VARIOUS OBJECTIVES OF FIELD WORK

MS Assignment:
“Techniques in Field Geology (Geol 772)”
(Spring semester 2020)

Assignment submitted to:

Mr. Nowrad Ali

By:
Abdul Haq (MS scholar)

Department of Geology, University of Peshawar.

1) VARIOUS OBJECTIVES OF GEOLOGICAL FIELD WORK:

 As the term
implies, field geology means Field work, geology as practiced by direct observation of
outcrops, exposures, landscapes, and drill cores. Those engaged in field geology
investigate rocks and rock materials in their natural environment. Field geologists thus
attempt to describe and explain surface features, underground structures, and their
interrelationships. Lahee (1961), however, emphasizes that although field geology is
based on observation, many conclusions are predicated on inferences. He states that
“the ability to infer and infer correctly is the goal of training in field geology” (p. 4).
Proficiency as a geologist is largely measured by one's ability to draw reasonable
conclusions from observed phenomena and to predict the occurrence of features,
conditions or processes using field experience.
To gain the exact knowledge of our study, the study with in the class is insufficient for
any subject. Therefore field study is must for any subject. The study of geology with in
the class is incomplete education. Therefore field study for geology is most necessary
things.

The main objectives of our field visit are as follows.

 To measure strike of bedding plane
 To measure the dip direction and dip amount of the bedding planes and joints
 To identify the rock type and its property.
 To understand the River morphology
 To estimate, where the bridge site should be selected?
 To be clear enough about joints, faults and folds.
 To Study the mass movement
 To realize the need of geological knowledge in the field of civil engineering.

3) Scale of Observation, and its Applications:

Classifying specimens of rocks into major rock categories can be considered as a

practical activity requiring observational geological practices. Geologists notice
features and properties (e.g. patterns, grain size and the relationship between
minerals) of specimens, and these observations provide clues about the geological
processes describing the conditions in which the rock was formed

3) Geological Field Mapping:

INTRODUCTION:
A map showing the occurrence of structural features across a
region, the distribution of rock units, and their type and age relationship is termed a
geological map. Geological field mapping is the process of selecting an area of
interest and identifying all the geological aspects of that area with the purpose of
preparing a detailed geological report which must include a map. Good geological
mapping should be executed in three phases; planning, data collection and reporting.
Geological field mapping is the process of selecting an area of interest and identifying
all the geological aspects of that area with the purpose of preparing a detailed
geological report and a map to summarize the report. A geological map will thus
show the various rock types of the region, the structures, geological formations,
geothermal manifestations, age relationships, distribution of mineral ore deposits and
fossils etc. and all these features may be super imposed over a topographic map or a
base map.
OBJECTIVES OF GEOLOGICAL FIELD MAPPING
Principally there are various reasons why geological field mapping is carried out, all
of which entail collecting variable amounts of field data. The primary objective of
geological field mapping is exploration of natural resources.
 
PHASES OF GEOLOGICAL MAPPING
Field mapping projects are carried out in three phases which have a stepwise
relationship.

1) Planning/Research
2) Data Collection
3) Reporting

1. Planning/Research:
This phase of mapping is mostly carried out in the office, although a short
reconnaissance field trip may be included. Once a field has been identified for
mapping, it is only rational to learn everything in its regard so as to make a workable
field program. A field program is a step-by-step guide that outlines the time to be
spent in the field and the objectives of each day thus ensuring successful and
satisfactory results. All possible geological reports and data, including aerial and
satellite photographs, maps whether topographical, base maps, legislative boundary
maps etc. must be obtained. The most important document however, is the official
approval by a government office and/or a local community. Without this, there exists
a possibility of facing hostility and lack of cooperation by the locals which result in an
unsuccessful field study.

2. Data Collection:

This phase is focal in any geological field mapping and is carried out in the field for
the sole purpose of collecting data. This data may be collected in the form of
photographs, measurements, notes and physical samples. Therefore, one must be fully
equipped with all the necessary tools, be physically psyched as well as mentally
prepared to make note of not only geological features but of the entire surrounding.

3. Reporting:
A report is as good as its data and thus the need to collect good accurate data cannot
be overemphasized. Ultimately when all possible available data has been collected it
is taken back to the office or laboratory for sorting, interpretation and analysis. This
phase is the most challenging of all three as wrong analysis or misinterpretation of
data can lead to an inaccurate report and in consequence misinformation.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN GEOLOGICAL FIELD MAPPING:

 Maps
 Aerial photographs and stereoscope
 Brunton compass
 GPS (Geographic Positioning System)
 Geological hammer
 Hand held lens
 Sample bags
 Measuring tape
 Field camera
 First aid kit

Field Mapping
Field Mapping covers the following domains:
 Observing and recording field data selectively and systematically for the
construction of a detailed geological map at a given scale for determining the
geological contacts of the stratigraphic units, their lateral and vertical extents,
thickness of the units and their truncations by faults.
 Making careful observations of rock types, textures, structures, measurement of
orientation of structures/contacts etc.
 Recording and describing the lateral and vertical distribution of lithofacies of
stratigraphic units in the defined area.
 Constructing detailed field stratigraphic log covering lithology, biota, bedding
pattern, sedimentary structures.
 Constructing a representative geological section across the mapped area.

Section Measurement:

 Measuring the stratigraphic section of the selected formation in the field.

 Samples collection is made keeping in view lithological and faunal changes at
variable intervals.
 Making detailed log of the measured section covering its total thickness, sample
depth and lithologic characteristics including grain size, shape, orientation, etc.
 Correlation of the different stratigraphic sections for understanding the lateral and
vertical facies variations of the rock units within the basin.

Petrographic Analysis:

The petrographic analysis describes the following characteristics of the rock unit
under the microscope:
 Classifying the rock according to a certain category
 Deducing the provenance
 Interpreting environment of deposition of the rock unit
 Evaluating visual porosity and permeability

CONCLUSION:
The following can be said to summarize geological field mapping:
 For geological field mapping to be carried out efficiently, it is essential that
proper planning is executed.
 Once in the field, it is also important to be as detailed as possible in all
descriptions, and to be keen as well as observant.
 Measurements must be performed meticulously and, if necessary, more than once
for confirmation purposes.
 Team work must be adhered to, throughout the entire process.

4. Detailed Account of the Various Field Attributes:

i. Structural Geology and Geological Mapping:

In structural geology and geological mapping the
following field attributes are used.

1. Location
2. Traverse
3. Contact Identification
4. Dip Data
5. Lat/Long Data (Gps Reading)
6. Conversion of GPS Data into KMZ Data
7. Completing Line work in Google Earth
8. Conversion of KMZ file to Arc Gis file
9. Cross section

1) Location:
Locating yourself accurately in the field while mapping is of paramount
importance. Many of the basic skills involved have been covered. Eg. GPS, base map,
triangulations method.

2) Traverse:
This method is often adopted for reconnaissance mapping of a large region, at
relatively small scales (1:250,000 to 1:50,000). It may also be the only approach
possible where rock exposures are restricted to stream sections or roads, or where
access is limited to streams, roads, ridge crests, etc. (Figure 10.9 ). River sections in
mountainous regions are commonly sub parallel and quite evenly spaced, presenting
the opportunity for multiple traverses. The geology can be interpolated between them
if the structure is broadly simple, especially if aerial photographs or satellite images
can be used to help trace units or boundaries across sparsely vegetated areas.

Ideally, a traverse runs perpendicular to the strike of stratigraphy or structure, yielding

the most information on the regional geology. If the traverse is along a well - defined
linear feature (e.g. road or stream).

3) Contact Identification:
One important objective of geological mapping is to trace out the
contacts between different geological units. In many cases, careful examination of
aerial photographs or satellite images (including online sources) prior to (or during)
mapping may pay rich dividends, since these may pick up subtler differences in soil
type and vegetation than can be seen while on the ground. Contacts may be rapidly
traceable across rugged terrain, and even under superficial deposits, in this way.
Because contacts typically juxtapose rock units that have different properties
(hardness, permeability, composition), there are often landscape clues to their
presence.

This technique is generally suited to mapping at scales of between 1:50,000 and

1:15,000, but it can also be used for very detailed mapping of small areas. In areas of
good exposure, this method can build up a geological map quickly, especially if the
structure is reasonably simple. The technique can be compromised by difficult terrain,
poor exposure or complex geology. However, in poorly exposed terrain, contacts may
still be traced by combining information from the few exposures with other
information :landscape features, drainage and mapping of the drift deposits that
obscure the contact. Obvious contacts may be traced further using binoculars,
especially in rugged landscapes with extensive exposure.

4) Dip Data:
Dip is the angle of inclination measured from a horizontal line at right
angles to strike. The angle is measured by placing a compass on the line of dip and
rotating the inclinometer to the point where a spirit level indicates horizontal.

Dip is the angle of inclination measured from a horizontal line at right angles to strike.
The angle is measured by placing a compass on the line of dip and rotating the
inclinometer to the point where a spirit level indicates horizontal. The direction of dip
need not be measured (it can be calculated directly from the strike bearing), but an
approximate direction should always be recorded to avoid ambiguity, as in 48oNW.

The inclination measured at right angles to strike is the true dip. Inclinations measured
at other angles on the plane will always be less than true dip – these are called
apparent dips.
Dip and strike indicate the orientation of a plane at a specific location.  Dips and
strikes of folded strata will tend to show systematic changes at different locations. In
the example below the fold axis is horizontal and axial plane vertical. Strikes at any
point on the fold limbs will all have the same azimuth, but dips will change
progressively from one limb to the other.  Dips and strikes recorded on geological
maps can be used to reconstruct the 2- and 3-dimensional structure of deformed strata.

5) Lat/Long Data (Gps Reading):

Start with your line of latitude, writing the degrees, then the
minutes, then the seconds. Then, add the North or South as the direction. Then, write
a comma followed by your line of longitude in degrees, then minutes, then seconds.
Then, add East or West as the direction.

Most GPS devices provide coordinates in the Degrees, Minutes and Seconds (DMS)
format, or most commonly the Decimal Degrees (DD) format. The popular Google
Maps provides their coordinates in both DMS and DD formats.

6) Conversion of GPS Data into KMZ Data:

After that convert the gps data from gps device to
excel and then draw on Google earth.

7) Completing Line work in Google Earth:

Completing the line work in google earth. Also
separate the formation and rock units with the help of satellite images.

8) Conversion of KMZ file to Arc Gis file:

Now open each file in global mapper and export it
separately into Arc GIS shape file by clicking File > Export Vector format > Shape
file.
So now what you have to do  when all being loaded?.
Simply complete your map, You can add the formations name which will self name at
what you saved in the Google Earth. You can label by simply clicking each polygon
by right click and label features. Now what else is missing?. This map is already
being geo-referenced from the Google Earth moreover click on the insert and add
legends, North arrow, Co-ordinates etc what ever is your need suit yourself. This is
how you can make geological map using Arc GIS.

9) Cross section:

Geological maps can not be considered complete until there is at least

one cross section has been created to show the geology below the surface. Cross
section describes the structure of a region that is much clearer than a planimetris
map.cross section can be drawn in addition to a map of the fair copy,and simplified
again as an illustration in a cross section of the report.it can show geological
formation boundary at depth,and can also be used to display a fault, cleavage and
surface folds on the map.

ii. Engineering Geology:

Introduction:
Engineering geological maps provide ground information of relevance
to civil engineering planning, design, and construction. Given that geology and civil
engineering deal with three-dimensional structures and how they behave through
time, albeit usually on different time-scales. it is to be expected that the preparation of
maps
and plans is an essential component of both disciplines. Hence engineering geology
maps have been regarded as an effective means of conveying information between
geologists and engineers from the earliest days of the emergence of engineering
geology as an identifiable subject. Indeed, the first classic stratigraphic maps and
sections of William Smith in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries arose
out of his work on canal construction and the need to anticipate ground conditions.

An engineering geological map differs from the standard geological map (Lisle et al.,
2011) by not being limited to the categories of bedrock and/or superficial geology,
both of which are classically identified in terms of chronostratigraphy.
The engineering geological map normally classifies materials based on their similar
engineering characteristics (i.e. lithostatigraphy) and will also include relevant data on
topography, hydrology, hydrogeology, geomorphology, and geotechnics, plus
information on man-made structures such as landfill sites or earthworks (Dearman,
1991). Whilst most maps in the past were cartographically drafted and produced as
hardcopy, the modern method is to use computer-based graphical drafting and
presentation software, including Geographical Information Systems (GIS), for
compiling the data in formats that can be readily updated and analyzed. These systems
are also able to incorporate a wide range of data which enables the surface mapping to
be supplemented by data from other sources, including ground investigation, thus
facilitating the understanding of ground conditions required for engineering design
and construction projects. As with any map, the value of the engineering geological
map is dependent on the accuracy of the information used in its compilation. Thus,
engineering geologists responsible for producing engineering geology maps must
have a broad range of skills and be able to recognize and correctly compile data from
a wide spectrum of Earth science disciplines (Brunsden, 2002; Fookes, 1997; Fookes
et al., 2000; Griffiths, 2001; Hutchinson, 2001).
However, the actual use of engineering geological maps in planning and development
is variable despite the widely held view amongst engineering geologists that they are
fundamental tool to aid the understanding of ground conditions (Griffiths, 2014).

Map Scale:
Engineering geological maps are not just academic interpretations of the
ground; they are produced to meet the specific requirements
of a project. Therefore, the material presented and the scale used on the map will vary
to meet the requirements of the end-user. Consequently, there is no unique format or
content for an engineering geology map and throughout the mapping programme, the
engineering geologist will need to be aware of the end-use to ensure that collection
and presentation of the data are appropriate to the project requirements.

Medium-scale engineering geological maps are probably the most widely used and
excellent examples can be found in the UK, where a national programme of applied
geological mapping, predominantly by the British Geological Survey, resulted in over
35 studies and produced a wide range of maps for use in engineering construction and
planning development (Smith and Ellison, 1999). These maps were mainly been
produced at a scale of 1:25 000 and represented compilations of engineering
geological data in map form that could used as the basis for engineering feasibility
studies. Similar applied geological mapping programmes were carried out in a number
of other countries. In France, the ZERMOS programme produced a number of
1:25000 scale maps of selected area (Porcher and Guillope, 1979). Originally under
the auspices of the Geotechnical Control Office, the former territory of Hong Kong
was mapped at 1:20 000 during the GASP programme (Styles and Hansen, 1989).

The Type of Data to be Recorded:

Although the specific content of any one
engineering geological map will depend on the application, the main aim of an
engineering geological mapping programme is to produce a map on which the
mapped units are defined by engineering properties or behaviour. The limits of the
units are determined by changes in the physical and mechanical properties of the
materials. The boundaries of the mapped units may not correlate or coincide with the
underlying geological structure or the chrono-stratigraphic units as depicted on
conventional geological maps.

Data Collection:
Primary mapping for engineering geology follows the same basic
rules and uses the same techniques established for conventional geological mapping
(Lisle et al., 2011). However, a number of additional decisions need to be made when
undertaking engineering geological mapping.
In most engineering situations there will be four phases in the preparation of an
engineering geological map: desk study; field mapping; interpretation; and reporting.
During the desk-study phase all existing data are compiled, remote sensing
interpretation is carried out, a preliminary field reconnaissance may be undertaken,
and the field programme is planned. Field mapping requires the collection of primary
data in the field. Even if the available data is quite comprehensive and it is only
intended to produce smallscale maps, some primary field mapping will be necessary.
Interpretation of the data involves bringing together the field and desk study data,
compiling the data in a database/GIS, and then preparing the suite of maps that meet
the project requirements (Shilston et al., 2012). Finally, the maps will need to be
supplemented by a written report for the end-user that expands on the details shown
on the map and, in engineering situations, may provide some design guidance or
recommendations.

Map Presentation:
The presentation of engineering geological maps follows normal
cartographic rules over scale, north arrow, and locational data, but the information
displayed will be based on end-user requirements. Because the information on the
map is variable, it is usually necessary to create a bespoke legend for the map.

Integration with Site Investigation:

Site investigation for engineering is the process
by which data appropriate for the design and construction of structures is collected.
Whilst this primarily involves the exploration of the ground using invasive techniques
such as drilling and trial pitting, it is recommended that engineering geological
mapping be integral to the process. Along with engineering geophysics, mapping has
proved itself to be extremely cost effective and can be used to design a more efficient
ground investigation by defining the engineering geological units that will represented
by the exploratory holes (Dearman, 1991; Griffiths, 2002). The maps, particularly if
complied in a GIS, should be integrated with all the ground investigation data to
provide the basis for preparing full three and possibly four-dimensional ground
models, which are fundamental to safe, cost-effective and efficient civil engineering
design.

iii. Sedimentary Petrology:

Depicting the Past various ways in which the
distribution of rocks can be depicted

 Geologic columns
 Stratigraphic cross-sections
 Structural cross-sections
 Geologic maps
 Paleogeographic maps
 Isopach maps
 Lithofacies maps

 Geologic columns:
show the vertical succession of rock units at a given
location. They are used in correlation and in the construction of cross sections

 Stratigraphic cross-sections:
Stratigraphic Cross-Sections correlate geologic
columns from different locations to show how rock units change in thickness
lithology,and fossil content in a given area

 Structural cross-sections:
Structural Cross-Sections show a slice through the
Earth's crust, and may be drawn to emphasize the lithologic equivalence of the strata.

The illustrate the timing of tilting, folding and faulting of rock units. Tops and
bottoms of rock units are plotted by elevation. Folds and faults are depicted clearly.
 Geologic maps:
Geologic maps show the distribution of various layers and
types of rocks in an area.Geologic maps are prepared by geologists who locate the
positions of contacts between the formations in the field, and plot them on the map.
Map symbols indicate structural features (folds, faults, etc ) and formation names.

 Paleogeographic maps:
Paleogeographic maps are interpretive maps which
depicts the geography of an the area in some times in the past,for example maps
showing the distribution of land and sea in the past.

 Isopach maps:
isopach maps show the thickness of the formations or other units
in an area.

 Lithofacies maps:
lithofacies maps show the distribution of lithofacies
That existed at a given time in an area, or shows the percentage of some lithological
components such as clay or show the ratio of one rock to another with in the unit.

IV. Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology:

a) Recording Features of Igneous Rocks:

The main reasons to study igneous
rocks are to: (1) understand volcanoes and the hazards they pose to life on Earth; (2)
understand processes beneath the Earth ’ s surface that drive plate tectonics and that
contributed to the evolution of Earth and other planetary bodies; (3) understand the
distribution of Ore minerals; and (4) for chronology.

Equipment, Basic Tips and Safety:

For igneous rocks a geological hammer is
usually important so that you can obtain a fresh surface to examine the mineralogy.
Additions and refifi nements for working on active volcanoes and
young lava surfaces.
Depending on the nature of your field project, you may already know (or suspect) that
the rock at a particular locality is igneous. When visiting an unknown exposure, you
first need to form at least a working hypothesis as to which parts of it are likely to be
igneous, Confirmation, or revision, will come from observations of field relationships
and also of mineralogy and texture. It is good to explore field relationships early, but
it is usually worth making a preliminary assessment of mineralogy and texture (to
confirm that you are indeed looking at what you think you are!) before studying the
field relationships in detail.

Field relationships of igneous rocks:

7 This section is concerned with studying igneous rocks exposed
by natural erosion or quarrying. Active volcanoes and young
lava flows that retain exposed original surface morphology (up to tens of thousands of
years in arid regions) offer different opportunities and are discussed in Section .

Mineralogy and small - scale textures of igneous rocks: Here we consider

diagnostic mineralogical and textural evidence that can be seen in the field with the
unaided eye for coarse - gained rocks, easily with a hand lens for medium - grained
rocks, but with difficulty even with a hand lens for fine - grained rocks.

b) Recording features of metamorphic rocks:

The environments in which metamorphic rocks form are a
long way from our everyday experience: crushing pressures, baking temperatures, and
stresses that stretch and distort rocks weakened by the high temperatures. Studying
the textures and mineralogy of the rocks that have been exhumed to the Earth surface
is a fascinating window into these alien environments, and gives critical insights into
how the Earth works, the
processes operating in active mountain belts and subduction zones, and how crustal
and mantle materials are recycled. Metamorphic processes play a key role in
concentrating a number of useful elements into economically viable mineral
deposits, so metamorphic studies are critical in the exploration and exploitation of
such resources.

Basic skills and equipment for metamorphic fieldwork:

Metamorphic study
in the field needs little more than the basic equipment . You will also find simple aids
to mineral identification (e.g. a scratch/streak plate, a steel penknife and dilute acid)
from the optional equipment in useful. Field study of metamorphic rocks mainly
requires keen observation at all scales, in particular of fine- scale textures using the
hand lens, and mineral identification

Field relations and context: Before focusing in detail on an exposure, consider

its wider context. Is the rock layered, massive or patchy in appearance?
Are there cross - cutting relationships or contacts between different rock - types? Is
there an intrusion nearby? You should note such gross features, as they are likely to
provide critical clues to the original, pre - metamorphic lithology of the rock
(its protolith), and suggest likely associations of rocks that may be present.
Considering the rock as a whole (e.g. colour, density, hardness, weathered aspect)
may offer clues to its key minerals. For instance, a mafic rock is likely to contain
dark - coloured, mafic minerals (biotite, amphibole, pyroxene, etc.).
Many metamorphic rocks are deformed, so familiarity with structural features is also
a real asset in describing and interpreting metamorphism in the field.

References:
Hashemite University, GFT (111201391): lecture- 4/Jafar Sadi (2014

Earth science resources, SCICOMM, images, musings for non-specialists and

students

National Geologic Map Database

Lahee (1961)

Oldroyd, D., 2013, Maps as pictures or diagrams: The early development of

geological maps, in V. R. Baker, ed., Rethinking the fabric of geology: Geological
Society Of America Special Paper 502: p. 41-101

Noor, Djauhari. 2009. Pengantar Geologi Dasar. Bogor: Universitas Pakuan

Lisle RJ, Brabham P, and Lisle RJ (2011) Basic geological mapping, 5th edn.
Chichester: Wiley.

Brunsden D (2002) Geomorphological roulette for engineers and planners: Some

insights into an old game. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and
Hydrogeology 35: 101–142.

Dearman WR (1991) Engineering geological mapping. Oxford: Butterworth-

Heinemann.

Finlayson AA (1984) Land surface evaluation for engineering practice:

Applications of the Australian PUCE system for terrain analysis. Quarterly
Journal of Engineering Geology 17: 149–158.

Fookes PG (1997) Geology for engineers: The geological model, prediction and
performance. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology 30: 293–424.

Fookes PG, Baynes FJ, and Hutchinson JN (2000) Total geological history: A
model approach to the anticipation, observation and understanding of site
conditions. GeoEng 2000,

International Conference on Geotechnical & Geological Engineering Melbourne,

vol. 1, pp. 370–460.
Fookes PG, Lee EM, and Griffiths JS (2007) Engineering geomorphology:
Theory and practice. Caithness: Whittles.

Griffiths, JS (ed.) (2001) Land surface evaluation for engineering practice.

Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication No. 18.

Griffiths JS (2002) Mapping in engineering geology, Geological Society of

London. 287pp. Key Issues in Earth Sciences.
Griffiths JS (2014) Feet on the ground: The past, present and future of
engineering geology. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and
Hydrogeology 47: 116–143.

Griffiths JS and Whitworth M (2012) Engineering geomorphology of landslides.

In: Clague JJ and Stead D (eds.) Landslides: Types, mechanisms and modeling,
pp. 172–186.

Francis , P.W. and Oppenheimer , C. 2003 . Volcanoes, Oxford

University Press , 536 pp. [A nice account of volcanism in general.]

Gill , R. 2010 . Igneous Rocks and Processes, Wiley - Blackwell , 480 pp.
[A lengthy review aiming to give students the skills and confidence
to identify igneous minerals and interpret igneous rocks.]

Fry , N. 1991 . The Field Description of Metamorphic Rocks, Blackwell

Scientififi c Publication , 128 pp. [Useful aid to studying metamorphic
rocks in the field.]

Miyashiro , A. 1994 . Metamorphic Petrology, UCL Press , 404 pp. [A

good textbook covering many aspects of metamorphism.]
Shelley , D. 1993 . Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks under the
Microscope, Chapman & Hall , 468 pp. [Invaluable aid for anyone
studying igneous or metamorphic rocks using the polarizing
microscope.]

Fry , N. 1991 . The Field Description of Metamorphic Rocks, Blackwell

Scientific Publication , 128 pp. [Useful aid to studying metamorphic
rocks in the field.]

Miyashiro , A. 1994 . Metamorphic Petrology, UCL Press , 404 pp. [A

good textbook covering many aspects of metamorphism.]

Shelley , D. 1993 . Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks under the

Microscope, Chapman & Hall , 468 pp. [Invaluable aid for anyone
studying igneous or metamorphic rocks using the polarizing
microscope.]

Fry , N. 1991 . The Field Description of Metamorphic Rocks, Blackwell

Scientififi c Publication , 128 pp. [Useful aid to studying metamorphic
rocks in the fifi eld.]

Miyashiro , A. 1994 . Metamorphic Petrology, UCL Press , 404 pp. [A

good textbook covering many aspects of metamorphism.]

Shelley , D. 1993 . Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks under the

Microscope, Chapman & Hall , 468 pp. [Invaluable aid for anyone
studying igneous or metamorphic rocks using the polarizing
microscope.]