial resolution, temporal resolution, radiometric resolution and applications in
agricultural land resources inventory
4. Describe the significance of information registered on contact print
5. Compare and contrast satellite image and contact print as sources of information for land
resources inventory.

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1.7. Summary
Remote sensing is the art and science of deriving information about the earth’s surface using
devices that are not in contact with the earth’s surface. Sensors mounted on various platforms
records the electromagnetic radiation emitted or reflected by objects to produce data in the form
of images. A feature on the earth’s surface reflects or emits radiation in a unique bandwidth
hence the ability of remote sensing to differentiate features on the earth’s surface.

Further Reading
Carver, A. J. (1981), Air photography for land use planning, Department of Conservation and
Extension, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Campbell, J.B. 1996. Introduction to Remote Sensing. Taylor & Francis, London.
Colwell, R.N. (Ed.) 1983. Manual of Remote Sensing. Second Edition. Vol I: Theory,
Instruments and Techniques. American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
ASPRS, Falls Church.
Curran, P.J. 1985. Principles of Remote Sensing. Longman Group Limited, London.
Elachi, C. 1987. Introduction to the Physics and Techniques of Remote Sensing. Wiley Series in
Remote Sensing, New York.
Joseph, G. 1996. Imaging Sensors. Remote Sensing Reviews, 13: 257-342.
Lillesand, T.M. and Kiefer, R.1993. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation. Third Edition
John Villey, New York.
Manual of Remote Sensing. IIIrd Edition. American Society of Photogrammtery and Remote
Sensing.
Sabins, F.F. 1997. Remote Sensing and Principles and Image Interpretation. WH Freeman,
New York.
Jensen, J.R. (1986), introductory digital image processing, a remote sensing perspective,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

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UNIT 2
2.0. Image interpretation
2.1. Introduction
Unlike a map, features on aerial images are not generalized or symbolized but the images record
all visible features on the Earth's surface from an overhead perspective. Although the features are
visible, they are not always easily identifiable. The process of studying and gathering the
information required and identifying the various cultural and natural features is called photo or
image interpretation. However before this process, errors in image that affects its appearance and
geometry should be removed so that it becomes easy to do interpretation. In this unit you are
going to learn the factors that affect the image quality, various methods of correcting the errors
and the process of image interpretation for both digital and analogue images.
2.2. Objectives
By the end of this unit, the student should be able to;
 Understand the factors that affect the quality and use aerial image
 Understand and carryout both analogue and digital image processing
 Interpret aerial images and extract physical data on land resources
2.3. Factors affecting image quality
There are various factors that affect the quality of both digital and analogue aerial images. These
include the effect of the atmosphere, default sensor or camera, variation in platform flying height
or orbiting variation, variation in ground relief, tilting of the platform and radial or relief
displacement. Remotely sensed images of the environment are typically taken at a great distance
from the earth's surface. As a result, there is a substantial atmospheric path that electromagnetic
energy must pass through before it reaches the sensor. Depending upon the wavelengths involved
and atmospheric conditions (such as particulate matter, moisture content and turbulence), the
incoming energy may be substantially modified (radiometric distortions).
The sensor or the camera itself may then modify the character of that data since it may combine a
variety of mechanical, optical and electrical components that serve to modify or mask the
measured radiant energy (radiometric distortions). In addition, during the time the image is being
scanned, the platform is following a path that is subject to minor variations at the same time that
the earth is moving underneath. The geometry of the image is thus in constant flux (geometry
distortions). Finally, the signal needs to be telemetered back to earth, and subsequently received

14
and processed to yield the final data we receive. Consequently, a variety of systematic and
apparently random disturbances can combine to degrade the quality of the image we finally
receive.
2.4. Image pre- processing
Visual image interpretation involves looking at the image and using experience based on logical
reasoning to identify the targets. However before this process error in image affects its
appearance and geometry should be removed so that it becomes easy to do interpretation. Image
pre-processing seeks to remove these degradation effects mentioned in 3.3. Broadly, image pre-
processing can be divided into the two sub-areas of radiometric correction or restoration and
geometric correction or restoration.
2.4.1. Radiometric correction or restoration
Radiometric restoration refers to the removal or diminishment of distortions in the degree of
electromagnetic energy registered by each detector. A variety of agents can cause distortion in
the values recorded for image cells. Some of the most common distortions for which correction
procedures exist include: uniformly elevated values, due to atmospheric haze, which
preferentially scatters short wavelength bands (particularly the blue wavelengths); striping, due
to detectors going out of calibration; random noise, due to unpredictable and unsystematic
performance of the sensor or transmission of the data; and scan line drop out, due to signal loss
from specific detectors. It is also appropriate to include here procedures that are used to convert
the raw, unitless relative reflectance values (known as digital numbers, or DN) of the original
bands into true measures of reflective power (radiance).
2.4.2. Geometric correction or restoration
For mapping purposes, it is essential that any form of remotely sensed imagery be accurately
registered to the proposed map base. With satellite imagery, the very high altitude of the sensing
platform results in minimal image displacements due to relief. As a result, registration can
usually be achieved through the use of a systematic rubber sheet transformation process that
gently warps an image (through the use of polynomial equations) based on the known positions
of a set of widely dispersed control points. With aerial photographs, however, the processes is
more complex, not only are there systematic distortions related to tilt and varying altitude, but
variable topographic relief which leads to very irregular distortions that cannot be removed
through a rubber sheet transformation procedure. In these instances, geometric errors due to

15
relief are corrected by Orthorectification and georeferencing after scanning. Orthorectification is
the process of stretching the image to match the spatial accuracy of a map by considering
location, elevation, and sensor information. By orthorectifying an image, the distortions are
geometrically removed, creating a planimetric image at every location with consistent scale
across all parts of the image. Doing so also requires a thorough understanding of reference
systems and their associated parameters such as datums and projections. Georeferencing is the
process of assigning coordinates to an image and this process is fully described in Unit 6.
Activity 2.1

1. What are the factor factors that affect the quality of aerial images and how do you carry
out the correction?
2. Scan one of the contact prints and carryout the process of georeferencing contact prints
from The Surveyor General.

2.5. Digital image processing

As a result of solid state multispectral scanners and other raster input devices, we now have
available digital raster images of spectral reflectance data. The chief advantage of having these
data in digital form is that they allow us to apply computer analysis techniques to the image data,
a field of study called Digital Image Processing. Digital Image Processing is largely concerned
with two basic operations: image enhancement and image transformation. Image enhancement is
predominantly concerned with the modification of images to optimize their appearance to the
visual system. Visual analysis is a key element, even in digital image processing and
interpretation, and the effects of these techniques can be dramatic. Image transformation refers
to the derivation of new imagery as a result of some mathematical treatment of the raw image
bands. In order to undertake the operations listed in this section, it is necessary to have access to
GIS software system.
2.5.1. Image enhancement
Image enhancement is concerned with the modification of images to make them more suited to
the capabilities of human vision. Regardless of the extent of digital intervention, visual analysis
invariably plays a very strong role in all aspects of remote sensing. While the range of image
enhancement techniques is broad, the following fundamental issues form the backbone of this
area:

16
2.5.1.1. Digital Filtering
Filtering is a process in which each pixel value in a raster map is replaced with a new value. The
new value is obtained by applying a certain function on each input pixel and its direct
neighbours. It is one of the most intriguing capabilities of digital analysis is the ability to apply
digital filters. Filters can be used to provide edge enhancement (sometimes called crispening), to
remove image blur, and to isolate lineaments and directional trends, to mention just a few. The
filter tool in most of GIS software is used to apply standard filters and to construct and apply
user-defined filters.
2.5.1.2. Contrast Stretch
Digital sensors have a wide range of output values to accommodate the strongly varying
reflectance values that can be found in different environments. However, in any single
environment, it is often the case that only a narrow range of values will occur over most areas.
Grey level distributions thus tend to be much skewed. Contrast manipulation procedures are thus
essential to most visual analyses. To optimize the range of grey values, a transfer function is used
to map grey shades onto the monitor. This can be: Linear contrast stretch: obtained by finding
the values where the cumulative % is 1% and 99 % or Histogram equalization: where the transfer
function is shaped in such a way that the DN values are distributed as equally as possible among
the available grey levels
Figure 2.1 shows TM Band 3 (visible red). The left image of the figure shows the mage before
enhancement, the middle image shows same image band after a linear stretch and the right image
shows the same image after histogram equalisation.

No stretch Linear stretch 2% Histogram equalization

Figure 2.1: Image enhancement by stretch

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2.5.1.3. Composite Generation
For visual analysis, colour composites make fullest use of the capabilities of the human eye.
Depending upon the graphics system in use, composite generation ranges from simply selecting
the bands to use, to more involved procedures of band combination and associated contrast
stretch. Figure 2.2 shows (from left to right) the natural colour composite, the pseudo colour
composite and the false colour composite made with different band combinations from the same
set of TM images.

Display [Red, Green, Blue] = Display [Red, Green, Blue] Display [Red, Green, Blue]
Image [Red, Green, Blue = Image [Short-wave IR, = Image [NIR, Red, Green]
NIR, Green]
Figure 2.2: Colour Composites
2.5.1.4. Stereo Pair Generation
Stereo pair is made from stereoscopic images-photographs with overlap of 60% in the along-
track direction and 25% between flight lines (contact prints). These photographs have to be
scanned and pre-processed (geometric correction) to come up with orthophotos. To make a
stereo pair in a computer you need a pair of scanned aerial photographs or images, with overlap
as inputs. Using fiducial marks of the images the principal points are marked on both images.
The two images are displayed side by side along the flight line (line joining the principal points)
with a certain distance apart the principal point (stereoscopic base).
With a monitor mounted with a stereoscope it is possible to fully recreate the geometry of the
viewing condition to three dimensional view (3D view) and derive measurements of terrain and
height. The primary use for a stereo pair is for the extraction (digitizing) of physical data using
stereoscope mounted on the monitor, such as drainage and crests, non-arable and wetlands,
homogeneous areas, vegetation types, conservation layouts, potential dam sites, slope etc. Stereo
pair can also be created from a single image map and a Digital Terrain Model (DTM). This pair
is created from a raster map that you wish to display over the terrain, for instance a scanned

18
aerial photograph, a satellite image, or a 'normal' raster map and a Digital Terrain Model (DTM),
a raster map with height values. A DTM is also known as a Digital Elevation Model (DEM).
2.5.2. Image transformation
Image transformation refers to the derivation of new imagery as a result of some mathematical
treatment of the raw image bands or images with overlap. Image transformations typically
involve the manipulation of multiple bands of data, whether from a single multispectral image or
from two or more images of the same area acquired at different times (i.e. multitemporal image
data). Basic image transformations apply simple arithmetic operations to the image data such as
Image addition and Image subtraction Digital Image Processing offers a limitless range of
possible transformations on remotely sensed data. Few are mentioned here specifically, because
of their special significance in land resources inventory, assessment, analysis and monitoring
applications.
2.5.2.1. Band Rationing (Spectral)
Image division or spectral rationing is one of the most common transforms applied to image data.
Image rationing serves to highlight subtle variations in the spectral responses of various surface
covers. Healthy vegetation reflects strongly in the near infrared portion of the spectrum while
absorbing strongly in the visible red. Other surface types, such as soil and water, show near equal
reflectances in both the near-infrared and red portions. Thus, a ratio image of Landsat TM Band
4 (Near Infrared - 0.8 to 1.1 μm) divided by Band 3 (Red - 0.6 to 0.7 μm) would result in ratios
much greater than 1.0 for vegetation, and ratios around 1.0 for soil and water. A very simple
vegetation index can thus be achieved by comparing the measure of infrared reflectance to that
of the red reflectance. Although a number of variants of this basic logic have been developed, the
one which has received the most attention is the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI).
It is calculated in the following manner:
NDVI = (NIR - R) / (NIR + R) Where NIR = Near Infrared and R = Red
2.5.2.2. Principal Components Analysis
The multispectral image data is usually strongly correlated from one band to the other. The level
of a given picture element on one band can to some extent be predicted from the level of that
same pixel in another band. Principal component analysis is a pre-processing transformation that
creates new images from the uncorrelated values of different images. This is accomplished by a
linear transformation of variables that corresponds to a rotation and translation of the original

19
coordinate system. Principal component analysis operates on all bands together. Thus, it
alleviates the difficulty of selecting appropriate bands associated with the band rationing
operation. Principal components describe the data more efficiently than the original band
reflectance values. The first principal component accounts for a maximum portion of the
variance in the data set, often as high as 98%. Subsequent principal components account for
successively smaller portions of the remaining variance.
Principal component transformations are used for spectral pattern recognition as well as image
enhancement. When used before pattern recognition, the least important principal components
are dropped altogether. This permits us to omit the insignificant portion of our data set and thus
avoids the additional computer time. The transformation functions are determined during the
training stage. Principal component images may be analysed as separate black and white images,
or any three component images may be colour coded to form a colour composite. Principal
component enhancement techniques are particularly appropriate in areas where little a prior
information concerning the region is available.
2.5.2.3. Digital Elevation Model Generation
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is frequently used to refer to any digital representation of a
topographic surface however, most often it is used to refer specifically to a raster or regular grid
of spot heights this is the definition that is used here digital terrain model or DTM may actually
be a more generic term for any digital representation of a topographic surface, but it is not so
widely used. DEM is a specialized database that represents the relief of a surface between points
of known elevation. It is created from interpolating known elevation data from sources such as
ground surveys and on to a stereo pair of orthorectified scanned contacts prints or from a stereo
pair of satellite images taken from the same place at different angles or sun angle. Other than the
photogrammetric method DEM can also be generated by interpolating reduced levels from a grid
leveling in surveying. Uses of DEMs includes determining attributes of terrain, such as elevation
at any point, slope and aspect, finding features on the terrain, such as drainage basins and
watersheds, drainage networks and channels, peaks and pits and other landforms and modeling
of hydrologic functions, energy flux and forest fires to mention a few. Figure 2.3 shows the
DEM of Chegutu district on left and Chibero College of agriculture on right derived from
ASTER images

20
Figure 2.3: Digital Elevation Models
Activity 2.2

1. Using the LANDSAT image prepare the following;

a. Natural colour composite
b. Pseudo colour composite
c. False color composite
2. Using the LANDSAT image compute the normalized difference vegetation index
(NDVI)
3. Download an ASTER or STRM DEM of the same area with contact print and LANSAT
image.

2.5.3. Digital image classification

Image classification is defined as the extraction of differentiated classes or themes, land use and
land cover categories, from raw remotely sensed digital satellite data and it is based on the
spectral characteristics of different materials on the earth's surface. The principle of image
classification is that the pixel is assigned a class and by doing so for all image pixels results in a
classified image. Although some procedures are able to incorporate information about such
image characteristics as texture and context, the majority of image classification is based solely
on the detection of the spectral signatures (i.e., spectral response patterns) of land cover classes.
The success with which this can be done will depend on two things: 1) the presence of distinctive
signatures for the land cover classes of interest in the band set being used; and 2) the ability to
reliably distinguish these signatures from other spectral response patterns that may be present.

21
There are two general approaches to image classification: supervised and unsupervised. They
differ in how the classification is performed. In the case of supervised classification, the software
system delineates specific landcover types based on statistical characterization data drawn from
known examples in the image (known as training sites). With unsupervised classification,
however, clustering software is used to uncover the commonly occurring landcover types, with
the analyst providing interpretations of those cover types at a later stage.
2.5.3.1. Steps in the image classification
Basically there are five steps to be followed when classifying an image and these are;
1. Preparing image data: Selection of bands appropriate for the purpose
2. Definition of clusters in feature space: In supervised classification this is user defined and
in unsupervised classification it is done automatically by a clustering algorithm
3. Selection of a classification algorithm: once spectral classes have been defined the use
will decide how pixels are allocated to classes
4. Running the classification. Pixels are assigned to classes
5. Validation of the result using the error matrix
2.5.3.2. Supervised Classification
Prior knowledge about the area is needed and the first step is sampling training pixels: The user
selects samples representative of each class of interest in the image. These are called training
samples. The software system is then used to develop a statistical characterization of the
reflectances for each information class. This stage is often called signature analysis and may
involve developing a characterization as simple as the mean or the range of reflectances on each
band, or as complex as detailed analyses of the mean, variances and covariances over all bands.
Once a statistical characterization has been achieved for each information class, the image is then
classified by examining the reflectances for each pixel and making a decision about which of the
signatures it resembles most. There are several techniques for making these decisions, called
classifiers. Most Image Processing software will offer several, based on varying decision rules
examples of these are; Box classifier or parallelpiped classifier, Minimum distance to mean and
Maximum likelihood classifier
2.5.3.3. Unsupervised Classification
In contrast to supervised classification, where we tell the system about the character (i.e.,
signature) of the information classes we are looking for, unsupervised classification requires no

22
advance information about the classes of interest. Rather, it examines the data and breaks it into
the most prevalent natural spectral groupings, or clusters, present in the data. The analyst then
identifies these clusters as landcover classes through a combination of familiarity with the region
and ground truth visits. The logic by which unsupervised classification works is known as cluster
analysis, and is provided in most image processing software primarily by the cluster module.
Cluster performs classification of composite images (created with composite) that combine the
most useful information bands. It is important to recognize, however, that the clusters
unsupervised classification produces are not information classes, but spectral classes (i.e., they
group together features (pixels) with similar reflectance patterns). It is thus usually the case that
the analyst needs to reclassify spectral classes into information classes. For example, the system
might identify classes for grasses and trees which the analyst might later group together, creating
an information class called vegetation.
2.5.3.4. Accuracy Assessment
A vital step in the classification process, whether supervised or unsupervised, is the assessment
of the accuracy of the final images produced. This involves identifying a set of sample locations
(such as with the Sample module) that are visited in the field. The land cover found in the field is
then compared to that which was mapped in the image for the same location. Statistical
assessments of accuracy may then be derived for the entire study area, as well as for individual
classes (using Error Matrix). In an iterative approach, the error matrix produced (sometimes
referred to as a confusion matrix), may be used to identify particular cover types for which errors
are in excess of that desired. The information in the matrix about which covers are being
mistakenly included in a particular class (errors of commission) and those that are being
mistakenly excluded (errors of omission) from that class can be used to refine the classification
approach. Table 2.1 shows an error matrix on which the accuracy of classification is quantified
as Total Accuracy as a percentage = (Number of correct plots / total number of plots) x 100.
Diagonals represent sites classified correctly according to reference data and off-diagonals were
mis-classified. For table 2.1 Total Accuracy (%) = ((50 +13+8) / 100) x 100 = 71%.

23
Table 2.1: Error Matrix

Class types determined from reference source

Class types # Plots Grassland Woodland Water Totals

determined
Grassland 50 5 2 57
from classified
map Woodland 14 13 0 27

Water 3 5 8 16

Totals 67 23 10 100

Activity 2.3

1. Using the LANDSAT image and the scanned contact print carryout both supervised and
unsupervised classification and assess the accuracy

2.6. Analogue image processing

The chief disadvantage of having these data in analogue form is that they not allow us to apply
direct computer analysis techniques to the image data as with satellite images. Computer analysis
is done after scanning the image and pre-processing the image (geometric restoration). In most of
cases processing and interpretation of these images is done manually without a computer.
Processing of these images includes scaling, enlarging and creation of mosaics and stereograms
for stereoscoping viewing and extraction of physical data. If the images are to be used in a
computer assisted analysis they should be scanned and corrected for geometric distortions.
2.6.1. Enlarging
Enlargements are produced from expansion of the contact prints by up to eight times. Beyond
this point, the image on the photograph becomes blurred and difficulty to distinguish. There are
times two up to times eight enlargements of the contact prints which can be used for various
purposes of air photography. By two enlargements has a scale of 1:12 500 and are used for field
checking information obtained from contact prints under a stereoscope. By four enlargements are
generally used for detailed planning and rerecording for a specific area.

24
2.6.2. Mosaic Generation
Mosaics are as a result of joining more than one photograph to produce one aerial view. It is used
for pictorial recording of field-checked information and as a basis for drafting of farm or area
plans. Uncontrolled mosaics consist of a number of contact prints cut and carefully joined
together so as to give the appearance of a single photography. These are used where accuracy of
measurement of distance and/or area is not critical. In uncontrolled mosaics, there is no
consideration of scale restriction. A controlled mosaic is constructed in the same way as
uncontrolled mosaic except that every contact print is corrected for displacement caused by tilt
and variation in scale.
2.6.3. Stereogram Generation
Constructed from a pair of overlapping (60 %) contact prints that have been corrected for
displacement and variation in scale. Using fiducial marks of the images the principal points are
marked on both images. For a pocket stereoscopic viewing overlapping portions of the images
are fitted permanently side by side along the flight line (line joining the principal points) with a
certain distance apart the principal point (stereoscopic base). For a bench stereoscopic viewing
images are not fitted together since the stereoscopic base of a bench stereoscope is lager
compared to pocket. With a pocket stereoscope is possible to view the geometry of the terrain in
three dimensions (3D view), and derive measurements of terrain and height. The primary use for
a stereogram is for the extraction of physical data using pocket stereoscope such as drainage and
crests, non-arable and wetlands, homogeneous areas, vegetation types, conservation layouts,
potential dam sites, slope etc.
2.6.4. Scaling
Scale is the relationship between photo/map distance and ground distance expressed as a
representative fraction. The ability to depict features of the earth’s surface from aerial images is
enhanced by the knowledge of the size of the features in terms of distance and area. Uses of
scales in photogrammetry include distance and area measurement. Generally we have three
methods that are used to scale aerial photographs; orthographic, photo-map and photo-ground.
2.6.4.1. Orthographic
Using this method the focal-length of the camera lens is related to the flying height of the
platform (aircraft) above the ground. This information is registered on contact prints and does

25
not appear on enlargement and mosaics. The following formula is used to derive the scale o the
image;

2.6.4.2. Photo – map method

Using this method three point that are clearly visible on the image and the scaled map
(topographic) such as river confluence, road junctions and road-river junctions are selected and
marked A; B; and C. The three points are joined to form a triangle on both the image and the
map; each side is measured using a ruler on both map and photo. Then determine the scale for
each side of the triangle using the following formula;

Find the percent difference of the scales. The three scales should be within 3% of each other, if
not re-plot and re-calculate the side outside the 3% limit. The photo scale the average of three
scale within the 3% difference of each other
2.6.4.3. Photo – ground method
Using this method three point that are clearly visible on the image and on the ground such as
river confluence, road junctions and road-river junctions are selected and marked A; B; and C.
The three points are joined to form a triangle on both the image and ground; each side is
measured using a ruler on the photo and tape measure on the ground. Then determine the scale
for each side of the triangle using the following formula;

Find the percent difference of the scales. The three scales should be within 3% of each other, if
not re-plot on the photo and re-calculate the side outside the 3% limit. The photo scale the
average of three scale within the 3% difference of each other
2.6.5. Scanning and pre-processing
This is done when you want to analyze and extract physical data from the photographs within
GIS software. Converting a hard copy map into a digital image is achieved through scanning. A
scanner samples the image with an optical detector and measures the variations in light intensity.
Light intensity values are represented by DN values. The next step is to create a Georeference
Orthophoto which is a service object which stores the relation between rows and columns of a

26
raster map (row, column) and coordinates (X, Y), then you register the fiducial marks of the
photo. Then you specify the principal distance, which is the distance between the photo plane
(the negative) and the projection centre of the lens. The last step is to add tie points or ground
control points, which establish the relationships between pixels in your digital photo (row,
column) and real world XYZ-coordinates. When you know Z-coordinates for your control
points, you can enter these, otherwise height values will be used as found in the DTM or DEM.
Activity 2.4

1. Determine the scale of the analogue contact print using the following methods following;
a. Orthographic,
b. Photo-map, and
c. Photo-ground
2. Determine the area of any field from the scaled contact print

2.7. Image Interpretation

Unlike a map, features on an aerial photograph are not generalized or symbolized. Aerial images
all visible features on the Earth's surface from an overhead perspective. Although the features are
visible, they are not always easily identifiable. The process of studying and gathering the
information required identifying the various cultural and natural features is called image
interpretation. That is the science of analysing images in order to identify objects and determine
their significance. It is the most intuitive way of extracting data from RS images. The image may
be studied to identify features, determine changes in an area resulting often in a thermal map. It
involves spontaneous recognition or logical inference, spontaneous recognition refers to ability
to identify objects at a glance and this is based on experience for example farmers may readily
recognize farms irrigated by sprinklers (rotating). Logical influence involves reasoning to decide
what you see is what you say for example saying a rectangular object is a fish pond because it is
close to a farm dam.
2.7.1. Types of image interpretation
There are three main types of image interpretation that are image reading, image analysis and
image deduction. Image reading is the simplest interpretative technique because no stereoscope
or analysis of spectral reflectance is required. It is the direct recognition of manmade objects and
common terrain features for example, buildings, cultivated land or fields, streams and

27
woodlands. Image analysis is a combination of image reading and use of stereoscope and
analysis of spectral reflectance. It involves analysing the image and separating and distinguishing
direct objects for example, tarred road, footpath, land classes to mention a few. In land
classification, for example a stereoscope is used to identify the various landscape units and to
delineate all homogeneous areas, which reflect differences in soil conditions. Each homogeneous
area is analysed and compared with all others. Image deduction involves image reading and
image analysis. It involves telling what the image tells you the user. Deductions are made in
regard to hidden elements from the study of the stereoscopic or a three dimensional image. It
includes a very careful examination of all other elements of the image pattern and accurately
evaluating these.
2.7.2. Approaches to image interpretation
 Start from the general to the specific (first view with the naked eye then stereoscope or
spectral reflectance analysis).
 From known to unknown (start from where you know for comparison purposes).
 A topic at a time for example, drainage searching then crest- at a time, to avoid confusion.
 Use of secondary images for example, fish ponds, railway track for rail siding, curing barns,
cattle tracks for handling facilities.
 Knowledge of scale to find relationship in size between the known and the unknown, for
example, length of a building indicates that it is not a house but a tobacco barn.
 Knowledge of date of image as it is important for any changes for example, new dam.
2.7.3. Basic factors used in aerial images interpretation
Factors used in aerial image interpretation are groped in to two; we have elements of factors that
will help the interpreter to identify feature and also we have factors or elements that may mislead
the interpreter.
2.7.3.1. Basic factors used to identify features in aerial images
Interpretation elements help to increase the logical inference ability of an interpreter. These
include;
(a) Shape – is the general form and outline of an object, which may or may not be known to the
interpreter for example, handling pens. It is important in visual identification of objects on a
vertical image.

28
(b) Size – refers to surface area or volume dimensions on an object for example, farm shed, and
house and can be differentiated due to size.
(c) Pattern – refers to the spatial arrangement and characteristics pattern of certain forms or
relationships, for example, orchards and forests, ant heaps, plantations. It gives them a
pattern, which helps the interpreter to recognise them.
(d) Tone or colour – its defined as relation brightness of a black/white image and depends on the
amount of light reflected, - different substances have different tones and increasing moisture
content reduces tone, - Hue on the other hand is different in colour is more perceivable by
human eye (10,000 colours) as compared to (200 tones). Rreflectance from object at different
angles and intensities for example, dam tone is dark because light does not penetrate and an
open land has a lighter tone because light penetrates.
(e) Texture – relates to frequency of tonal variation and can always be related to terrain
roughness or smoothness and spatial resolution of the sensor, for example one part of a field
has a crop and the other part grass in one block. Only large objects have recognizable texture
on small-scale photographs.
(f) Association-objects are identified using element (meaning or function) based on the fact that
such functions are associated with a number of objects which have been recognized.
Example a tobacco curing barn is recognized by association with high chimneys, large
buildings and coal heaps
(g) Shadow – shape or outline of a shadow is often indicative of the profile view of an object for
example, electricity pylons. However, objects in the shadow of larger objects maybe difficult
to interpret for example, shadow of a large hill.
(h) Site – relationship between two objects. It is important for both natural and manmade
features for example, fish pond near a dam, some vegetation types are confined to specific
site – swamps, river banks, rocky hills.
(i) Movement – one object appearing to be in different positions on two consecutive photos
when taken indicates it’s moving for example, car and livestock.
(j) Time: temporal characteristics of a series of photographs can be used in determining the
historical change of an area for example a series of photos of a farm taken in different years
can help determine the new developments of the farm.

29
2.7.3.2. Factors that mislead aerial image interpreters
False interpretation elements mislead the logical inference ability of an interpreter. These
include;
(a) Scratches on analogue images – could be caused by careless handling when processing or
mechanical fault in the camera. Scratch marks on the film could reproduce as fine white and
black lines on a print and they do not conform in any way with image detail.
(b) Static marks – appear as branch-like pattern and are caused by release of static electricity on
the film when in the camera or default sensor. Marks will not appear in the same relative
position on adjacent prints.
(c) Tone variations – surface water could be recorded on one print as a dark tone and on the
adjacent print as a light tone due to the variation in the angle of the sun’s rays. The light tone
could be interpreted as sand.
(d) Bar marks – appear as parallel and dark bands varying in width running across the print.
They can be caused by insufficient film leader before the first and after the last exposure on a
spool or a default sensor.
(e) White marks – they are caused by marks on pressure glass of the printing machine plate and
they appear in the same position on every contact print.
2.7.4. Extraction of physical data
Images are a pictorial representation of the ground under consideration. Extraction of physical
data is the basis of all land resources inventory and evaluation. Data extraction from aerial
images can be done manually from processed analogue image (stereograms or stereo pairs) using
a stereoscope or this can be done in a digital interface from processed digital images such as
stereo pairs, DEM and satellite images using a computer with GIS software and mounted with a
stereoscope. Land resources data that can be extracted from remotely sensed images include;
drainages and crest, homogeneous units of vegetation, homogenous units of land, slope and
aspect, water bodies, altitude to mention a few.
2.7.4.1. Drainages
Refers to all natural depressions, streams and rivers where water will flow during the rainy
season. Drainages can be extracted from a stereogram or stereo pair under a stereoscope in
analogue or digital interface. In analogue phase this involves plotting the obvious streams and
rivers first, and then works up-stream towards less obvious drainage lines and minor depressions

30
using a blue wax pencil. In digital phase this involves digitizing the obvious streams and rivers
first, and then works up-stream towards less obvious drainage lines and minor depressions.
Drainages can be also extracted from a Digital Elevation Model using the DEM Hydroprocessing
tool found in most of the GIS software such as ILWIS, ArcGIS to mention a few.
2.7.4.2. Crests
These are the highest points (watershed) on the ground from which water flows into two separate
drainages. All crests join up to form the major watershed. A crest occurs between two drainage
lines and a drainage line between two crests. Crests can be extracted from a stereogram or stereo
pair under a stereoscope in analogue or digital interface. In analogue phase this involves marking
major crests on the highest point and work down to the minor crest. All crests are marked using
brown wax pencil. In digital phase this involves digitizing major crests on the highest point and
work down to the minor crest. Crests can be also extracted from a Digital Elevation Model using
the DEM Hydroprocessing tool found in most of the GIS software such as ILWIS, ArcGIS to
mention a few. Drainages and crests give you the topography of the area.
2.7.4.3. Dam sites
Potential site for dam construction is extracted from a stereo pair (stereogram) manually or by
the use of a computer installed with GIS software and from a Digital Elevation Model using a
computer installed with GIS software. The amount of water required to be used for example, for
irrigation must be known before site selection and the catchment characteristics. When using a
stereo pair either digital or analogue a stereoscope is used to investigate the following site
indicators for large dams;
 Meandering river and stream courses
 Extensive wet areas as shown by photo tones
 Sand in the river being held back by rock bars
 Wide valleys with U- shaped cross sections
 Right angled river or stream junction
 Elongated pools of water in the rivers and streams.
When using the Digital Elevation Model dam site extraction is done using the DEM
Hydroprocessing tool. The tool is used to derive the flow accumulation map of a catchment
which allows you to measure the basin and the potential capacity of the dam for each site.

31
2.7.4.4. Non-arable land
It is the land that is excluded from potential cropping areas. These are non-arable because of
surface hindrances, very shallow soils, steep slopes or wetness factors. This land can be extracted
from a stereo pair (stereogram) manually or by the use of a computer installed with GIS
software, the basis of extraction is by analyzing the image that is in three dimensional view. This
involves making non-arable using red wax pencil for analogue stereo pair or digitizing the
polygons for digital stereo pair and extract one non-arable land class at a time. Non arable land is
divided into four classes which are briefly described here. Non-arable land iincludes land classes
V, VI, VII and VIII. Class V-These are areas subject to severe wetness in years if average
rainfall vleis and drainage patterns. Such wetness precludes cultivation. Areas considered being
marginally vleis land can be given symbol IVw, but must be checked in the field.
Class VI-This is an area with steep slopes (+12%), very shallow soils and rock outcrops to
preclude cultivation. Perennial vegetation is best and must be subject to moderate deterioration.
Class VII-This is an area with soil and /or slope limitations, which are more severe than those of,
class VI. The land can be used for rough grazing and is highly susceptible to deterioration. Class
VIII-It is land having limitations of soil, slopes, wetness and rock outcrops that are so severe as
to make it suitable for wildlife only for example, bare rock, water surfaces. NB: Drainages,
crests, and land classes give you an overall picture of the area under investigation.
2.7.4.5. Vegetation
Refers to vegetation types which include various trees and grasses species. Vegetation is very
important to human life as it provides for most of the needs for survival that is food, shelter,
industrial inputs (oil, dyes, racins and furniture). Vegetation can be extracted from a stereogram
or stereo pair under a stereoscope in analogue or digital interface. In analogue phase this involves
delineating the obvious physiognomic types of vegetation using a green wax pencil. In digital
phase this involves digitizing the boundaries of physiognomic types of vegetation. Physiognomic
type indicates the general structure of the vegetation. The following types are recognized:
(a) Moist Montane forest (MMF) which is a closed canopy of tall evergreen trees. Grass cover is
at times absent or may consist of a few shade loving species (eastern border).
(b) Dry Montane forest (DMF) which is a closed canopy of tall evergreen trees with several
strata than in the moist forests. Grass cover is absent or consists of a few shade loving species
(eastern border).

32
(c) Dry deciduous forests (DDF) which is a closed stand of deciduous trees up to 20m high.
Some of the lower strata of shrubs and small trees may be evergreen. Grass cover is absent or
very sparse.
(d) Woodland (W) which is fairly dense but open stand of deciduous trees usually over 6m high.
Grass cover is very sparse and often mixed with shrubs.
(e) Woodland Savannah (WS) which is a more open stand of deciduous trees than woodland,
very often the result of having being cut over. Grass cover is better developed than in
woodland proper. Trees are over 6m high.
(f) Tree savannah (TS) which is an open stand of deciduous trees often between 5-6m in height
or even higher, with a well developed grass cover which often contains a number of small
shrubs.
(g) Bush Savannah (BS) which is an open stand of bushes from 3-6m high within a well
developed grass cover. Trees are occasional and scattered.
(h) Bush Clump Savannah (BSC) which is clumps of small tree or bushes forming islands in a
grass cover. Occasionally there are one or two tall trees. Clumps are always associated with
ant heaps.
(i) Bush/ Scrub Savannah (BSS) which is an open stand of bushes and scrub ranging from 1m -
6m in height with a well developed grass cover. This type is often the result of cutting cover
of the bush type.
(j) Scrub Savannah (SS) which is a stand of varying density of small scrubby plants up to 2m
high in a well developed grass cover. Small acacia plants very often invade old lands or scrub
“Mopane” in frost areas.
(k) Bush- land and thicket (BTH) which is a dense stand of small trees up to 5m high or more.
Grass cover is virtually absent or very sparse. This also includes the “Jesse” type thicket.
(l) Grassland (GR) which is land covered with grasses and herbs, very scattered trees along
stream banks, on ant heaps or along vlei margins. This includes vlei land, or secondary
grassland resulting for removal of trees.
(m) Miombo woodlands (MW) which comprises of brachystegia species. These occur throughout
the country as long as the soils are well drained and the area receives high rainfall.
Trees and grass species maybe also extracted from satellite images by digital image processing
that is by analyzing reflectance of vegetation in the visible infrared bandwidth and partitioning

33
reflectance different tree or grass species. Since each species of vegetation reflects radiation in a
unique way this is used to classify the image into different vegetation species by assigning
vegetation specie to each DN value recoded on the image. It can also be extracted from satellite
images by the process of band rationing as described in digital image data processing. The
interpreter must have knowledge of different spectral signatures of different grass or tree species
to carry out this process
2.7.4.6. Soil moisture
Extraction of soil moisture from remotely sensed images is based on the principle of relating
Surface emissivity to the apparent dielectric constant of the soil/water mix. Since the dielectric
constant of water is an order of magnitude larger than that of dry soil. The soil moisture content
strongly influences the observed brightness temperature for passive sensors and the radar back-
scatter for active sensors (through the surface reactivity). Figure 2.4 shows a table of operational
product in the field of global monitoring of soil moisture using passive and active satellite
microwave instruments Extracted from Pappenberger et al. (2012),

2.4: Operational product in the field of global monitoring of soil moisture

34
2.7.4.7. Water bodies
Using the principles of spectral differentiation that is spectral reflectance is assumed to be
different with respect to the type of land cover, vegetation has a very high reflectance in the near
infrared region, though there are three low minima due to absorption, Soil has rather higher
values for almost all spectral regions, Water has almost no reflectance in the infrared region
images are analysed and areas with no or little reflectance are assigned to surface water bodies.
Also by analysing the natural colour composites of images water bodies appears in blue colour
due to that it reflects in blue band and absorbs green and red bands
2.7.4.8. Soil types
Spectral reflectance is assumed to be different with respect to the type of soil. Light textured soil
reflects more radiation compared to heavy textured soil. Also dry soil reflects more radiation
compared to wet soil due to absorption of radiation by soil water. By using these principles
images area analysed and classified into different soil classes. The interpreter must have prior
knowledge of the different spectral signatures of different soil types.
2.7.4.9. Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (ET) refers to evaporation (from water or soil surfaces) and biospheric
transpiration. ET is of primary interest to water resources management in practice because many
end users need ET to estimate the loss of useable water from the soil column and to help
determine plant water stress for drought assessment, agricultural irrigation management and
forest fire susceptibility. ET is extracted from images by model such as the Surface Energy
Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) which is an image-processing model comprised of 25
computational steps that calculate the actual (ETact) and potential evapotranspiration rates
(ETpot) as well as other energy exchanges between land and atmosphere. The key input data for
SEBAL consists of spectral radiance in the visible, near-infrared and thermal infrared part of the
spectrum. SEBAL computes a complete radiation and energy balance along with the resistances
for momentum, heat and water vapor transport for every individual pixel. The resistances are a
function of state conditions such as soil water potential (and thus soil moisture), wind speed and
air temperature and change from day-to-day.
2.7.4.10. Slope and aspect
Slope and aspect can be extracted from a digital elevation model. Slope and aspect can be
calculated from the fitted plane. To estimate these at a raster point, a 3x3 window centered on the

35
point is usually used. Slope is calculated from the formula SLOPEPCT = 100 * HYP(DX,DY)/
PIXSIZE(DEM) and aspect is calculated from: tan-1 c/b. normally a "slope map" or "aspect
map" will display the attribute values generalized over areas (regions) instead of at points, such
that within each area, all slopes fall into a certain range (e.g. 10-15%) or all aspects fall into a
certain quadrant (e.g. NW). To generate such a map, slope or aspect is determined at each raster
point, and then these values are aggregated into polygons based on a set of predefined ranges.
Activity 2.5

1. From the DEM compute the slope and contours of the area.
2. Using a stereoscope delineate drainages, crests, non arable land classes and
physiognomic types of vegetation from an analogue stereo pair of contact prints and scan
the images.
3. Briefly describe how would you apply remote sensing and GIS in the following; Crop
identification, Crop acreage, Crop vigour, Crop density, Crop maturity, Growth rates,
Yield forecasting, Actual yield, Water quality, Irrigation requirement, Insect infestations,
Disease infestations, Water availability, Location of canals, Condition of range, Carrying
capacity, Forage, livestock population and distribution

2.8. Summary
The process of studying and gathering the information required from aerial images is called
photo or image interpretation. Images acquired in an overhead perspective have various
distortions; image pre-processing is done first as to correct these distortions. Image processing
allows us to carryout visual interpretation of the images and extraction of physical data that is
useful for agricultural planning and management.

Further Reading
Carver, A. J. (1981), Air photography for land use planning, Department of Conservation and
Extension, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Lillesand, T.M. and Kiefer, R.1993. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation. Third Edition
John Villey, New York.
Manual of Remote Sensing. IIIrd Edition. American Society of Photogrammtery and Remote
Sensing.
Sabins, F.F. 1997. Remote Sensing and Principles and Image Interpretation. WH Freeman, New
York.
Pappenberger et al. (2012), Report on improved hydrological parameters", Glowasis D30.5,
GLOWASIS Global Water Scarcity Information Service.

36
UNIT 3
3.0. Land resources field survey
3.1. Introduction
To complement the physical data obtained from image interpretation there is need to carryout
field survey. Since some of the physical data required for land use cannot be extracted from
remotely sensed images there is need of carrying out field survey. In this unity we are going to
learn various field survey that are implemented to come up with physical data on land resources
that is required in land use for agricultural purposes
3.2. Objectives
By the end of this unit students should be able to;
 understand and apply the techniques Soil survey
 understand and apply the techniques Land capability classification
 understand and apply the techniques Vegetation survey
3.3. Soil survey
Soil survey involves determining pattern of soils and dividing this pattern into relative
homogenous units. The outcome of a soil survey is a map and a report clearly describing the soil
units indicated on a map. There are mainly two types of soil survey; special purpose survey
which narrowly specifies the characteristics of soil to be examined for example mapping soil for
irrigational purposes, the survey will concentrate on properties of soil that are relevant to
irrigation, and general purpose soil survey which is non-specific, the survey will give basic
interpretative for many purposes. Soil survey is very important in coming up with an inventory
of soil type of an area and in making useful predictions about the suitability of each unit per
particular use. The usefulness of soil survey depends on the accuracy with which soil properties
are mapped and the relevance of those properties to the purpose of land.
3.3.1. Mapping units
Units of land which can be separated geographically or spatially in the field on the basis of
selected soil or land characteristics. Mapping units are divided into two broad groups; simple and
compound mapping units. Simple mapping units look at soil that fall into same group with same
characteristics. In simple mapping units at least 70% of the soil in a unit will fall in the same
characteristic group. We have two main types of simple mapping units that are soil series which
is a medial soil with restricted range of variability with respect to the horizons present that is

37
their thickness, colour, texture, structure and other properties and soil phase which is a
subdivision of soil series based on any characteristics significant to land use such as depth,
surface form, salinity and erosion.
Simple mapping units are ideal for agricultural land use compared to compound mapping units
such as soil association, soil complex and undifferentiated units. Soil association looks at
geographically associated soils confined to a certain portion or facet of a landscape occurring in
a predictable pattern and each component of the soil association can be described in terms of
catena. Soil complex unit looks at soils that are very difficult to separate usually those are found
in flood plains as a result of deposition and the undifferentiated soil units are made up of
different soils, these soils are put into the same mapping unit because of one common property
that is the dominant characteristic.
3.3.2. Stages in carrying out soil survey
Before carrying out a soil survey there is need for planning and at this phase you have to
establish the area in terms of location and size, the goal and objectives of the survey that is the
terms of reference, relevant information of the area and the scale of the output map. There are
five stages that are followed in carrying out a soil survey;
3.3.2.1. Background data collection
In this stage you have to collect much information as possible that is relevant to the survey such
as recent aerial photographs and satellite images these are important as base maps of the survey
as to draw our soil boundaries. Topographic maps and DEM covering the area and these are used
in conjunction with aerial photographs. Reports that have been produced by people who were
engaged in natural resources studies in the area such as land resources inventories, vegetation
cover, soil and geological reports, climatic data and crop yields and management data.
3.3.2.2. Aerial photo or image interpretation
Study in detail and identify features that appear on aerial photo or a satellite image and this
depends on the recognition in different grey scale (tone, texture, pattern and structure) and relief
when using contact print and by defining spectral signatures of various features and relief when
using satellite images and DEM. Make mosaics if it is necessary. Delineate all the drainages and
crest, non arable land classes (classes V to VIII). Look closely at arable land and separate the
area where it seems to be homogenous or semi-uniform with same slope and come up with

38
provisional boundaries for arable land classes and traverses for pit siting. Mark provisional sites
of pits and ensure that all arable land have sites for pits marked at
3.3.2.3. Field survey
To carry out the actual field survey the following equipment are needed; GPS receiver, map or
aerial images, plastic bags, shovel, pick, Munsell colour chart, water bottles, measuring tape,
slope measurement tools (clinometres) and auger.
(a) Identification of arable land boundaries
Auger observations in the field are put firstly in the whole area of arable land as to identify the
soil boundaries (mapping units) of homogenous arable land using texture and colour. We can
locate these auger observation using three different methods which are grid survey, free survey
and a compromise between the two of these methods. Other than using auger observations soil
boundaries can be identified by variation of vegetation over the land.
(b) Pit siting in the field
Having marked the pit sites on the mosaic, their final positions must be confirmed on the ground.
On arrival at a predetermined pit site ensure through accurate map reading that the pit is in fact
correctly sited that is representative of the area not influenced by adjacent ant-heaps, rocky
outcrops, local gravel patches. When the correct locality has been decided peg the site and prick
through on the mosaic the exact locality or you take the coordinates of the site using GPS
receiver and number the pit. Ensure that all homogenous units marked on the images are in fact
homogenous and correct where necessary and predetermined boundaries of non arable land
marked on the images are in fact correct. Spot-check boundaries wherever they are crossed in
traverse, between pits and correct where necessary. Site and number all the pits and each
homogenous area must have a pit site. On each pit site a pit is we dig a pit of 1.5 m long, 1 m
wide and 1.5 m deep
(c) Coding of soil pits
The pit is examined in the following order and a full pit description is written in the soil pit
examination note book;
(i) Note all the sides of the pit to see if they are uniform
(ii) Clean up a typical and well –lighted face of the pit
(iii) Look for a limiting horizon

39
 (iv) Mark off the top soil or plough layer mark off provisional horizons down the profile
based on differences in colour, consistence and structure
(v) Texture the top soil by taking a sliver 25mm wide down to the second horizon
(vi) Texture the different horizons if there is a difference in texture between any two horizons
determine exactly where the change occurs
(vii) Measure the horizons down the profile starting at the top of the pit giving the actual
thickness of each horizon
(viii) Record the effective depth, where there is 50% soil and 50% loose gravel or weathering
rock in a particular horizon the effective depth is usually taken as halfway down that
horizon
(ix) Note the nature and permeability of the limiting material
(x) Record the structure, consistence, permeability, mottles, concretion, leaching and roots
for each horizon
(xi) Determine the colour of the upper subsoil and also the lower subsoil if a marked colour
change occurs
(xii) Note the degree of surface crusting (‘t’ factors)
Land factors are then recoded as follows:
(i) Assess wetness from previously noted indicators, both in the land and from the soil
morphology
(ii) Assess erosion
(iii) Measure the slope of the land with a level machine
(iv) Geological maps should be consulted when identifying the parent material
(d) The standard soil code description
The soil and land characteristics are described according to standard codes and the code symbol
for each characteristic is arranged in a standard order to provide a code description. The soil and
land characteristics shown are only recorded in the soil code if they are prevalent to the
description of the particular soil type for example, if the soil is not susceptible to periodic water
logging or has no factor hindering or preventing cultivation, the symbol must be excluded from
the code. If there is a limiting horizon above 1.50 m or within the depth of the soil pit slightly
shallower than 1.50 m, the symbol for the nature of material limiting effective depth is omitted
from the code. Figure 3.1 shows a description of a standard soil code.

40
Figure 3.1: Standard Soil Code
Activity 3.1

1. Describe all the symbols that are used to describe soil and land characteristics on a soil
code.
2. Decode the following soil code.

3. Give that we have very deep brown sandy loam soils derived from granite parent material
with good permeability on a land which has moderate erosion and wet for relatively short
and infrequent periods. Code the soil and land characteristics.

3.3.2.4. Land capability classification

Land capability classification (LCC) in Zimbabwe is concerned with the ability of the land to
produce permanently under specific uses and treatments. Land is therefore classified and

41
arranged in terms of increasing degrees of limitation. This is done as to show intensive safe use
without risk of soil erosion, management requirements and permanent hazards attached to land.
(a) Land classes
Land is classified into eight classes with class I – IV being arable land and V – VIII being non
arable land. Table 3.1 shows the use of land according to capabilities.
Table 3.1: Use of land according to capabilities
characteristics Increased limitation and hazards decreased production capacity

Class I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Wildlife X X X X X X X X
Forest X X X X X X X
Limited grazing X X X X X X X
Moderate grazing X X X X X X
Intensive grazing X X X X X
Limited cultivation X X X X
Moderate cultivation X X X
Intensive cultivation X X
Very intensive cultivation X
Arable land Grazing land
Land class I
This is land with few or no limitations or hazards. It is suitable for long continued cropping with
no or only simple conservation practices under good management. The soils are deep, with a
depth not less than one meter. They are naturally well drained with a stable structure and good
working properties. Slopes are usually less than 2% and the erosion is slight at times or nil. The
limitations of these lands are of maintaining soil structure and fertility.
Land class II
These are good arable lands however subject to moderate limitations or hazards. It is suitable for
cropping with adequate protection measures which may sometimes include special management
practices and or regular lay rotations.
Limitations
 Land is moderately susceptible to erosion.

42
 The land has moderate slopes of less than 5%
 It is moderately shallow with soil depth greater than 0.5m.
 There are slightly unfavorable surface physically characteristics.
 The management practices include moderate mechanical and biological conservation
measures in varying methods.
Land class III
The land is arable but is subject to severe limitations or risks of damage and is suitable for
cropping only with the application of intensive protection measures. The land requires special
practices which include long lay rotations with the cropping periods.
Limitations
 These include moderately steep slopes that highly susceptible to erosion.
 The soils have low moisture retaining capacity because they are moderately shallow and are
quite difficult to manage.
 There is also inadequate permeability in the lower root zone and hence soils have
unfavorable physical characteristics on the surface and are also prone to moderate wetness.
 Management practices should include a combination of intensive measures such as adequate
mechanical protection, soil conservation, rotation and the maintenance of adequate crop
cover whilst under tillage.
Land class IV
Land subject to severe permanent limitations or hazards and is suitable for row cropping with
occasionally long lay rotations or can be put under perennial vegetation like pastures.
Limitations
 These may include steep slopes of up to 12% and the soils are shallow with a depth of 25cm-
40cm.
 The unfavorable characteristics of the surface soils are severe and thus have a very low water
holding capacity.
 The use of the land for cropping is limited to one in every 4-5 years however complex and
intensive protection measures and practices will be required during the time under
cultivation.

43
Land class V
These are water courses and the land is subject to severe permanent wetness which normally
makes cultivation impossible. The wetness cannot be easily corrected and the land is best left
under permanent vegetation. In cases where land is cultivated, they need special practices and
measures.
Land class VI
The land has severe soil erosion and slope limitations such that cropping must be excluded. It is
productive under perennial vegetation and moderately subject to deterioration. Most
Zimbabwean communal lands fall in this land class. However, the lands are limited by very steep
slopes, very shallow soils of less than 40cm deep and their physical hazards are of rock outcrops.
Nevertheless, the management practices are best followed when the land is put under permanent
grasslands, but it’s important to ensure that sound management practices are followed. The
carrying capacity is +/- 8ha / LU.
Land class VII
The land is characterized by severe erosion and slope limitations such that cultivation is totally
excluded. The land is subject to limited production and is highly susceptible to deterioration.
However, limitations are similar to those of land class VI and severe but more severe in land
class VII hence the reduced productivity. The carrying capacity is +/- 10ha/LU
Land class VIII
This is land with extensive limitations of the soil, relief, wetness and slope such that it is only
suitable for wildlife and fisheries. It is characterized by steep hills, rocks, riverbeds and dam
surface areas.
Land capability sub- classes
These are used where a single hazard to land use over shadows other characteristics. There are
basically two hazards which are normally used in Zimbabwe and these are fertility and wetness
limitations. These hazards results in degrading the land to lower class.
(b) Criteria for assessment of land capability class
Non arable land classes are directly delineated from aerial images through aerial images
interpretation. Arable land classification is done after soil pit coding since all soil and land
characteristics included in the standard code description are directly or indirectly associated with
some hazard or limitation in the use of land. Soil and land characteristic in the soil code together

44
with climate are used to assess the land capability class of arable land as in the flow charts in
figures 3.2 and 3.3 which are algorithms that summarizes the criteria for classes I to IV for
normal cropping area in Natural Regions II and III and classes MI to MIV for low rainfall areas
of Natural Regions IV and adjacent parts of Region III respectively.

Figure 3.2: Criteria for land classes I to IV for Natural Region II &IV

45
Figure 3.3: Criteria for land classes MI to MIV for low rainfall areas of Natural Regions IV
3.3.2.5. Production of soil survey map and report
Once all field work has been completed the surveyor redraws the final classification map. Land
class boundaries are drawn in solid lines and mapping units within land classes in broken lines.
Only one representative code should be placed in each mapping unit. Where mapping units are
too small to include soil codes the soil pit positions may be numbered and representative soil
codes recorded in a “key” on the map. The area of each land class unit is computed and land
class totals are tabulated and recorded on the land capability map legend. Farm name, I.C.A,
North Pole and bar scale must be added to the land class map

46
Activity 3.2

1. Determine the land class of a homogenous land unit of the following nature;
(a)

(b) Give that we have very deep brown sandy loam soils derived from granite parent
material with good permeability on a land which has moderate erosion and wet
for relatively short and infrequent periods. Code the soil and land characteristics.
2. Comment on the management practices for each land (a) and (b)

3.4. Vegetation survey

Vegetation is very important to human life as it provides for most of the needs for survival that is
food, shelter, industrial inputs (oil, dyes, racins and furniture). Vegetation has a great link with
soil condition and in most cases a certain type of vegetation determines the carrying capacity of
the area, erosion, and drainage and soil fertility.
3.4.1. Vegetation in Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe the greater part of the Highveld is covered by miombo woodlands and savanna,
while the Lowveld is covered by mopane woodlands and savanna and in the north western of the
country there is teak forest and woodland. Vegetation is grouped using the overall appearance
(physiognomic types). There are eight major grass vegetation types in Zimbabwe. They are
described in terms of the dominant grass species. The grass vegetation types vary in grazing
capacity. Generally, grazing capacity is highest in areas of high rainfall and lowest in those of
low rainfall and these include;
 Mountain grassveld
 Hyparrhenia tall grassveld
 Hyparrhenia and other species grassveld.
 Heteropogon and other species grassveld.
 Eragrostis and other species grassveld.
 Aristida and other species grassveld.
 Cenchrus and other species grassveld.
 Aristida-Dactyloctenium-Eragrostis and other species grassveld.

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Activity 3.3

1. State and describe the physiognomic types of vegetation found in Zimbabwe.

2. Describe the eight grassvelds in Zimbabwe under the following headings;
(a) Common tree and grass species
(b) Location, rainfall, soils and altitude
(c) Grazing capacity

3.4.2. Stages in carrying out vegetation survey

Before carrying out a vegetation survey there is need for planning and at this phase you have to
establish the area in terms of location and size, the goal and objectives of the survey that is the
terms of reference, relevant information of the area and the scale of the output map. There are
five stages that are followed in carrying out a vegetation survey;
3.4.2.1. Background data collection
In this stage you have to collect much information as possible that is relevant to the survey such
as recent aerial photographs and satellite images these are important as base maps of the survey
as to draw our boundaries of physiognomic types of vegetation. Reports that have been produced
by people who were engaged in natural resources studies in the area such as land resources
inventories, vegetation cover, soil and geological reports, climatic data and crop yields and
management data.
3.4.2.2. Aerial photo or image interpretation
Study in detail and identify features that appear on aerial photo or a satellite image and this
depends on the recognition in different grey scale (tone, texture, pattern and structure) and relief
when using contact print and by defining spectral signatures of various vegetation when using
satellite images. Make mosaics if it is necessary. Delineate all the physiognomic types of
vegetation. Using stereoscopes look closely at the pattern of vegetation and separate the area
where it seems to be homogenous or semi-uniform with same slope and come up with
provisional boundaries for physiognomic types of vegetation; this may be also accomplished by
carrying out digital image classification after analyzing the spectral signatures registered on a
satellite image. Mark provisional sites of sampling plots and traverses and ensure that all
homogenous areas of all physiognomic types of vegetation have sites for sampling plots marked
at.

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3.4.2.3. Field survey
To carry out the actual field survey the following equipment are needed; GPS receiver, map or
aerial images, measuring tape, water bottles and vegetation identification tables. Field survey is
the physical interpretation o the marked places, verifying the provisional boundaries marked
from the office and identification of tree and grass species vegetation, slope
(a) Identification of physiognomic types of boundaries
Traversing in the field is done firstly in the whole area as to identify the physiognomic types of
vegetation boundaries (mapping units) of homogenous vegetation. The boundaries are
established by looking closely where the vegetation structure and slope structure changes.
(b) Identification of sampling plots in the field
Having marked the sampling plots sites on the mosaic, their final positions must be confirmed on
the ground. On arrival at a predetermined plot site ensure through accurate map reading that the
plot is in fact correctly sited that is representative of the area. When the correct locality has been
decided peg the site and prick through on the mosaic the exact locality or you take the
coordinates of the site using GPS receiver and number the plot. Ensure that all homogenous units
marked on the images are in fact homogenous and correct where necessary and predetermined
boundaries of physiognomic types marked on the images are in fact correct.
(c) Coding of the sampling plots
The plot is examined and come up with dominant tree species, dominant grass species, site
condition in terms of bush encroachment and coppicing growth, soil texture, parent material,
wetness, erosion hazard and carrying capacity. A full plot description is written in the sample
plot examination note book.
(d) The standard vegetation code description
The vegetation and land characteristics are described according to standard codes and the code
symbol for each characteristic is arranged in a standard order to provide a code description. In
vegetation coding tree or grass species are recorded by the first three letter of the generic name,
for example: for Brachstegia boehmii we use Bra. Where the tree species is to be shown, only
the first letter of the species name is written after the generic name, for example: for Combretum
apiculatum we use Com. a. Where two tree or grass types are dominant, all are written for
example Bra/Jul. The vegetation code below can be interpreted as in table 3.2 below:

49
Table 3.2: Description of vegetation code
Symbol Symbol Description Description
Ts Tree Savanna Physiognomic Type
Com Combretum Dominant Tree
Hyp Hypanhenia Dominant Grass
Pog Pogonena Second Dominant Grass
2 Moderate Site Condition
1 Slight Coppice Growth Site Condition
4 1Livestock Unit/4ha Carrying Capacity
A Sandy Soils Soil Texture
Gr Granite Parent Material
1 Nil or Slight Erosion Erosion
W1 wet for relatively short period and infrequent periods Wetness Factor

Activity 3.4

1. Describe all the symbols that are used to describe vegetation and land characteristics on a
vegetation code.
2. Decode the following vegetation code.

3.4.2.4. Determining the Carrying capacity of a veld

It refers to the hactrage which is allocated to a livestock unit (500kg animal) to graze without
veld deterioration. To estimate the carrying capacity for each homogenous unit of vegetation, we
select 10 to 20 sampling sites randomly and using quadrant of 1m by 1m, a sickle is used to cut
off the grass and get average weight. For example a Grazing land 600 ha
Average weight of grass per 1 m2 = 0.4 kg average
Weight of grass per hectare or 10 000 m2 = 4 000 kg
The animal is capable of grazing half of 4 000 kg divided by 2 = 2 000 kg

50
Therefore the total herbage yield for the whole area = 600 ha x 2 000kg = 1200 000 kg
1LU = 500 kg
Animal consume an average of 3 % of its body weight therefore 3% 0f 500 kg = 15 kg
Total consumption for the whole year = 365 days x 15 kg = 5475 kg/LU
Therefore, total CC = 1200 000 kg/5475 kg = 219LUs
The carrying capacity is 600 ha/219 LUs = 2.7
3.4.2.5. Vegetation classification
Vegetation classification is mainly based on the structure of the vegetation that is the
physiognomic type and the carrying capacity. After carrying out the vegetation coding the
vegetation is grouped according to physiognomic types, dominant tree species and grasses, site
condition, carrying capacity, soil texture and land characteristics.
3.4.2.6. Production of vegetation survey map and report
Once all field work has been completed the surveyor redraws the final classification map.
Vegetation class boundaries are drawn in solid lines and mapping units within vegetation classes
in broken lines. Only one representative code should be placed in each mapping unit. Where
mapping units are too small to include vegetation codes the sample plots positions may be
numbered and representative vegetation codes recorded in a “key” on the map. The area of each
vegetation class unit is computed and vegetation class totals are tabulated and recorded on the
vegetation classification map legend. Farm name, I.C.A, North Pole and bar scale must be added
to the map
3.4.3. Management of vegetation in Zimbabwe
Vegetation can be conserved using the following three methods: Protected areas are fenced for
medicinal benefits; Insitu- conservation which involves conserving vegetation in its original
habitat e.g. vegetation in natural parks. Insitu enables perpetuating of species and biological
diversity of plant population in their natural state; and Exsitu- conservation which involves
conservation of plants outside their environment for example national botanical gardens.
3.4.4. Soil vegetation relationships
Trees and grass species are good indicators soil, land and climate characteristics. Table 3.3
shows the soil vegetation relationships.

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Table 3.3: Soil-vegetation relationships
Trees Soils Rainfall
Parinari species leached Common in high veld
Muhacha
Terminalia sericea Leached sandy 600 - 800mm
Mususu
Julbernadia globiflora Leached sandy 700 – 900mm
Munhondo, mutondo
Syzigium spp Vlei margins (high water table)
Mukute
Acacia polycantha Good fertile soil Heavy vlei soils 500 – 700mm
Muunga
Baikaea physijuga Kalahari sands
(Zimbabwean teak)
Colophospermum Shallow poor drained alkaline soils – Indicative of low rainfall 400
mopane hardy tree – 600mm
Mupani
Monotes glaber Well drained sandy soil or gravely
Mushava, muvara sand
Combretum apiculatum Light textured loam sandy 600 – 800mm
Mupembere, mbondo
Commiphora spp Found among granite boulders and 400mm
paper tree, Mpapupa rocky kopjes
Burkea African Sandy soils and usually associated
Mukarati with Terminalia sericea
Brachystegia boehmii Shallow gravely soils 700 – 900mm
mupfuti

Activity 3.5

1. Map land classes and vegetation classes on the analogue contact print.

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3.5. Summary
Field survey of land resources is done as to complement aerial survey from remote sensing. Soil
and vegetation field surveys are done as to classify the soils and vegetation in terms of their
capability to sustain crop and animal production. Vegetation and soils together with other land
characteristics are grouped in order of limiting factors to sustain agricultural production. The
main output of field survey is the survey report accompanied by maps showing the classified
land resources
Further Reading
Carver, A. J. (1981). Air photography for land use planning, Department of Conservation and
Extension, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Ivy, P. (1981). A guide to soil coding and land capability classification for land use planners,
Department of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Nyamapfene, K. (1991). The soils of Zimbabwe, Nehanda Publishers, Harare.
Anderson, I.P., Brinn, P.J., Moyo, M. and Nyamwanza, B. (1993). Physical resource inventory of
the communal lands of Zimbabwe, An overview, NRI Bulletin 60. Chatham, UK: Natural
Resources Institute.
Frost, P.G.H. (1996). The ecology of miombo woodlands, In: Campbell, B. (ed.). The Miombo in
Transition: Woodlands and Welfare in Africa. Centre for International Forest Research, Bogor.
Robinson, J. and Clatworthy, J. 1980. Grasses and legumes for pastures. Natural Resources
Board, Harare.

53
UNIT 4
4.0. Coordinate System and Global Positioning System (GPS)
4.1. Introduction
This unit introduces the student to the coordinate systems that are used in Zimbabwe together with map
projection and datum. Coordinate system is used in geography and enables every location on Earth to be
specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are often chosen such that one of the
numbers represents a vertical position, and two or three of the numbers represent a horizontal position.
The unit also introduces the GPS technology which uses various coordinate systems to locate feature on
the earth’s surface. Coordinates together with the GPS are essential in map reading, navigation, distance,
area and elevation measurement, surveying, mapping and precision farming.
4.2. Objectives
By the end of this unit students should be able to;
 understand and apply Geographic and Plane coordinate system
 understand and apply Map projections
 understand and apply Global Positioning System (GPS)
4.3 Geographic coordinate system
A geographic coordinate system also known as the natural coordinate system is a common choice of
coordinates which uses latitude, longitude and elevation. The "latitude" (abbreviation: Lat., φ, or phi) of a
point on Earth's surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through
that point and through (or close to) the centre of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace
circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator and to each other.
The North Pole is 90° N; the South Pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator,
the fundamental plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe
into Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
The "longitude" (abbreviation: Long., λ, or lambda) of a point on Earth's surface is the angle east or west
of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of
great ellipses (often called great circles), which converge at the north and south poles. The meridian of
the British Royal Observatory in Greenwich, in south-east London, England, is the international prime
meridian, although some organizations such as the French Institut Géographique National continue to use
other meridians for internal purposes. Figure 4.1 shows the geographic coordinates on which the latitude
of P measures the angle φ between P and the Equator along the meridians while the longitude measure
the angle λ, between the meridian through P and the Central meridian

54
Figure 4.1: Geographic coordinates
The prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often
divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side.
The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E. The combination of these two
components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration
of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a "graticule". The
origin/zero point of this system are located in the Gulf of Guinea.
4.3.1 Distance measurement
Distance between a pair of points on the earth’s surface, A and B can be calculated from the relationship
Distance(A,B) = R arcos[sinφA *sinλ B+ cosφA *cosλ B(λA- λB)] Where R is the radius the Earth
assuming it is spherical. As rules of thumb one second of latitude is about 30 m or 1 degree is
approximately 110 km. One second of longitude varies with latitude from
a maximum at the equator to zero at the poles
4.4. Plane coordinates system
Unlike geographical coordinate’s plane coordinate assumes that the earth is flat. Firstly, it uses a
simple Cartesian or polar coordinate system to specify locations rather than a more complex spherical
coordinate system (the geographic coordinate system of latitude and longitude). By using the Cartesian
coordinate system's simple XY coordinates, "plane surveying" methods can be used, speeding up and
simplifying calculations. Secondly, the system is highly accurate within each zone (error less than
1:10,000). Outside specific state plane zone accuracy rapidly declines, thus the system is not useful for
regional or national mapping. Figure 4.2 shows plane coordinates.

55
Figure 4.2: Plane coordinate system
Locations on the plane are defined by polar or Cartesian coordinates. Given an arbitrary origin O, the
distance r and angle Ѳ (with respect to N) define the location of point P in polar coordinates. With same
origin O and Y pointing North and X pointing East the Cartesian coordinate of P are distance x and y in
metres. The ordered coordinate pairs (r, Ѳ) and (x, y) are readily converted from one coordinate system to
another by the relationships x = r Sin Ѳ; y = r Cos Ѳ and r = square root(x2+y2); Ѳ = tan-1(y/x). The angle
Ѳ is defined as the azimuth angle clockwise from the North not the more common trigonometric
convention of being measured from the East
4.4.1 Distance measurement
Distance between a pair of points on the earth’s surface, A and B can be calculated using the Pythagoras
distance between the two points A and B on a plane as: Distance (A, B) = square root (XA –XB)2 + (YA –
YB)2; Where points are located (XA,YA) and (XB,YB)
4.5. Map projections
The earth’s shape is described as a sphere or spheroid but the real truth it is a geoid. To represent the
curved part of the earth on a flat piece of paper or a computer screen is accomplished through projection.
Mapping on a 2D surface means assigning plane coordinates (x,y) to each point on a reference surface of
geographic coordinates (λ, φ). Figure 4.3 describes the shape of the earth.

56
Figure 4.3: Spheres, spheroids, geoid and ellipsoids
A map projection is a systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations from
the surface of a sphere or an ellipsoid into locations on a plane. Maps cannot be created without map
projections. All map projections necessarily distort the surface in some fashion. Depending on the
purpose of the map, some distortions are acceptable and others are not; therefore, different map
projections exist in order to preserve some properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of other
properties. There is no limit to the number of possible map projections.
Maps can be more useful than globes in many situations: they are more compact and easier to store; they
readily accommodate an enormous range of scales; they are viewed easily on computer displays; they can
facilitate measuring properties of the terrain being mapped; they can show larger portions of the Earth's
surface at once; and they are cheaper to produce and transport. These useful traits of maps motivate the
development of map projections.

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4.5.1 Classes of map projection
Generally there are three classes of map projections that are used to project the curved surface of earth to
a two dimensional coordinate system. These are conical, azimuthal and cylindrical on which the later is
used in Zimbabwe. Figure 4.4 shows the classes of map projections.

Figure 4.4: Classes of map projections

Cylindrical map projection is further classified into three classes using the aspect of the projection, which
are normal (equatorial), oblique and transverse as in figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5: Cylindrical map projection

58
In Zimbabwe our plane coordinates (Cartesian) are derived from the cylindrical map projection sing the
transverse aspect as in figure 5.5, our reference ellipsoid is Clarke 1880 spheroid and the datum is Arc
1950. The coordinates derived from this projection are known as Universal Transverse Mercator.
4.5.1.1. Cylindrical Map Projections: Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system
One of the most popular Cartesian coordinates is called the UTM system established in 1936 at the
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. It uses the Transverse Mercator projection, which results
from warping the cylinder round the poles.Using this system, the globe is subdivided into 60 UTM zones,
numbered from west to east, starting with zone 1 at 180 deg West. Each UTM Zone is 6 deg of longitude
wide and extends 84 deg North to 80deg South. The origin of each zone is the intersection of the central
meridian at the Equator. Displacements in the x and y directions are called UTM eastings and UTM
northings respectively. Conventionally, the origin of each zone is offset to the West and assigned an
Easting of 500 000 m so that in each zone eastings are always positive. The northing of the Equator in the
northern Hemisphere is 0 m and in the Southern hemisphere, it is arbitrarily assigned a value of
10 000 000 m in order to avoid negative northings. In order to minimise distortion across each zone the
central meridian is reduced by a scale factor of 0.9996. This produces two parallel lines of zero distortion
approximately 180 km either side of the central meridian. The UTM is excellent for maps of a scale of 1:
250 000 and larger. At smaller scales there are distortions. Figure 4.6 shows the Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) system.

Zimbabwe

Figure 4.6 UTM systems

The UTM spatial referencing system requires three sets of numbers, the easting, the northing, and either
the Zone number or the central meridian. There is no relationship between coordinates of one zone with

59
another. If there is need for comparison, then the coordinates have to be converted. Central part of
Zimbabwe is in zone 36 K for example a point in the central part of the country to located as follows
UTM 36K 255022;7996500 where the first set of six numbers are eastings and the second set of 7
numbers are nothings
Activity 4.1

1. Order a topographic map covering the same area as of contact prints and LANDSAT
image and state the coordinate systems of the map including the reference spheroid or
ellipsoid.
2. Mark any two separate points on the map and read off both the geographic and UTM
coordinate the points.
3. Calculate the distance between the two points using coordinates
4. Briefly explain the significance of coordinates on a map

4.6. Global Positioning System

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a U.S.-owned utility that provides users with positioning,
navigation, and timing (PNT) services. Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are space-based radio
positioning systems that provide 24 hour three-dimensional positions, velocity and time information. This
system consists of three segments: the space segment, the control segment, and the user segment. The
U.S. Air Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control segments.
 The space segment consists of a nominal constellation of 24 operating satellites that transmit one-way
signals that give the current GPS satellite position and time.
 The control segment consists of worldwide monitor and control stations that maintain the satellites in
their proper orbits through occasional command maneuvers, and adjust the satellite clocks. It tracks
the GPS satellites, uploads updated navigational data, and maintains health and status of the satellite
constellation.
 The user segment consists of the GPS receiver equipment, which receives the signals from the GPS
satellites and uses the transmitted information to calculate the user's three-dimensional position and
time.
4.6.1. Position determination
Satellites continuously orient themselves to ensure that their solar panels stay pointed towards the Sun,
and their antennas point toward the Earth. A GPS receiver locates four or more of satellites, figure out the
distance to each, and use this information to deduce its own location. This operation is based on the
mathematical principle called Trilateration. The positions of the satellites are forecasted and broadcasted

60
along with the GPS signal to the user Through several known positions (of the satellites) and the
measured distances between the receiver and the satellites, the position of the receiver can be determined.
The principle of the GPS system is to measure the signal transmitting paths from the satellites to the
receivers. The nominal orbit period of a GPS satellite that is the time for the satellite to complete one
revolution around the Earth is about 12 hrs. GPS makes use of the time of arrival (TOA) of the GPS
signal to determine positions on Earth’s surface. A GPS satellite, which has a known position in space,
sends out a signal to a receiver on Earth’s surface. The time interval, known as the signal propagation
time, recorded at the receiver is then multiplied by the speed of the signal to give the emitter-to-receiver
distance.
 Location measurement from one satellite is the distance (x) from one satellite tells us we are located
somewhere on the surface of an imaginary sphere centered on that satellite with a radius of x (see 1 in
Figure 4.7)
 Location measurement from two satellites is the distance measurements from two satellites limits our
location to the intersection of two spheres, which is a circle (see 2 in Figure 4.7)
 Location measurement from three satellites is the third measurement that narrows our location to just
two points (see 3 in Figure 4.7)
 Location measurement from four satellites is the fourth measurement that determines which point is
our true location (see 4 in Figure 4.7)
Figure 4.7 shows how the GPS determines a position.

1 2 3

Figure 4.7 GPS in determining location

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4.6.2. GPS Services
GPS satellites provide service to civilian and military users. The civilian service is freely available to all
users on a continuous, worldwide basis. The development and implementation of precision agriculture or
site-specific farming has been made possible by combining the Global Positioning System (GPS) and
geographic information systems (GIS). These technologies enable the coupling of real-time data
collection with accurate position information, leading to the efficient manipulation and analysis of large
amounts of geospatial data. GPS-based applications in precision farming are being used for; farm
planning, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor guidance, crop scouting, variable rate applications, and
yield mapping. GPS allows farmers to work during low visibility field conditions such as rain, dust, fog,
and darkness.
Precision agriculture is about collecting timely geospatial information on soil-plant-animal requirements
and prescribing and applying site-specific treatments to increase agricultural production and protect the
environment. Where farmers may have once treated their fields uniformly, they are now seeing benefits
from micromanaging their fields. GPS equipment manufacturers have developed several tools to help
farmers and agribusinesses become more productive and efficient in their precision farming activities.
Location information is collected by GPS receivers for mapping field boundaries, roads, irrigation
systems, and problem areas in crops such as weeds or disease. The accuracy of GPS allows farmers to
create farm maps with precise acreage for field areas, road locations and distances between points of
interest. GPS allows farmers to accurately navigate to specific locations in the field, year after year, to
collect soil samples or monitor crop conditions.
Crop advisors use rugged data collection devices with GPS for accurate positioning to map pest, insect,
and weed infestations in the field. Pest problem areas in crops can be pinpointed and mapped for future
management decisions and input recommendations. The same field data can also be used by aircraft
sprayers, enabling accurate swathing of fields without use of human “flaggers” to guide them. Crop
dusters equipped with GPS are able to fly accurate swaths over the field, applying chemicals only where
needed, minimizing chemical drift, reducing the amount of chemicals needed, thereby benefiting the
environment. GPS also allows pilots to provide farmers with accurate maps.
4.6.3. Benefits
 Precision soil sampling, data collection, and data analysis, enable localized variation of chemical
applications and planting density to suit specific areas of the field.
 Accurate field navigation minimizes redundant applications and skipped areas, and enables maximum
ground coverage in the shortest possible time.
 Ability to work through low visibility field conditions such as rain, dust, fog and darkness increases
productivity.

62
 Accurately monitored yield data enables future site-specific field preparation.
 Elimination of the need for human "flaggers" increases spray efficiency and minimizes over-spray.

Activity 4.2

1. Turn on a GPS receiver and set the position format to UTM, datum to Arc 1950, Spheroid
to Clarke 1880, Units to Metres.
2. Using the set GPS receiver measure distance and area.
3. Enter UTM coordinates from Activity 4.1 into the GPS receiver and navigate to the point.
4. Using the GPS receiver take coordinates of various features and produces a point map of
the features.

4.7. Summary
In Zimbabwe we use both Geographic and Cartesian (UTM) coordinate systems, Geographic
coordinates describes location of a point in terms of the angle of the point’s longitude east or
west from the Greenwich Meridian (longitudes) and the angle of the point’s latitude south or
north of the Equator (latitude). UTM coordinates describes location of a point in terms of a zone,
metres in the east and north directions. Coordinates are used to measure distance and area,
navigate, know bearing and locate earth’s features. GPS uses satellite and receivers to calculate
the coordinates of a point with this ability it is used for distance and area measurement,
navigation and precision farming.

Further reading
www.gps.gov/systems/gps/
www.usgs.gov
Leick, A. (2015). GPS satellite surveying 4th edition, John Wiley and Sons 2015
Hofmann-Wellenhof, B, Lichtenegger, H and Collins, J. (2001). GPS Theory and Practice, 5th
revised edition, Springer-Verlag
Pearson, F. (1990). Map Projections: Theory and Applications, CRC Press 1990.
Bugayevskiy, L. and Snyder, J. (1995). Map Projections: A Reference Manual, Taylor and
Francis.

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UNIT 5
5.0. Geographical Information System
5.1. Introduction
The unit has been designed to acquaint students with the basic scientific and technical knowledge
to analyse remote sensing products (images) together with data obtained from ground surveys as
to compile and map out a given area. The unit will address the four capabilities of GIS in
handling land resources data, the ability to capture and store the data, manage, analyse and
present the data.
5.2. Objectives
By the end of this unit student should be able to;
 Describe the Geographical Information System
 understand and apply the techniques of geographical data input
 understand and apply the techniques of geographical data management
 understand and apply the techniques of geographical data analysis
 understand and apply the techniques of geographical data output (cartography)
5.3. The scope of GIS
A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing
geographic phenomenon that exist, and events that occur on Earth. In general Geographical
Information System refers to a system for in input, storage, analysis and output of georeferenced
information.Geographic implies that locations of the data items are known or can be calculated
in terms of geographic coordinates (latitude, longitude). Information implies that the data in a
GIS are organized to yield useful knowledge. In fact data can be defined as verifiable facts about
the real world and information is data organized to reveal patterns. System implies that a GIS is
made up of several interrelated and linked components with different functions: input,
management, analysis and presentation. Spatial data is data whose location (X;Y) is known or
data that is spatially referenced or georeferenced data.
5.3.1. Geographical data types
Geographic data fall into five categories:
 Nominal data describing names, for example field G2, Harare, Bulawayo
 Ordinal data describing quality between two extremes, for example, High altitude, Medium,
Low

64
 Ratio data describing quantities which are expressible, as a ratio of whole numbers, for
example, 0,1 2,3,4,5,…,n
 Interval for example. -20,-18,0,1,2,5
 Cyclic or directional, for example Compass direction. Special problem is that the number that
follows 359 degrees is 0 degrees
5.3.2. GIS data types
The basic data type in a GIS reflects traditional data found on a map. Accordingly, GIS
technology utilizes two basic types of data. These are:
 Spatial data; describes the absolute and relative location of geographic features.
 Attribute data; describes characteristics of spatial features. These characteristics can be
quantitative and/ qualitative in nature. Attribute data is often referred to as tabular
The coordinate location of a vegetation stand would be spatial data, while the characteristics of
that vegetation stand, e.g. cover group, dominant species, crown closure, height, etc., would be
attribute data.
5.3.3. Purpose of GIS
The ultimate purpose of GIS is to provide support for decision making based on spatial data. GIS
applications include, mapping, measurement, analysis, monitoring, modelling and management.
Figure 5.1 shows GIS in the Planning Process

Figure 5.1: GIS in the process of planning

65
Geographic databases have 6 major components aimed at answering the following questions
 Where is it? That is geographic location of a feature on the earth’s surface that is coordinates
 What is at? That is the object or feature that is occupying a certain location
 What is it? That is the description of the object or feature (attributes)
 When did it exist? That is time when the object or feature occupied a certain location
 What has changed? That is the changes that have happened to an object or feature with time
 What if? That is the predictions of what may happen (modelling)
5.3.4. GIS subsystems
GIS is a computer based system that provides four sets of capabilities to handle georeferenced
data. A GIS has four main functional subsystems. These are:
 A data input subsystem allows the user to capture, collect, and transform spatial and thematic
data into digital form. The data inputs are usually derived from a combination of hard copy
maps, aerial photographs, remotely sensed images, reports, survey documents, etc.
 The data storage and retrieval subsystem organizes the data, spatial and attribute, in a form
which permits it to be quickly retrieved by the user for analysis, and permits rapid and
accurate updates to be made to the database. This component usually involves use of a
database management system (DBMS) for maintaining attribute data. Spatial data is usually
encoded and maintained in a proprietary file format.
 The data manipulation and analysis subsystem allows the user to define and execute spatial
and attribute procedures to generate derived information. This subsystem is commonly
thought of as the heart of a GIS, and usually distinguishes it from other database information
systems.
 The data output subsystem allows the user to generate graphic displays, normally maps, and
tabular reports representing derived information products.
5.3.5. Components of GIS
An operational GIS also has a series of components that combine to make the system work.
These components are critical to a successful GIS and they are six as follows;
5.3.5.1. Hardware
Hardware is the computer system on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs on a wide
range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-
alone or networked configurations. Figure 5.2 shows the component of GIS.

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Figure 5.2: Components of GIS
5.3.5.2. Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic
information. Examples of open source and commercial softwares are presented in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: GIS software
Commercial Open Source
ESRI ArcINFO, ArcView, ArcGIS GRASS
MapInfo QGIS
Genamap JUMP
ILWIS (Academic) GeoTools
Microimages TNT FGIS
Manifold GMT
OGR
Mapwindows

5.3.5.3. Data
Perhaps the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and related tabular
data can be collected in-house, compiled to custom specifications and requirements, or
occasionally purchased from a commercial data provider. A GIS can integrate spatial data with
other existing data resources, often stored in a corporate DBMS. The integration of spatial data

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(often proprietary to the GIS software), and tabular data stored in a DBMS is a key functionality
afforded by GIS.
5.3.5.4. People
GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and develop plans
for applying it to real world problems. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and
maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their work. The identification of
GIS specialists versus end users is often critical to the proper implementation of GIS technology.
5.3.5.5. Procedures
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed implementation plan and business rules,
which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.
5.3.5.6. Network
A centralized computer server which combines the five components listed above to desktop
computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations.

5.4. Models of representing geographic data

There two fundamental ways of conceptualising geographic phenomena and these are;
 Discrete objects (entities), in this view, the world is empty, except where it is occupied by
objects with well-defined boundaries that are instances of generally recognized categories
e.g. dams. In the object view, objects are distinguished by their dimensions, and naturally fall
into categories of points, lines, or areas (polygons).
 Continuous fields, this view represents the real world as a finite number of variables, each
one defined at every possible position, e.g. temperature and altitude. Continuous fields can be
distinguished by what varies, and how smoothly, for example, cliffs are places in continuous
fields where elevation changes suddenly, rather than smoothly. Continuous fields can be
distinguished by what is being measured at a location.
Continuous fields and discrete objects define two conceptual views of geographic phenomena,
but they do not solve the problem of digital representation. Two methods are used to reduce
geographic phenomena to forms that can be coded in computer databases, and we call these
raster and vector. In principle, both can be used to code both fields and discrete objects, but
there is a strong association between raster and fields, and between vector and discrete objects.

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5.4.1. Vector data model
All spatial data models are approaches for storing the spatial location of geographic features in a
database. Vector storage implies the use of vectors (directional lines) to represent a geographic
feature. Vector data is characterized by the use of sequential points or vertices to define a linear
segment. Each vertex consists of an X coordinate and a Y coordinate. Vector lines are often
referred to as arcs and consist of a string of vertices terminated by a node. A node is defined as a
vertex that starts or ends an arc segment. Figure 5.3 shows;
 A point may be described by an ordered pair of coordinates {x,y} defining its location, as
well as a list of attributes.
 A line or polylines may be described as an ordered set of n points defining its location
(x1,y1,…,xn,yn) together with an associated list of attributes.
 Polygon (Area) may be defined by a line which describes the location of its boundary,
together with a list of attributes of the area itself. Generally, the first and last points of the
boundary are the same (xn,y1,…,xn,y1)

Figure 5.3: Vector Data Model

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In vector representation, the storage of the vertices for each feature is important, as well as the
connectivity between features, e.g. the sharing of common vertices where features connect.

5.4.1.1. GIS database structure of Vector data model:

Vector GIS data structure consists of the Coordinate database and the Attribute tables connected
via the unique Identifier common to both the coordinate table and attribute data table as in figure
5.4.

Figure 5.4 Vector data model database structure

5.4.1.2. Vector data Spaghetti and Topological models

In the spaghetti model lines are defined by vertices whose spatial locations are recorded in the
tables of geometric coordinate. Coordinate pairs can be stored in relatively unstructured form.
This model is good for basic mapping needs as in figure 5.5.

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Figure 5.5: Spaghetti and Topological models
The topological model has additional information about the adjacency (1), connectivity (3) of
arcs and nodes and containment (3) and. Each arc is composed of one or more straight line
segments defined by vertices. The topological model organizes vector data according to
topological criteria and this is its key feature that distinguishes it from the spaghetti model as in
figure 5.6.

1 3

Figure 5.6 Topology spatial relationships

5.4.1.3. Summary for Vector data model
 Represent the world as discrete objects with well-defined boundaries
 The objects can be counted, and do not need to fill the whole space
 High precision, small storage space
 Every object has explicit attributes

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5.4.2. Raster Data Model
Raster data models incorporate the use of a grid-cell data structure where the geographic area is
divided into cells identified by row and column. This data structure is commonly called raster.
The term raster implies a regularly spaced grid and represents data as a rectangular matrix of
numbers and this is particularly suited for subdividing spatially continuous variable like rainfall
or temperature. Each grid cell (or pixel) in a raster model is of a constant size and records a
separate attribute. The raster data model fills the whole area. The locations of cells are addressed
by row (i) and column (j) number of the underlying variable as in figure 5.7.

Figure 5.7 Raster data model

The spatial coordinates are not usually explicitly stored for each cell because storage order does
this explicitly. Information on the number of rows and columns, their geographic location of
origin are saved in each layer. The spatial resolution of a raster is the size of one of the pixels on
the ground (cell size). The storage requirements increase geometrically with increasing spatial
resolution, for example, at 100m resolution, a 100 km square area requires 10002 rows and
columns or a million pixels, at 10 m resolution the same area requires 100002 pixels Thus,
usually raster models are often represented by data structures that conserve storage space. In
choosing a raster model, there is a trade-off between minimizing storage space and maximising
spatial fidelity.

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Activity 5.1

1. Define the terms Attribute and Spatial database

2. State and describe geographical data of importance in agriculture.
3. List the agricultural geographic data that can be coded in GIS as vector and raster
4. Compare and contrast vector to raster data models
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of vector to raster data models

5.5. Spatial data input subsystem

A data input subsystem allows the user to capture, collect, and transform spatial and thematic
data into digital form. The data inputs are usually derived from a combination of hard copy
maps, aerial photographs, remotely sensed images, reports and survey documents.
5.5.1. Sources spatial data
Spatial data can be classified into;
 Primary data; data measured directly through ground surveys, remote sensing and/or global
positioning systems (GPS) and
 Secondary data; data obtained from existing maps, aerial photographs, tables or other data
sources. Table 5.2 state the primary and secondary sources of spatial data
Table 5.2: Sources of primary and secondary spatial data
Raster Vector
Primary Aerial photographs Global positioning system (GPS) surveys
Digital remote sensing images using receivers
(satellite images) Ground survey measurements
Secondary Scanned maps/photographs Topographic maps
Digital elevation models (DEMs) Toponymy databases

5.5.3. Spatial data input

Raster data is commonly obtained by scanning maps or collecting aerial photographs and
satellite images. Scanned map datasets don't normally contain spatial reference information.
With aerial photography and satellite imagery, sometimes the location information delivered
with them is inadequate and the data does not align properly with other data you have. All spatial
data in analogue form need to be converted to digital form before they can be input into a GIS.

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This can be done through manual digitizing, automatic digitizing, scanning and geo-referencing,
and keyboard entry. Converting analogue data into digital form is the most time-consuming task
in GIS project, and may constitute up to 80 % of the total cost of a GIS project. Data can be
transferred by direct read and via an intermediate file format table 5.3 states the common file
formats that are recognized by GIS software.
Table 5.3: File format

Coverage Shapefile MIF DXF

DLG DWG TIGER EPS
Geodatabase MOSS DGN DIME
BMP TIFF MrSID GRID…

5.5.3.1. Geo-referencing
Geo-referencing is the process of assigning coordinates from a known reference system (control
points), such as XY coordinates, to the coordinates of a raster (image) map. Georeferencing
raster data allows it to be viewed, queried, and analyzed with other geographic data. The data in
a scanned map (image) is stored in a column-row system indexed by i and j, respectively. The
objective in georeferencing scanned maps is to relate the scanner coordinate system (i,j) to a
specific map coordinate system (x,y) like UTM. A georeference determines the relation between
row and column numbers in a raster map and XY-coordinates.

The process involves identifying at least four ground control points (GCPs) which are points
such as road or stream intersections, the mouth of a stream, rocky outcrops, the end of a jetty of
land, the corner of an established field or the intersection of two hedgerows, that are clearly
defined on the scanned map and on the source map or from ground. The real coordinates of these
points are read off from the source map or collected from the ground using a GPS and then are
added to the image using appropriate type of transformation. A general transformation is the
polynomial transformation which enable the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc order transformations. To solve the
1st order equation only 3 GCP points are required but to calculate the root mean square error
(RMSE) a fourth point is needed. For higher order transformation 4 or more GCP points are
required. The last step is to measure the accuracy of georeferencing using the RMSE.
RMSE is important since it determines accuracy levels when digitizing and the quality of spatial
data. If the residual error is acceptable that is less than one pixel proceed to digitize, if not restart

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the geo-referencing process. Most of the GIS software is set with algorithm to calculate the
RMSE.
Activity 5.2

1. Scan a topographic map and carryout the process of georeferencing in any GIS software
using the following information.
a. UTM Projection
b. Clarke 1880 Ellipsoid or Spheroid
c. Arc 1950 Datum
d. 35 or 36 Zone (southern Hemisphere) (depending on the location of the map)

5.5.3.2. Digitizing
Digitising involves converting analogue map data into a computer compatible or computer
readable format (digital data). The first thing that must be considered is whether the data are
points, lines or polygons.
5.5.3.2.1. Digitizing techniques
Spatial data can be digitized using four basic techniques namely:
 Manual digitizing
 On-screen or heads-up digitizing
 Automated raster to vector conversion
 Scan Digitizing
(a) On-screen digitizing
On-screen digitizing is similar to manual digitizing in that features have to be traced by hand, but
it works directly on the computer screen using the scanned raster image as backdrop. Although
lines are still manually traced, the accuracy level is higher than using digitizing tablet because
the raster images are scanned at high resolution, normally from 200 to 1,600 dots per inch (dpi).
(b) Automated raster to vector conversion
Automated raster to vector conversion or so called automatic digitizing; lines are traced
automatically from the scanned raster image using image processing and pattern recognition
techniques. The idea behind automated raster to vector conversion algorithm is to let the
computer do the actual line tracing and eliminate tedious manual tracing.

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(c) Manual digitizing
Requires a digitizing tablet linked to a computer workstation as shown in figure 5.8. The
digitizing table is a flat tablet underlain by a fine mesh of wires. The operator manually traces
features from the hardcopy map using a pointer device attached to a cursor that can be moved
freely over the surface of the digitizing table. Buttons on the cursor allow the user to send
instructions to the computer. The position of the cursor on the table is registered by reference to
its position above the wire mesh.

Figure 5.8: Manual digitizing

(d) Scanning
A variety of scanning devices exist for the automatic capture of spatial data. While several
different technical approaches exist in scanning technology, all have the advantage of being able
to capture spatial features from a map at a rapid rate of speed. However, as of yet, scanning has
not proven to be a viable alternative for most GIS implementation. Scanners are generally
expensive to acquire and operate. As well, most scanning devices have limitations with respect to
the capture of selected features, e.g. text and symbol recognition. Experience has shown that
most scanned data requires a substantial amount of manual editing to create a clean data layer.
5.5.3.2.2. Digitizing modes
 Point mode: in this mode the digitizer is set to capture features as points (nodes)
 Stream mode: in stream mode the digitizer is set to record (linear) features according to a
stated time interval or distance interval. Once the user has recorded the start of a line the
digitizer might be set up to record a point automatically every 20 metres and the user must
move the cursor along the line to record its shape
 An end node is required to stop the digitizer from recording further points.

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Activity 5.3

1. Scan a contact print obtained from Activity 3.5, carryout the process of georeferencing in
any GIS software using the information in Activity 5.2 and digitize the following layers;
Vegetation classes (polygons), Land classes (polygons), Soil texture (polygons), Soil
depth (polygons), Roads (lines) and Buildings (points), drainages ad crests (lines)
2. What are the common errors in digitizing and how are they corrected
3. Digitize various layers geographic data that is relevant for agricultural planning and
management from a satellite image.

5.6. Spatial data management subsystem

Central to the GIS is the spatial database that is a collection of maps and associated information
in digital form. The database is composed of two elements
 Spatial database describing the geography (shape and position of the earth’s features
 Attribute database describing the characteristics or qualities of these features
The Data Management (Storage and retrieval) subsystem organizes the data, spatial and attribute,
in a form, which permits it to be quickly retrieved by the user for analysis, and permits rapid and
accurate updates to be made to the database. This component usually involves use of a database
management system (DBMS) for maintaining attribute data. Spatial data is usually encoded and
maintained in a proprietary file format.
5.6.1. Organizing Data for Analysis
Most GIS software organizes spatial data in a thematic approach that categorizes data in vertical
layers. The definition of layers is fully dependent on the organization’s requirements. Typical
layers used in natural resource management agencies or companies include forest cover, soil
classification, elevation, road network (access), ecological areas, hydrology,etc.
5.6.2. Editing and Updating of Data
Perhaps the primary function in the data storage and retrieval subsystem involves the editing and
updating of data. Frequently, the following data editing capabilities are required:
 Interactive editing of spatial data and attribute data
 The ability to add, manipulate, modify, and delete both spatial features and attributes
(independently or simultaneously)
 Ability to edit selected features in a batch-processing mode.

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5.6.3. Data Retrieval and Querying
The ability to retrieve data is based on the unique structure of the DBMS and command
interfaces are commonly provided with the software. Most GIS software also provides a
programming subroutine library, or macro language, so the user can write their own specific data
retrieval routines if required. Querying is the capability to retrieve data, usually a data subset,
based on some user defined formula. These data subsets are often referred to as logical views.
Often the querying is closely linked to the data manipulation and analysis subsystem. Querying
can be either by example of by content.
5.7. Spatial data analysis subsystem
The most important function of a GIS is to enable the analysis of spatial data and their attributes
for decision support. Spatial data analysis is done to answer questions about the real world and it
is done through the use of operators. Analysis is about selecting those parts of your data which
are relevant to the task in hand, and using them to attempt to find answers to questions. Analysis
with a GIS, often termed spatial analysis, unlike other Information Systems, has the added
dimension of 'space' or geography. This combination of descriptive attributes on various
phenomena, for example a field's soil texture, the type of road etc, together with information on
where the field is or the location of a road, a variety of locational questions to be asked such as
where are ..., show me where ..., how far is ..., what is next to ..., what is this ..., are there any ...
near this ...,. Operators can be broadly divided into: Logical and Mathematical Operators.
Logical operators include:
 Boolean Operators (AND, OR, XOR,NOT)
 Conditional (If) operators
 Relational operators (>, <, Less or equal, Greater or equal, Not equal)
And Mathematical Operators include:
 Arithmetic (+,-,/,*)
 Trigonometry (sin, cos, tan, arccos, arctan, arcsin)
 Logarithmic (log, log2,log10, exp, exp2)
 Powers (x2, x3,etc)
5.7.1. Categories of spatial data analysis activities
Basically there are four categories of spatial data analyses activities, these include;

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 Query: retrieval of attribute data without altering the existing data by means of arithmetic and
logical operators
 Reclassification: Dissolving part of the boundaries and merging into new reclassified
polygons/pixels
 Overlay: Operating on at least two layers and use the merged attributes for suitability studies,
risk management and potential evaluation
 Neighbourhood analysis: Analysis of connectivity between points, lines or polygons, e.g.
distance, optimum paths
5.7.1.1. Spatial query in a GIS
This is the retrieval of information without changing the original data or creating new data.
Information results when data is combined to mean something for example;
 Points: Which boreholes that fall within 1km of the farm paddocks?
 Lines: Which drainage systems are crossed by the farm road?
 Polygons: Which fields lie within the land class I?
 Mix: Which rivers flow into the farm dam?
 Mix: Which areas are above 1000 meters high and fall within a land class II?
5.7.1.1.1. Types of Spatial Query
Spatial query is a search of the data to satisfy a given condition and there are two types of spatial
query.
 Query of attribute data; a spatial distribution or an area will be searched with respect to a
given attribute of interest
 Query of geometric data; with a given geometric condition for example location, shape or
intersection, all data that satisfy the condition will be searched.
(a) Query of Attribute Data
Attribute query is to retrieve the attribute data without altering the existing data according to
specifications given by the operator. Attribute query is used to find features with certain
attributes and the conditional statement is represented by the following three types of operator.
 Relational: >, <, =, >=, <>
 Arithmetic: +, -, *, /
 Boolean (logical): AND, OR, NOT, XOR

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The Relational operators are used to extract a condition for example having soil texture attributes
(1) in figure 5.9, and query a condition; soil texture = clay soils, clay soil are selected (2)

1 2

Figure 5.9: Querying Attribute data

The Boolean operators are used to combine more than two conditions, for example having soil
texture attribute and soil depth attribute you can query a condition, (soil texture = clay) AND
(soil depth > 1m). Areas with clay soils that are more than 1m in depth are selected. Figure 5.10
shows the Boolean Logic.

Figure 5.10: Boolean Logic

(b) Query of Geometric Data
The query is based on spatial relationships. Spatial query is used to find features that are located
in certain way relative to other features and it works by checking the coordinates of each point in
a feature and thus determining if they are within a certain distance, within, or intersect with
another feature. Whole features only will be selected and no new topology is created. You can

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query objects within the same layer or between layers with different geography. To query vector
features without modifying them, spatial topology (geometric index) is required. Figure 5.11
show some of the topological relations

Figure 5.11: Topological relations

Querying of geometric data includes;
 Proximity/Adjacency that is distance relationships (near, within a distance): for example find
features (points, lines, polygons) that are within a particular distance (simple linear) from
another feature or set of features. If the distance is set to 0 then you can find adjacent features
 Intersection that is when one feature overlaps with another: for example find features (points,
lines, polygons) that overlap to some degree with other features i.e. Find roads that are
intersected (crossed) by rivers
 Containment that is one feature within another: for example find features (points, lines,
polygons) that are within particular polygons i.e. Select water troughs within specific
paddocks.
5.7.1.2. Reclassification
The reclassification functions reclassify or change cell values to alternative values using a
variety of methods. You can reclass one value at a time or groups of values at once using
alternative fields; based on a criteria, such as specified intervals (for example, group the values
into 10 intervals); or by area (for example, group the values into 10 groups containing the same
number of cells). The functions are designed to allow you to easily change many values on an
input raster to desired, specified, or alternative values.

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All reclassification methods are applied to each cell within a zone. That is, when applying an
alternative value to an existing value, all the reclassification methods apply the alternative value
to each cell of the original zone. No reclassification method applies alternative values to only a
portion of an input zone. Some of the many reasons to reclassify are detailed below.
 Replacing values based on new information; Reclassification is useful when you want to
replace the values in the input raster with new values. This could be due to finding out that
the value of a cell should actually be a different value, for example, the land use in an area
changed over time.
 Grouping values together; you may want to simplify the information in a raster. For instance,
you may want to group together various slope percentages into one slope percentage class
described in table 5.4.
 Reclassifying values of a set of rasters to a common scale; another reason to reclassify is to
assign values of preference sensitivity, priority, or some similar criteria to a raster. This may
be done on a single raster (a raster of soil type may be assigned values of 1 to 10 to represent
erosion potential) or with several rasters to create a common scale of values.
Table 5.4: Example of reclassification table of slope
Slope (%) Reclassification coding Possible interpretation
0 – 1.99 1 A
2 – 4.99 2 B
5 – 7.99 3 C
8 – 11.99 4 D
>12 5 E

5.7.1.3. Neighbourhood Operations

Neighbourhood functions create output values for each cell location based on the value for the
location and the values identified in a specified neighbourhood. The neighbourhood can be of
two types: moving or search radius.
Moving neighbourhoods can either be overlapping or nonoverlapping. Overlapping
neighbourhood functions are also referred to as focal functions and generally calculate a
specified statistic within the neighbourhood. For example, you may want to find the mean or
maximum value in a 3 x 3 neighbourhood. The high and low pass filter functions, which smooth
and accentuate data, are variations of the overlapping neighbourhood statistics function. The
nonoverlapping neighbourhood functions, or block functions, allow for statistics to be calculated
in a specified nonoverlapping neighbourhood. The block functions are particularly useful for

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changing the resolution of a raster to a coarser cell size. The values assigned to the coarser cells
can be based on a separate calculation, such as the maximum value in the coarser cell, as
opposed to using the default nearest neighbour interpolation.
Search radius functions perform various calculations based on what is in a specified distance
from point and linear features. The following is a list of the tools in the Neighbourhood toolset
followed by a brief description of each. The neighbourhood tools are generally divided into two
types of neighbourhoods: moving or search radius. Moving windows can be either overlapping
(Focal Statistics, Filter, and Focal Flow) or nonoverlapping (Block Statistics). Search radius
neighbourhood tools are built around a type of feature (Line Statistics and Point Statistics). Table
5.5 describes the available tools for neighbourhood analysis.
Table 5.5: Neighbourhood analysis tools
Tool Description
Block Statistics Calculates statistics for a non-overlapping neighbourhood.
Filter Performs a preset focal filter on a raster.
Focal Flow Determines the flow of the values in the input raster within each cell's
immediate neighbourhood.
Focal Statistics Calculates a statistic on a raster over a specified neighbourhood.
Line Statistics Calculates a statistic on the attributes of lines in a circular
neighbourhood around each output cell.
Point Statistics Calculates a statistic on points over a specified neighbourhood
outputting a raster.

Activity 5.4

1. Use the operators to query attribute data from the digitized layers from Activity 5.3.
2. Use the operators to query geometric data from the digitized layers from Activity 5.3
3. Reclassify the slope computed from a DEM using classes that are used in soil coding.

5.7.1.4. Proximity analysis

Proximity is another of the most basic GIS questions, such as:
 What is the distance between two locations?
 What is the nearest or farthest feature from something?
 What is the distance between each feature in a layer and the features in another layer?

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 What is the shortest farm road from some location to another?
Proximity tools can be divided into two categories depending on the type of input the tool
accepts: features or rasters. The feature-based tools vary in the types of output they produce. For
example, the Buffer tool outputs polygon features which can then be used as input to overlay
tools.
The Near tool adds a distance measurement attribute to the input features, while the Select Layer
by Location tool creates a selection set. The raster-based Euclidean distance tools measure
distances from the centre of source cells to the centre of destination cells. The raster-based cost-
distance tools accumulate the cost of each cell traversed between sources and destinations.
5.7.1.4.1. Vector-based proximity tools
For feature data, the Proximity toolset is used to discover proximity relationships. These tools
output information with buffer features or tables. Buffers are usually used to delineate protected
zones around features or to show areas of influence. For example, you might buffer a school by
one mile and use the buffer to select all of the students that live more than one mile from the
school in order to plan for their transportation to and from school. Figure 5.12 shows buffers that
are created for a point, line and a polygon.

Figure 5.12: Buffer zones

You could use the multi-ring buffer tool to classify the areas around a feature into near,
moderate distance, and long distance classes for an analysis. Buffers are sometimes used to clip
data to a given study area, or to exclude features within a critical distance of something from

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further consideration in an analysis. Table 5.6 describes the available tool for vector-based
proximity analysis.
Table 5.6: Vector-based proximity analysis tools
Tool What it does

Buffer Creates new feature data with feature boundaries at a specified distance
from input features.

Near Add attribute fields to a point feature class containing distance, feature
identifier, angle and coordinates of the nearest point or line feature.

Point Distance Creates a new table with distance and feature identifier attributes
showing the distance from each point in the input feature class to all
points in the Near feature class, within a given search radius.

Select by Location Selects features from a target feature class within a given distance of (or
using other spatial relationships) the input features.

Create Thiessen Creates polygons of the areas closest to each feature, for a set of input
Polygons features.

Activity 5.5

1. Create a buffer along rivers showing the places that are not allowed to practice
cultivation.
2. Create polygons of paddocks areas that are closest to water troughs.

5.7.1.4.2. Raster-based distance tools

Most of GIS software provides several sets of tools that can be used in proximity analysis. The
Distance toolset contains tools that create rasters showing the distance of each cell from a set of
features, or that allocate each cell to the closest feature. Distance tools can also calculate the
shortest path across a surface, or the corridor between two locations that minimizes two sets of
costs. Distance surfaces are often used as inputs for overlay analyses; for example, in a model of
land use suitability, distance from streams could be an important factor, or distance from roads
could be a factor. Table 5.7 describes the available tools for raster-based proximity tools.

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Table 5.7: Raster-base proximity analysis tools
Tool What it does
Euclidean Distance Calculates the distance to the nearest source for each cell.
Euclidean Allocation Gives each cell the identifier of the closest source.
Euclidean Direction Calculates the direction to the nearest source for each cell.
Cost Distance Calculates the distance to the nearest source for each cell,
minimizing cost specified in a cost surface.
Cost Allocation Gives each cell the identifier of the closest source,
minimizing cost specified in a cost surface.
Cost Path Calculates the least-cost path from a source to a destination,
minimizing cost specified in a cost surface.
Cost Back Link Identifies for each cell the neighboring cell that is on the
least-cost path from a source to a destination, minimizing
cost specified in a cost surface.

5.7.1.5. Surface analysis

With the Surface tools, you can gain information by producing a new dataset that identifies a
specific pattern within an original dataset. You can derive patterns that were not readily apparent
in the original surface, such as contours, angle of slope, steepest downslope direction (Aspect),
and shaded relief. Each Surface tool provides insight into a surface that can be used as an end in
itself or as input into additional analysis.

Activity 5.6

1. From a digital elevation model derive the following patterns of the surface;
a. Contours
b. Slope
c. Aspect
d. Cut and fill

Table 5.8 lists the sample applications for surface analysis tools. These samples are only a few of
the many possibilities.

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Table 5.8. Surface analysis tools
Tool Use
Contours Contours can be useful for finding areas of the same value. You may be
interested in obtaining elevation values for specific locations and examining
the overall gradation of the land.
Slope You may want to know the variations in the slope of the landscape because you
want to find the area most at risk of landslide based on the angle of steepness
in an area (steeper slopes being those most at risk).
Aspect You may be a farmer who is interested in locating a field in an area with a
southerly aspect.
Hillshade You can create hillshade for both graphical and analytical purposes.
Graphically, a hillshade can provide an attractive and realistic backdrop,
showing how other layers are distributed in relation to the terrain relief.
From an analytical point of view, you can analyze how the landscape is
illuminated at various times of the day by lowering and raising the sun angle.
Cut/Fill Calculating cut/fill is useful when you want to know the areas and volumes of
change between two surfaces by the removal and addition of material.
You may be levelling a site for a building construction and wish to determine
the volume of material that needs to be excavated and dumped. Another use is
to identify areas of sediment erosion and deposition in a river valley.

5.7.1.6. Hydrologic analysis

An understanding of the shape of the earth's surface is useful for many fields, such as agriculture,
and forestry. These fields require an understanding of how water flows across an area and how
changes in that area may affect that flow.
When modeling the flow of water, you may want to know where the water came from and where
it is going. The hydrologic modeling functions in GIS provide methods for describing the
physical components of a surface. The hydrologic tools allow you to identify sinks, determine
flow direction, calculate flow accumulation, delineate watersheds, and create stream networks.
Table 5.9 lists the tools in the Hydrology toolset followed by a brief description of each. The
hydrology tools can be applied individually or used in sequence to create a stream network or
delineate watersheds.

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Table 5.9 hydrologic analysis tools
Tool Description
Basin Creates a raster delineating all drainage basins.
Fill Fills sinks in a surface raster to remove small imperfections in the
data.
Flow Accumulation Creates a raster of accumulated flow to each cell.
Flow Direction Direction from each cell to its steepest downslope neighbour.
Flow Length Calculates distance, or weighted distance, along a flow path.
Sink Creates a raster identifying all sinks or areas of internal drainage.
Snap Pour Points Snaps pour points to the cell of highest flow accumulation within a
specified distance.
Stream Link Assigns unique values to sections of a raster linear network between
intersections.
Stream Order Assigns a numeric order to segments of a raster representing branches
of a linear network.
Stream to Feature Converts a raster representing a linear network to features
representing the linear network.
Watershed Determines the contributing area above a set of cells in a raster.

5.7.1.7. Overlay Operations

One of the most basic questions asked of a GIS is "what's on top of what?" For example:
 What landuse is on top of what soil type?
 What roads are within what paddocks?
 What wells are within abandoned military bases?
Overlaying is basically the integration of mapped data from two or more different sources within
the same area, and it is arguably the most powerful function of a GIS. Any mapped area of the
earth’s surface can be subdivided (classified) into any number of different thematic “layers”.
Thus, a typical map will conventionally show the road network, slope, soil types, the river
network, vegetation types, etc., and each of these themes can be mapped separately. Overlay
analysis is often used in conjunction with other types of analysis. For example, you might
include layers derived from proximity analysis or surface analysis. Often, overlay is one step in
an analysis process or model, and may occur at various points in the process. You can use

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overlay analysis to combine the characteristics of several datasets into one. You can then find
specific locations or areas that have a certain set of attribute values that is, match the criteria you
specify. This approach is often used to find locations that are suitable for a particular use or are
susceptible to some risk. For example, you could overlay layers of vegetation type, slope, aspect,
soil moisture, and so on, to find areas susceptible to wildfire.

In general, there are two methods for performing overlay analysis; vector overlay (overlaying
points, lines, or polygons) and raster overlay. Some types of overlay analysis lend themselves to
one or the other of these methods. Overlay analysis to find locations meeting certain criteria is
often best done using raster overlay (although you can do it with feature data). Of course, this
also depends on whether your data is already stored as features or rasters. It may be worthwhile
to convert the data from one format to the other to perform the analysis.
5.7.1.7.1. Vector-based overlay
The key elements in vector overlay are the input layer, the overlay layer, and the output layer.
The overlay function splits features in the input layer where they are overlapped by features in
the overlay layer. New areas are created where polygons intersect. If the input layer contains
lines, the lines are split where polygons cross them. These new features are stored in the output
layer; the original input layer is not modified. The attributes of features in the overlay layer are
assigned to the appropriate new features in the output layer, along with the original attributes
from the input layer. Figure 5.13 is an example of polygon-on-polygon overlay.

Figure 5.13: Polygon-on-polygon overlay

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Vector overlay tools that are found in most GIS software are describe in table. Conceptually, the
tools are similar; they differ by the feature types they allow you to overlay, by whether you can
overlay multiple layers at one time, and by which input and overlay features are maintained in
the output layer. Table 5.10 describes the tools that are available for vector-based overlay
analysis.
Table 5.10: Vector-based overlay analysis tools
Tool Binary/Multiple Input Overlay Output
Overlay data type data type
Identity Binary Any Polygon Input features, split by overlay
features
Intersect Multiple Any N/A Only features common to all input
layers
Symmetrical Binary Polygon Polygon Features common to either input
difference layer or overlay, layer but not both
Union Multiple Polygon N/A All input features
Update Binary Any Polygon Input feature geometry replaced by
update layer

5.7.1.7.2. Raster-based overlay

In raster overlay, each cell of each layer references the same geographic location. That makes it
well suited to combining characteristics for numerous layers into a single layer. Usually, numeric
values are assigned to each characteristic, allowing you to mathematically combine the layers
and assign a new value to each cell in the output layer. Overlay analysis also uses operators such
as; Logical operations, Conditional Operations and Arithmetic Operations
Figure 5.14 is an example of raster overlay by addition. Two input rasters added together to
create an output raster with the values for each cell summed.

Figure 5.14: Raster overlay by addition

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Table describes the Raster-based overlay tools that are found in most of GIS software
Table 5.11: raster-based overlay analysis tools
Tool What it does
Zonal Summarizes values in a raster layer by zones (categories) in another layer; for
Statistics example, calculate the mean elevation for each vegetation category
Combine Assigns a value to each cell in the output layer based on unique combinations
of values from several input layers
Single Output Lets you combine multiple raster layers using an expression you enter; for
Map Algebra example, you can add several ranked layers to create an overall ranking
Weighted Automates the raster overlay process and lets you assign weights to each layer
Overlay before adding (you can also specify equal influence to create an unweighted
overlay)
Weighted Overlays several rasters multiplying each by their given weight and summing
Sum them together.
Activity 5.7

1. Convert the soil texture, soil depth and permeability layers to raster data format and
reclassify them according to the soil coding
2. Overlay reclassified raster layers of soil texture, permeability, soil depth and slope and
carry out suitability analysis for various crops

5.8. Spatial data output subsystem

The Data Output subsystem allows the user to generate graphic displays, normally maps, and
tabular reports representing derived information products. This subsystem conveys the results of
analysis to the people who make decisions about resources. Wall maps and other graphics can be
generated, allowing the viewer to visualize and thereby understand the results of analyses or
simulations of potential events. This is mainly the cartographic components of GIS that allows
for selected elements of the database to be used to produce map outputs. The outputs from this
component are in the form of maps, tables or graphs
5.8.1. Cartography
Cartography can be described as the graphic principles supporting the art, science, and
techniques used in making maps or charts. It was developed in a time before the computer and
geographic information system (GIS) technology. A map shows us where places and things are
located and help us find our way from one place to another. Traditionally, maps have been
created to serve two main functions. The first function has been to store information. Creating a

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map has been a way to record information for future reference. The second function has been to
provide a picture to relay spatial information to a user. The purpose for designing a map is
critical to its design. When designing a map, a mapmaker needs to know the answers to some
fundamental questions, such as: What is being mapped? Who is the audience? How is this map
being presented, on its own or as part of a report? What medium will be used to display this
map?
5.8.1.1. Map formats or types
Generally, maps can be in three formats. One is a general reference map such as a national
topographic map or a city map. In this form, the map is providing information to convey where
things are in relation to each other and show shape and elevation. The second is a thematic map,
where the map is used to convey information about a particular theme or multiple themes, such
as land use. Thematic Maps show shape and elevation. The last format is the planimetric map
which does not include relief for example the cadastral maps. Maps are there to communicate
geographical information effectively. A map is a simplification of an environment such as;
 Cultural features; Roads, lakes, buildings, rivers, contours, etc.
 Numeric data; yeild, population data, etc
 Physical Features; Geology, landuse, forestry, soils, vegetation, landcover etc.
Abstraction is used to simplify features and abstracted symbols are used to represent features.
Figure 5.15 shows example of abstracted symbols.

Figure 5.15: Abstracted symbols

5.8.1.2. Basic principles of Cartographic design
There are many types of maps, each with general and possibly specific requirements. While a
skilled cartographer is usually required to make maps with specific or special requirements,
anyone can make good, general, and informative maps by considering the following simple
guidelines. These guidelines have been organized into seven areas that you can use as a checklist
for creating or improving your maps;

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(a) Purpose
Typically, a map does not have more than one purpose. Trying to communicate too much in one
map; having more than one purpose for the map tends to blur the message and confuse the map
reader. Using two or more maps, each focused on a single message, is always a better strategy.
(b) Audience
Who will be reading your map? Are you designing a map for a few readers or for a large
audience of hundreds or millions of people? It's better to target your map to the person least
prepared to understand your map's message.
(c) Size, scale, and media
The physical size of a map relative to the geographic extent shown on the map will dictate the
scale of the map and determine how you will represent the actual size and number of features
shown on the map. Data is often collected at a particular scale.
(d) Focus
Refers to where the designer wants the map reader to first focus. Typically, cool colors (blues,
greens, and light gray) are used for background information, and warm colors (red, yellow,
black) are used to capture the reader's attention.
(e) Integrity;
You may want to cross validate some of your information, such as the names or spelling of some
features. If the data was produced by another organization, it is customary to give that
organization credit on the map.
(f) Balance;
How does your map look on the page or screen? Are the parts of the map properly aligned? The
body of the map should be the dominant element. Try to avoid large open spaces. Be flexible in
where you place elements (that is, not all titles need to go at the top). Should some components
on the map be contained within a border?
(g) Completeness
A map generally should contain some basic elements, such as a title, legend, scale bar, and north
arrow; however, there are exceptions. For example, if a graticule exists, it is not necessary to
place a north arrow. Basically, place all the information you think your readers need to fully
understand the map.

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Before publishing your map, it is always a good idea to have someone else look it over,
especially for spelling and overall appearance.
5.8.1.3. Cartographic abstraction
Process of transforming collected data into a graphical representation of features on a map and it
makes a map more legible by removing noise or redundant data. Uses four possible processes
that are;
(a) Selection
It is a process of choosing/selecting geographic features to use on the map for example drainages
and land classes boundaries. Firstly it is dependent on the purpose of the map. Select the features
you will use and discard those you don’t want to show .i.e. don’t need roads for a land capability
classification map you would select land classes boundaries (polygons). Secondly it is dependent
on scale. Large scale maps can have broader ranges of features and represent them in more
detail. Do not clutter the map with unimportant features. Lastly it is dependent on the type of
Map. Thematic maps usually contain few features and focus on one theme. Planimetric and
topographic maps have far more features present (roads, rivers, places, boundaries)
(b) Generalization
This is the process of simplifying geographic features on a map as to eliminate unnecessary
detail. The process maintains the visual clarity or legibility of the map by grouping many points
into one (huts into a settlement), decreasing the complexity of lines (smoothing roads to remove
kinks) and amalgamate many polygons into one. Highly dependent on scale, rivers can be wide
features (polygon) on large scale maps but can be reduced to lines on small scale maps. The
process is also dependent on purpose of map (must be appropriate) as it causes loss of location
accuracy. Not crucial for Thematic maps but may impact more severely on Reference maps.
(c) Classification
This is a process of arranging into classes or categories to simplify and clarify presentation. Used
mainly with thematic maps to assign values to classes and four different scales of measurement
are used which are;
 Nominal (no inherent order =Qualitative)
 Ordinal (uses categories of rank for comparison)
 Internal (uses exact intervals such temperature)
 Ratio (uses exact intervals with an absolute zero)

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Different methods of thematic classification available are equal intervals, quantiles, mean
standard deviation, maximum breaks, natural breaks and optimal (median).
(d) Symbolization
The process of choosing the symbols you will use to represent features or quantities. This has the
largest impact on what the map will look like. There is need to consider;
 Spatial arrangement of the phenomena such as spatial dimensions in terms of (point, linear or
areal), discrete vs continuous (field vs rainfall), and abrupt vs. smooth (suburb vs attitude).
 Levels of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio).
 Visual variables (Spacing, size, perspective height, orientation, shape, arrangement, hue
lightness and saturation, symbols, pattern and textures).
 Thematic technique. (Choropleth, proportional symbol, isopleths, dot mapping.
Symbolization is highly dependent on production method.
5.8.1.4. Map elements.
Map elements includes Title (What is the map showing), Frame (boundary of map), Legend
(what the map symbols mean), Descriptive text (where the data is from, who made the map, the
date, map projection etc), Distance indication (scale bar or representative fraction), Direction
indicator (north arrow, graticule of coordinates), Symbols representing reality (places, roads,
areas, quantities)
(a) Frame line and neat line
Frame line encloses all elements. It focuses the user’s attention (picture frame). Neat line
encloses individual elements and it is used when map areas need to be cropped. Line type and
thickness dependant on output format but thin single black lines are best. Neat lines are not
always necessary and frame lines can act as neat lines.
(b) Map area.
This is the region of earth being represented and it should be as prominent as possible. The shape
of the mapped area is often dependent on the geometry of the area being mapped and or the page
type. Best position is central to map sheet.
(c) Symbols
Symbols representing reality (places, roads, areas, quantities e.t.c) Conventional symbols or
signs for agricultural mapping are presented in Carver. A. J. (1981). The following colours on
maps should be observed by all map readers to be able to interpret detail correctly:

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 blue- drainages rivers, streams, and items relating to water such as boreholes and pipelines
 Green- potential arable areas homogeneous soil and vegetation areas
 Red- non arable land classes all items relating to erosion
 Brown-crests, roads, and buildings
 black – area and farm boundaries, fencing gates and grids
 Yellow – contours, storm drains, all items relating to soil conservation
(d) Insets
Used to add extra elements to the map and common uses include; adding a location map,
enlarging an important area and adding related themes.
(e) Legend
Defines the symbols used on the map and this should be self explanatory symbols can be
omitted. No single best position for a legend and should be placed off the map area. Most
legends are generated by the GIS software then the user modifies it as required.
(f) Scale
Indicates the amount of reduction on a map or allows the user to measure distances and area and
they are of three types; Representative fraction (1:50 0000), Verbal scale (1cm = 5km) and Scale
bar of different styles and different units. In Zimbabwe we have three categories of map scales
which are;
 Large scale; this has a scale range of 1:2 500 up to 1: 10 000 which represents a small area on
the ground but the map size is large on paper. Large scales are used for irrigation, farm
planning.
 Medium scale; this has a scale range of 1: 25 000 up to 1: 100 000. Medium scales are used
for catchment areas, communication, scaling of photographs, cadastral information and
planning.
 Small scale; small scales have a range of 1: 250 000 up to 1: 1 000 000 or even smaller.
A small scale has a very large value and covers a very large area on the ground but produces a
very small map on paper. As a result such maps are restricted to details like communication and
boundaries i.e. they can only show roads, cadastral, administrative boundaries
(g) Projection
A mathematical formula that transforms feature locations from the earth's curved surface to a
map's flat surface. Projections can cause distortions in distance, area, shape, and direction; all

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projections have some distortion. Therefore, the projection type is often placed on the map to
help readers determine the accuracy of the measurement information they get from the map.
(h) Data source
The bibliographic information for the data used to develop the map.
(i) Orientation
Refers to the indication of direction on a map, usually this is done using a North Arrow (and /or
magnetic north). If North is not a constant direction when Map covers a large area graticules
should be used. North is usually at the top of the page, but include indicator unless it is obvious
(j) Text and Typography
Typography refers to the process of specifying, arranging and designing text (Type) on a map in
terms of categories of type, classes and spacing. A guide line for typography is as follows;
 Text must be as easy to read as possible (Try not to use decorative, bold and italics fonts)
 Avoid using more than two type families at a map.
 Type size should correspond to importance.
 Don’t allow text to overlap it makes it difficult to read.
 Try not to overlap text with features
 Use a mark, halo or callout if there is an overlap.
 Ensure labels are clearly associated with the correct feature. (Call outs can assist in
associating text with features). Point labels should be placed on a best position you may need
to compromise on position to improve association. Line labels must follow along line,
polygon labels should fill the area to illustrate their extent.
5.8.1.5. Mapping data
This often referred to as Thematic Mapping and there are various methods that are used in
mapping data. Choice of method is dependent on the type of data being mapped. The following
are available methods;
(a) Qualitative
Used when mapping polygon data on which one colour represents one entity (usually no
duplicates). There is no relationship between colours other than to show differences for example
land cover.
(b) Choropleth (graduate colour)

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This method is used when mapping magnitude at place. Colours or shades are assigned to
numerical values that are each polygon is assigned a colour based on its value. One colour
represent a rage of values and more than one polygon can have the same colour for example
when mapping maize yield in a field
(c) Isarithimic
This method is used when mapping interpolated areas of equal value using equal stepped classes
for example when mapping temperature classes or altitude in terms of contours.
(d) Dasymetric
Used when mapping interpolated intensities that is relative classes not counts for example wet
versus dry or hot, warm, cold.
(e) Dot density
A method that uses dots, each dot representing a quantity and counts of dots equals to total
quantity for example when mapping alien invasive species in paddocks
(f) Proportional Symbol
This method uses size of a symbol to represent quantity and the sizes are not relative for example
when mapping the grazing intensity in paddocks.
(g) Graduated Symbol
This method uses size of a symbol to represent classes and the sizes are not relative.
(h) Chart
Uses graphs to represent values such as pie, bar or stacked.
5.8.1.5. Map output
The following must be considered for the map output
 Format; is the outputmap to be used for screen, presentation, journal, book, display etc
 Size; the size of the output map a pamphlet, A4,A3,A0 or projector
 Colour; is the colour of the output map, Black and white, limited colour, full colour.
 Resolution; is the resolution of the map in terms of DPI (dots per inch), 300 or 600

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Activity 5.8

1. Using any GIS software design the following maps.

a. A topographic map of a farm
b. A thematic map Land capability classification (the map must contain area
boundary, Major drainage , Boundaries of Land classes of homogeneous area and
Pit positions and codes)
c. A thematic map of vegetation classification (the map must contain Area
boundary, Boundaries of physiognomic types of vegetation and Vegetation code)

5.9. Summary
GIS are computer-based systems that enable users to collect, store, process, analyze and present
spatial data. It provides an electronic representation of information, called spatial data, about the
Earth’s natural and man-made features. A GIS references these real-world spatial data elements
to a coordinate system. These features can be separated into different layers. A GIS system stores
each category of information in a separate "layer" for ease of maintenance, analysis, and
visualization. A GIS can also store attribute data, which is descriptive information of the map
features. This attribute information is placed in a database separate from the graphics data but is
linked to them. A GIS allows the examination of both spatial and attribute data at the same time.
Also, a GIS lets users search the attribute data and relate it to the spatial data. Therefore, a GIS
can combine geographic and other types of data to generate maps and reports, enabling users to
collect, manage, and interpret location-based information in a planned and systematic way.

Further reading
http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.3.
Buckley, D. J. (2013). The GIS Primer. An Introduction to Geographic Information Systems:
www.esri.com/library:
http://www.usgs.gov/research/gis/title.html: US Geological Survey contains a lot of information
about basic GIS concepts.
www.gis.com: The homepage of GIS on the web.
http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/
Carver, A. J. (1981). Air photography for land use planning, Department of Conservation and
Extension, Harare, Zimbabwe

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