UNIT 3

3.0. Land resources field survey

3.1. Introduction
To complement the physical data obtained from image interpretation there is need to carryout
field survey. Since some of the physical data required for land use cannot be extracted from
remotely sensed images there is need of carrying out field survey. In this unity we are going
to learn various field survey that are implemented to come up with physical data on land
resources that is required in land use for agricultural purposes
3.2. Objectives
By the end of this unit students should be able to;
 understand and apply the techniques Soil survey
 understand and apply the techniques Land capability classification
 understand and apply the techniques Vegetation survey
3.3. Soil survey
Soil survey involves determining pattern of soils and dividing this pattern into relative
homogenous units. The outcome of a soil survey is a map and a report clearly describing the
soil units indicated on a map. There are mainly two types of soil survey; special purpose
survey which narrowly specifies the characteristics of soil to be examined for example
mapping soil for irrigational purposes, the survey will concentrate on properties of soil that
are relevant to irrigation, and general purpose soil survey which is non-specific, the survey
will give basic interpretative for many purposes. Soil survey is very important in coming up
with an inventory of soil type of an area and in making useful predictions about the suitability
of each unit per particular use. The usefulness of soil survey depends on the accuracy with
which soil properties are mapped and the relevance of those properties to the purpose of land.
3.3.1. Mapping units
Units of land which can be separated geographically or spatially in the field on the basis of
selected soil or land characteristics. Mapping units are divided into two broad groups; simple
and compound mapping units. Simple mapping units look at soil that fall into same group
with same characteristics. In simple mapping units at least 70% of the soil in a unit will fall in
the same characteristic group. We have two main types of simple mapping units that are soil
series which is a medial soil with restricted range of variability with respect to the horizons
present that is their thickness, colour, texture, structure and other properties and soil phase
which is a subdivision of soil series based on any characteristics significant to land use such
as depth, surface form, salinity and erosion.
Simple mapping units are ideal for agricultural land use compared to compound mapping
units such as soil association, soil complex and undifferentiated units. Soil association looks
at geographically associated soils confined to a certain portion or facet of a landscape
occurring in a predictable pattern and each component of the soil association can be described
in terms of catena. Soil complex unit looks at soils that are very difficult to separate usually
those are found in flood plains as a result of deposition and the undifferentiated soil units are
made up of different soils, these soils are put into the same mapping unit because of one
common property that is the dominant characteristic.
3.3.2. Stages in carrying out soil survey
Before carrying out a soil survey there is need for planning and at this phase you have to
establish the area in terms of location and size, the goal and objectives of the survey that is
the terms of reference, relevant information of the area and the scale of the output map. There
are five stages that are followed in carrying out a soil survey;
3.3.2.1. Background data collection
In this stage you have to collect much information as possible that is relevant to the survey
such as recent aerial photographs and satellite images these are important as base maps of the
survey as to draw our soil boundaries. Topographic maps and DEM covering the area and
these are used in conjunction with aerial photographs. Reports that have been produced by
people who were engaged in natural resources studies in the area such as land resources
inventories, vegetation cover, soil and geological reports, climatic data and crop yields and
management data.
3.3.2.2. Aerial photo or image interpretation
Study in detail and identify features that appear on aerial photo or a satellite image and this
depends on the recognition in different grey scale (tone, texture, pattern and structure) and
relief when using contact print and by defining spectral signatures of various features and
relief when using satellite images and DEM. Make mosaics if it is necessary. Delineate all the
drainages and crest, non arable land classes (classes V to VIII). Look closely at arable land
and separate the area where it seems to be homogenous or semi-uniform with same slope and
come up with provisional boundaries for arable land classes and traverses for pit siting. Mark
provisional sites of pits and ensure that all arable land have sites for pits marked at
3.3.2.3. Field survey
To carry out the actual field survey the following equipment are needed; GPS receiver, map
or aerial images, plastic bags, shovel, pick, Munsell colour chart, water bottles, measuring
tape, slope measurement tools (clinometres) and auger.
 (a) Identification of arable land boundaries
Auger observations in the field are put firstly in the whole area of arable land as to identify
the soil boundaries (mapping units) of homogenous arable land using texture and colour. We
can locate these auger observation using three different methods which are grid survey, free
survey and a compromise between the two of these methods. Other than using auger
observations soil boundaries can be identified by variation of vegetation over the land.
(b) Pit siting in the field
Having marked the pit sites on the mosaic, their final positions must be confirmed on the
ground. On arrival at a predetermined pit site ensure through accurate map reading that the pit
is in fact correctly sited that is representative of the area not influenced by adjacent ant-heaps,
rocky outcrops, local gravel patches. When the correct locality has been decided peg the site
and prick through on the mosaic the exact locality or you take the coordinates of the site
using GPS receiver and number the pit. Ensure that all homogenous units marked on the
images are in fact homogenous and correct where necessary and predetermined boundaries of
non arable land marked on the images are in fact correct. Spot-check boundaries wherever
they are crossed in traverse, between pits and correct where necessary. Site and number all
the pits and each homogenous area must have a pit site. On each pit site a pit is we dig a pit
of 1.5 m long, 1 m wide and 1.5 m deep
(c) Coding of soil pits
The pit is examined in the following order and a full pit description is written in the soil pit
examination note book;
(i) Note all the sides of the pit to see if they are uniform
(ii) Clean up a typical and well –lighted face of the pit
(iii) Look for a limiting horizon
(iv) Mark off the top soil or plough layer mark off provisional horizons down the profile
based on differences in colour, consistence and structure
(v) Texture the top soil by taking a sliver 25mm wide down to the second horizon
(vi) Texture the different horizons if there is a difference in texture between any two
horizons determine exactly where the change occurs
(vii) Measure the horizons down the profile starting at the top of the pit giving the actual
thickness of each horizon
(viii) Record the effective depth, where there is 50% soil and 50% loose gravel or
weathering rock in a particular horizon the effective depth is usually taken as halfway
down that horizon
(ix) Note the nature and permeability of the limiting material
(x) Record the structure, consistence, permeability, mottles, concretion, leaching and
roots for each horizon
(xi) Determine the colour of the upper subsoil and also the lower subsoil if a marked
colour change occurs
(xii) Note the degree of surface crusting (‘t’ factors)
Land factors are then recoded as follows:
(i) Assess wetness from previously noted indicators, both in the land and from the soil
morphology
(ii) Assess erosion
(iii) Measure the slope of the land with a level machine
(iv) Geological maps should be consulted when identifying the parent material
(d) The standard soil code description
The soil and land characteristics are described according to standard codes and the code
symbol for each characteristic is arranged in a standard order to provide a code description.
The soil and land characteristics shown are only recorded in the soil code if they are prevalent
to the description of the particular soil type for example, if the soil is not susceptible to
periodic water logging or has no factor hindering or preventing cultivation, the symbol must
be excluded from the code. If there is a limiting horizon above 1.50 m or within the depth of
the soil pit slightly shallower than 1.50 m, the symbol for the nature of material limiting
effective depth is omitted from the code. Figure 3.1 shows a description of a standard soil
code.
Figure 3.1: Standard Soil Code
Activity 3.1

1. Describe all the symbols that are used to describe soil and land characteristics on a soil
code.
2. Decode the following soil code.
2 B 5 Z 1/4 C
B−1−W 1/Gr

3. Give that we have very deep brown sandy loam soils derived from granite parent material
with good permeability on a land which has moderate erosion and wet for relatively short
and infrequent periods. Code the soil and land characteristics.
3.3.2.4. Land capability classification
Land capability classification (LCC) in Zimbabwe is concerned with the ability of the land to
produce permanently under specific uses and treatments. Land is therefore classified and
arranged in terms of increasing degrees of limitation. This is done as to show intensive safe
use without risk of soil erosion, management requirements and permanent hazards attached to
land.
(a) Land classes
Land is classified into eight classes with class I – IV being arable land and V – VIII being
non arable land. Table 3.1 shows the use of land according to capabilities.
Table 3.1: Use of land according to capabilities
characteristics Increased limitation and hazards decreased production capacity

Class I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Wildlife X X X X X X X X
Forest X X X X X X X
Limited grazing X X X X X X X
Moderate grazing X X X X X X
Intensive grazing X X X X X
Limited cultivation X X X X
Moderate cultivation X X X
Intensive cultivation X X
Very intensive cultivation X
Arable land Grazing land
Land class I
This is land with few or no limitations or hazards. It is suitable for long continued cropping
with no or only simple conservation practices under good management. The soils are deep,
with a depth not less than one meter. They are naturally well drained with a stable structure
and good working properties. Slopes are usually less than 2% and the erosion is slight at
times or nil. The limitations of these lands are of maintaining soil structure and fertility.
Land class II
These are good arable lands however subject to moderate limitations or hazards. It is suitable
for cropping with adequate protection measures which may sometimes include special
management practices and or regular lay rotations.
Limitations
 Land is moderately susceptible to erosion.
 The land has moderate slopes of less than 5%
 It is moderately shallow with soil depth greater than 0.5m.
 There are slightly unfavorable surface physically characteristics.
 The management practices include moderate mechanical and biological conservation
measures in varying methods.
Land class III
The land is arable but is subject to severe limitations or risks of damage and is suitable for
cropping only with the application of intensive protection measures. The land requires special
practices which include long lay rotations with the cropping periods.
Limitations
 These include moderately steep slopes that highly susceptible to erosion.
 The soils have low moisture retaining capacity because they are moderately shallow and
are quite difficult to manage.
 There is also inadequate permeability in the lower root zone and hence soils have
unfavorable physical characteristics on the surface and are also prone to moderate
wetness.
 Management practices should include a combination of intensive measures such as
adequate mechanical protection, soil conservation, rotation and the maintenance of
adequate crop cover whilst under tillage.
Land class IV
Land subject to severe permanent limitations or hazards and is suitable for row cropping with
occasionally long lay rotations or can be put under perennial vegetation like pastures.
Limitations
 These may include steep slopes of up to 12% and the soils are shallow with a depth of
25cm- 40cm.
 The unfavorable characteristics of the surface soils are severe and thus have a very low
water holding capacity.
 The use of the land for cropping is limited to one in every 4-5 years however complex
and intensive protection measures and practices will be required during the time under
cultivation.
Land class V
These are water courses and the land is subject to severe permanent wetness which normally
makes cultivation impossible. The wetness cannot be easily corrected and the land is best left
under permanent vegetation. In cases where land is cultivated, they need special practices and
measures.
Land class VI
The land has severe soil erosion and slope limitations such that cropping must be excluded. It
is productive under perennial vegetation and moderately subject to deterioration. Most
Zimbabwean communal lands fall in this land class. However, the lands are limited by very
steep slopes, very shallow soils of less than 40cm deep and their physical hazards are of rock
outcrops.
Nevertheless, the management practices are best followed when the land is put under
permanent grasslands, but it’s important to ensure that sound management practices are
followed. The carrying capacity is +/- 8ha / LU.
Land class VII
The land is characterized by severe erosion and slope limitations such that cultivation is
totally excluded. The land is subject to limited production and is highly susceptible to
deterioration. However, limitations are similar to those of land class VI and severe but more
severe in land class VII hence the reduced productivity. The carrying capacity is +/- 10ha/LU
Land class VIII
This is land with extensive limitations of the soil, relief, wetness and slope such that it is only
suitable for wildlife and fisheries. It is characterized by steep hills, rocks, riverbeds and dam
surface areas.
Land capability sub- classes
These are used where a single hazard to land use over shadows other characteristics. There
are basically two hazards which are normally used in Zimbabwe and these are fertility and
wetness limitations. These hazards results in degrading the land to lower class.
(b) Criteria for assessment of land capability class
Non arable land classes are directly delineated from aerial images through aerial images
interpretation. Arable land classification is done after soil pit coding since all soil and land
characteristics included in the standard code description are directly or indirectly associated
with some hazard or limitation in the use of land. Soil and land characteristic in the soil code
together with climate are used to assess the land capability class of arable land as in the flow
charts in figures 3.2 and 3.3 which are algorithms that summarizes the criteria for classes I to
IV for normal cropping area in Natural Regions II and III and classes MI to MIV for low
rainfall areas of Natural Regions IV and adjacent parts of Region III respectively.
Figure 3.2: Criteria for land classes I to IV for Natural Region II &III
Figure 3.3: Criteria for land classes MI to MIV for low rainfall areas of Natural Regions IV
3.3.2.5. Production of soil survey map and report
Once all field work has been completed the surveyor redraws the final classification map.
Land class boundaries are drawn in solid lines and mapping units within land classes in
broken lines. Only one representative code should be placed in each mapping unit. Where
mapping units are too small to include soil codes the soil pit positions may be numbered and
representative soil codes recorded in a “key” on the map. The area of each land class unit is
computed and land class totals are tabulated and recorded on the land capability map legend.
Farm name, I.C.A, North Pole and bar scale must be added to the land class map
Activity 3.2

1. Determine the land class of a homogenous land unit of the following nature;
(a)
2 B 5 Z 1/4 C
B−1−W 1/ Gr
(b) Give that we have very deep brown sandy loam soils derived from granite parent
material with good permeability on a land which has moderate erosion and wet
for relatively short and infrequent periods. Code the soil and land characteristics.
2. Comment on the management practices for each land (a) and (b)
3.4. Vegetation survey
Vegetation is very important to human life as it provides for most of the needs for survival
that is food, shelter, industrial inputs (oil, dyes, racins and furniture). Vegetation has a great
link with soil condition and in most cases a certain type of vegetation determines the carrying
capacity of the area, erosion, and drainage and soil fertility.
3.4.1. Vegetation in Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe the greater part of the Highveld is covered by miombo woodlands and savanna,
while the Lowveld is covered by mopane woodlands and savanna and in the north western of
the country there is teak forest and woodland. Vegetation is grouped using the overall
appearance (physiognomic types). There are eight major grass vegetation types in Zimbabwe.
They are described in terms of the dominant grass species. The grass vegetation types vary in
grazing capacity. Generally, grazing capacity is highest in areas of high rainfall and lowest in
those of low rainfall and these include;
 Mountain grassveld
 Hyparrhenia tall grassveld
 Hyparrhenia and other species grassveld.
 Heteropogon and other species grassveld.
 Eragrostis and other species grassveld.
 Aristida and other species grassveld.
 Cenchrus and other species grassveld.
 Aristida-Dactyloctenium-Eragrostis and other species grassveld.
Activity 3.3

1. State and describe the physiognomic types of vegetation found in Zimbabwe.

2. Describe the eight grassvelds in Zimbabwe under the following headings;
(a) Common tree and grass species
(b) Location, rainfall, soils and altitude
(c) Grazing capacity
3.4.2. Stages in carrying out vegetation survey
Before carrying out a vegetation survey there is need for planning and at this phase you have
to establish the area in terms of location and size, the goal and objectives of the survey that is
the terms of reference, relevant information of the area and the scale of the output map. There
are five stages that are followed in carrying out a vegetation survey;
3.4.2.1. Background data collection
In this stage you have to collect much information as possible that is relevant to the survey
such as recent aerial photographs and satellite images these are important as base maps of the
survey as to draw our boundaries of physiognomic types of vegetation. Reports that have
been produced by people who were engaged in natural resources studies in the area such as
land resources inventories, vegetation cover, soil and geological reports, climatic data and
crop yields and management data.
3.4.2.2. Aerial photo or image interpretation
Study in detail and identify features that appear on aerial photo or a satellite image and this
depends on the recognition in different grey scale (tone, texture, pattern and structure) and
relief when using contact print and by defining spectral signatures of various vegetation when
using satellite images. Make mosaics if it is necessary. Delineate all the physiognomic types
of vegetation. Using stereoscopes look closely at the pattern of vegetation and separate the
area where it seems to be homogenous or semi-uniform with same slope and come up with
provisional boundaries for physiognomic types of vegetation; this may be also accomplished
by carrying out digital image classification after analyzing the spectral signatures registered
on a satellite image. Mark provisional sites of sampling plots and traverses and ensure that all
homogenous areas of all physiognomic types of vegetation have sites for sampling plots
marked at.
3.4.2.3. Field survey
To carry out the actual field survey the following equipment are needed; GPS receiver, map
or aerial images, measuring tape, water bottles and vegetation identification tables. Field
survey is the physical interpretation o the marked places, verifying the provisional boundaries
marked from the office and identification of tree and grass species vegetation, slope
(a) Identification of physiognomic types of boundaries
Traversing in the field is done firstly in the whole area as to identify the physiognomic types
of vegetation boundaries (mapping units) of homogenous vegetation. The boundaries are
established by looking closely where the vegetation structure and slope structure changes.
(b) Identification of sampling plots in the field
Having marked the sampling plots sites on the mosaic, their final positions must be
confirmed on the ground. On arrival at a predetermined plot site ensure through accurate map
reading that the plot is in fact correctly sited that is representative of the area. When the
correct locality has been decided peg the site and prick through on the mosaic the exact
locality or you take the coordinates of the site using GPS receiver and number the plot.
Ensure that all homogenous units marked on the images are in fact homogenous and correct
where necessary and predetermined boundaries of physiognomic types marked on the images
are in fact correct.
(c) Coding of the sampling plots
The plot is examined and come up with dominant tree species, dominant grass species, site
condition in terms of bush encroachment and coppicing growth, soil texture, parent material,
wetness, erosion hazard and carrying capacity. A full plot description is written in the sample
plot examination note book.
(d) The standard vegetation code description
The vegetation and land characteristics are described according to standard codes and the
code symbol for each characteristic is arranged in a standard order to provide a code
description. In vegetation coding tree or grass species are recorded by the first three letter of
the generic name, for example: for Brachstegia boehmii we use Bra. Where the tree species
is to be shown, only the first letter of the species name is written after the generic name, for
example: for Combretum apiculatum we use Com. a. Where two tree or grass types are
dominant, all are written for example Bra/Jul. The vegetation code below can be interpreted
as in table 3.2 below:
TS .Com . Hyp/ Pog. 2. 1.
4
A /Gr−W 1−1
Table 3.2: Description of vegetation code
Symbol Symbol Description Description
Ts Tree Savanna Physiognomic Type
 Com Combretum Dominant Tree
Hyp Hypanhenia Dominant Grass
Pog Pogonena Second Dominant
Grass
2 Moderate Site Condition
1 Slight Coppice Growth Site Condition
4 1Livestock Unit/4ha Carrying Capacity
A Sandy Soils Soil Texture
Gr Granite Parent Material
1 Nil or Slight Erosion Erosion
W1 wet for relatively short period and infrequent Wetness Factor
periods

Activity 3.4

1. Describe all the symbols that are used to describe vegetation and land characteristics on a
vegetation code.
2. Decode the following vegetation code.
BSS . Com . c ./Col . m . Ari. a ./ Era . v .2. 1.
12
A /Gr−W 1−1

3.4.2.4. Determining the Carrying capacity of a veld

It refers to the hactrage which is allocated to a livestock unit (500kg animal) to graze without
veld deterioration. To estimate the carrying capacity for each homogenous unit of vegetation,
we select 10 to 20 sampling sites randomly and using quadrant of 1m by 1m, a sickle is used
to cut off the grass and get average weight. For example a Grazing land 600 ha
Average weight of grass per 1 m2 = 0.4 kg average
Weight of grass per hectare or 10 000 m2 = 4 000 kg
The animal is capable of grazing half of 4 000 kg divided by 2 = 2 000 kg
Therefore the total herbage yield for the whole area = 600 ha x 2 000kg = 1200 000 kg
1LU = 500 kg
Animal consume an average of 3 % of its body weight therefore 3% 0f 500 kg = 15 kg
Total consumption for the whole year = 365 days x 15 kg = 5475 kg/LU
Therefore, total CC = 1200 000 kg/5475 kg = 219LUs
The carrying capacity is 600 ha/219 LUs = 2.7
3.4.2.5. Vegetation classification
Vegetation classification is mainly based on the structure of the vegetation that is the
physiognomic type and the carrying capacity. After carrying out the vegetation coding the
vegetation is grouped according to physiognomic types, dominant tree species and grasses,
site condition, carrying capacity, soil texture and land characteristics.
3.4.2.6. Production of vegetation survey map and report
Once all field work has been completed the surveyor redraws the final classification map.
Vegetation class boundaries are drawn in solid lines and mapping units within vegetation
classes in broken lines. Only one representative code should be placed in each mapping unit.
Where mapping units are too small to include vegetation codes the sample plots positions
may be numbered and representative vegetation codes recorded in a “key” on the map. The
area of each vegetation class unit is computed and vegetation class totals are tabulated and
recorded on the vegetation classification map legend. Farm name, I.C.A, North Pole and bar
scale must be added to the map
3.4.3. Management of vegetation in Zimbabwe
Vegetation can be conserved using the following three methods: Protected areas are fenced
for medicinal benefits; Insitu- conservation which involves conserving vegetation in its
original habitat e.g. vegetation in natural parks. Insitu enables perpetuating of species and
biological diversity of plant population in their natural state; and Exsitu- conservation which
involves conservation of plants outside their environment for example national botanical
gardens.
3.4.4. Soil vegetation relationships
Trees and grass species are good indicators soil, land and climate characteristics. Table 3.3
shows the soil vegetation relationships.
Table 3.3: Soil-vegetation relationships
 Trees Soils Rainfall
Parinari species leached Common in high veld
Muhacha
Terminalia sericea Leached sandy 600 - 800mm
Mususu
Julbernadia globiflora Leached sandy 700 – 900mm
Munhondo, mutondo
Syzigium spp Vlei margins (high water table)
Mukute
Acacia polycantha Good fertile soil Heavy vlei soils 500 – 700mm
Muunga
Baikaea physijuga Kalahari sands
(Zimbabwean teak)
Colophospermum Shallow poor drained alkaline Indicative of low rainfall
mopane soils – hardy tree 400 – 600mm
Mupani
Monotes glaber Well drained sandy soil or gravely
Mushava, muvara sand
Combretum Light textured loam sandy 600 – 800mm
apiculatum
Mupembere, mbondo
Commiphora spp Found among granite boulders and 400mm
paper tree, Mpapupa rocky kopjes
Burkea African Sandy soils and usually associated
Mukarati with Terminalia sericea
Brachystegia boehmii Shallow gravely soils 700 – 900mm
mupfuti
Activity 3.5

1. Map land classes and vegetation classes on the analogue contact print.
3.5. Summary
Field survey of land resources is done as to complement aerial survey from remote sensing.
Soil and vegetation field surveys are done as to classify the soils and vegetation in terms of
their capability to sustain crop and animal production. Vegetation and soils together with
other land characteristics are grouped in order of limiting factors to sustain agricultural
production. The main output of field survey is the survey report accompanied by maps
showing the classified land resources
Further Reading
Carver, A. J. (1981). Air photography for land use planning, Department of Conservation and
Extension, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Ivy, P. (1981). A guide to soil coding and land capability classification for land use planners,
Department of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Nyamapfene, K. (1991). The soils of Zimbabwe, Nehanda Publishers, Harare.
 Anderson, I.P., Brinn, P.J., Moyo, M. and Nyamwanza, B. (1993). Physical resource
inventory of the communal lands of Zimbabwe, An overview, NRI Bulletin 60. Chatham,
UK: Natural Resources Institute.
Frost, P.G.H. (1996). The ecology of miombo woodlands, In: Campbell, B. (ed.). The
Miombo in Transition: Woodlands and Welfare in Africa. Centre for International Forest
Research, Bogor.
Robinson, J. and Clatworthy, J. 1980. Grasses and legumes for pastures. Natural Resources
Board, Harare.