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SPATIAL DATABASE FOR GEOMORPHOLOGICAL MAPPING BY GPS TECHNIQUES Vt Voenlek

Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, Olomouc Head of Department: Ass. Prof. Miroslav Vysoudil Received March 10; accepted July 2, 2000 KEY WORDS: Spatial databases, Geomorphological mapping, Global positioning systems, Geographical information systems.

ABSTRACT Technological development in the geographical applications of the Global Positioning System (GPS) offers the prospect of rapid mapping difficult terrain and complicated georelief and quantifying temporal and spatial dynamics of various geomorphological processes. While many developments in GPS have been considerent from the viewpoint of geodesy, their versatility in geomorphological situations has had limited attention. GPS is becoming smaller, less expensive and easier to integrate with other devices and disciplines. A geomorphological database (a specific kind of spatial environmental database) stores all of representation of surface and sub-surface data in a commercial relational database. There are some of the facets of a geomorphological database that enhance relational database technology.

1. INTRODUCTION During the past 15 years, the techniques involved with GPS use for surveying and navigation have continuously evolved. These systems promise radical improvements to many systems that impact all people. By combining GPS with current and future computer mapping techniques, we will be better able to identify and manage our natural resources. Intelligent vehicle location and navigation systems will let us avoid congested freeways and find more efficient routes to our destinations, saving millions of dollars in gasoline and tons of air pollution. Travel ships and aircraft will be safer in all weather conditions. Businesses with large amounts of outside plant (railroads, utilities) will be able to manage their resources more efficiently, reducing consumer costs. Geographers will move in complicated relief more easily, accurately and faster. However, before all these changes can take place, people have to know what GPS can do. GPS technology is still relatively new and evolving at rapid pace. Many of the improvements in GPS/ GIS systems are related more to packing, ergonomics and data flow, than to intrinsic improvements in the GPS components themselves.

2. GEOMORPHOLOGICAL METHODS AND PROCEDURES IN GEOMORPHOLOGICAL MAPPING Detailed geomorphological mapping one of in the last two decades has become in many countries the key method of geomorphological survey. Today it is an in-

dispensable part of the research methods of geomorphology just as detailed geological mapping has been for a long time in geology. Detailed geomorphological maps may be characterised as maps at scales of 1 : 10 000 in little investigated regions. Five types are usually distinguished (Demek, J. (ed.) 1972): Basic geomorphological maps recording all forms, classified according to appearance (morphography and morphometry), genesis and age, Applied general geomorphological maps which are basic general maps with supplements according to the needs of the designer, Basic partial geomorphological maps representing particular characteristics of the relief, of the individual forms and of form groups, Applied partial geomorphological maps being basic partial geomorphological maps with particular emphasis according to the needs of the designer, Special geomorphological maps that may combine various features of the maps mentioned above and are compiled to meet special requirements. The work in compiling detailed geomorphological maps can be divided into four main stages: 1. Project design for geomorphological mapping involves all the work necessary to determine the working procedures defining of the territory to be mapped, a brief summary of the investigations, defining problems, an evaluation of available topographical maps, their accuracy and degree of details, an inventory of subsurface data and a plan of operations.

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Tab. 1: Methods of geomorphological investigation (Demek, J., Embleton, C. 1978)

Morphological method

Also includes morphometric analysis and consists of: determining the limits and dimensions of individual relief elements, defining the component of complex landforms, establishing the relations between different relief elements for the entire area, the character of their associations and the pattern of their arrangement. Morphofacial method Involves the study of relationships between the relief and correlative deposits, as well as detailed investigation of these deposits. It includes laboratory studies to define the age of the deposits and studies of the relations between the deposits and the landforms. Morphostructural Determines the relations between the landforms and geological structure. The landforms are method studied in the context of the general tectonic pattern of the area. The interpretations of air and space images are involved. Morpho-neotectonic The study of the relationships of the relief with young tectonic movements is based on study of method the whole geological history of the particular area and on the relationships between young and ancient movements, their modes, trends and magnitude. Analysis of recent crustal movements is required for the elucidation of the genesis of the relief. Study of the relief in relation to correlative deposits makes it possible to define the neotectonic movements. Morphogeographical Is concerned with the study of the relation of the relief with other geospheres of the Earth (mainly method atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere and biosphere). Investigation of the relationships between relief and broad climatic zones consists of the comprehensive analysis of the relief and the present relief-forming processes in the studied area. Data from related scientific field such as climatology are required. Morphodynamic The observation of the processes in the field, especially when their activity is the greatest (e.g. method seismic events, volcanic eruptions, floods, sandstorms, rock falls etc.). The more important procedures used to study present processes are: filed observations at fixed sites (incl. geodetic measurements), prediction of catastrophic exogenic and endogenic events on the basis of statistical analysis of their recurrence intervals, experimental study, comparison of air and satellite images taken before and after particular events, especially those of catastrophic nature. Paleogeomorphological Includes study of relief of the previous geological periods since remnants of former landscape are method frequently incorporated in the present landscape.

2. Preparatory stage, i.e. the work connected with gathering material, study of literature, air photos and maps, compiling morphometric and morphographic maps and profiles working maps for recording various working data and a documentation map for plotting of documentation points, 3. Geomorphological field mapping, absorbing about one-half of the total research and being the main stage of the work, aims to map the distribution and area of the individual relief forms and to delimit them, to establish the genesis of the forms, to determine the stages of relief development and to establish the age of the forms, 4. Laboratory elaboration of the material, compilation of the map and the final report granulometric and morphometric analyses and so on. Geomorphological mapping may be based on one of the following methods of analysis or on a combination of two or more them (see table 1).

3. SPATIAL GEOMORPHOLOGICAL DATABASES IN GIS GIS is a versatile tool for displaying and analysing geographical features. It works with a number of data sources, including geomorphological databases, thematic layers and datasets of texts, reports, photos, tables, images etc. A geomorphological database is a specific kind of spatial environmental database. It can contain various themes in four representations of geographical data: vector data for representing features, raster data for representing images, gridded thematic data and surfaces, triangulated irregular networks (TINs) for representing surfaces, addresses and locators for finding a geographical position.

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background database interactive predefined

created while mapping

Fig. 1: Hierrarchy of spatial databases used in geomorphology

A geomorphological database must store the representation of surface and sub-surface data in a commercial relational database. Geographical data can be administered centrally by information technology professionals and GIS can take advantage of development in database technology. All spatial feature classes in the database share a common co-ordinate system. Because the database is the container of topological associations, it is important to guarantee a common spatial reference. The database contains landscape features and the relationships among them. An important aspect of a geomorphological database is that you can optionally create custom features such as bore-holes and faults, instead of points and lines. Features in a geomorphological database are implemented as a set of relational tables. Some of these tables represent collections of features; other tables represent relationships between features, validation rules and attribute domains. There are some of the facets of a geomorphological database that enhance relational database technology: it can represent spatial data in four manifestations: discrete objects as vector features, continuous phenomena as rasters, surfaces as TINs and references to places as locators and addresses, it stores shapes of features and GIS provides functions for performing spatial operations such as finding objects that are nearby, touching or intersecting; a geomorphological database has a framework for defining and managing the geographical co-ordinate system for set of data,

it can model topologically integrated sets of features such as geological cross-sections or tectonic failures and lithological regions, it can define general and arbitrary relationships between objects and features, it can enforce the integrity of attributes through domains and validation rules, it can bind the natural behaviour of features to the tables that store features, it can present multiple versions so that many users can edit the same data. It is necessary to meet as close as possible integrity of purpose of mapping, method of operation, type of receiver and database structure.

4. GPS DATA FOR SPATIAL GEOMORPHOLOGICAL DATABASES From the moment data is stored in a geomorphological database it begins to decay. The rate of decay varies considerably and is dependent on many factors. The GPS Navigation Message consists of time-tagged data bits marking the time of transmission of each subframe at the time they are transmitted by the satellite vehicle. A data bit frame consists of 1500 bits divided into five 300-bit subframes. A data frame is transmitted every thirty seconds. Three six-second subframes contain orbital and clock data. Satellite vehicle Clock corrections are sent in subframe one and precise satellite vehicle orbital datasets (ephemeris data parameters) for the transmitting satellite vehicle are sent

Tab. 2: Content of geomorphological database from GPS geomorphological mapping in the Trkmanka catchment (Czech Republic)

Maps

Databases and tables Texts Pictures Images

Topography (hypsometry, rivers, lakes, roads, woods, railways, built-up areas, utilities, cadastral areas) , geology (lithology, stratigraphy), tectonics, radiometry, quaternary sediments, landslides, hydrogeology, land use Bore-holes, landslides, land ownership Studies, reports, documentation of bore-holes, legislation and regulations, schemes, history of territory Scanned old maps (topographical, geological), photos, geological cross-sections, schemes Aerial photos, satellite images

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led by a data dictionary based on the GIS database schema. A GIS database provides navigation context. The performance of any navigation system is characterised by its accuracy, availability, continuity and integrity. From a safety point of view, integrity is arguably the most important factor. Without some assurance of a systems integrity, there is no way of knowing whether the received information is correct. GPS allows every square metre of the earths surface to have a unique address. That means that whole new ways of organising detailed geomophological mapping are possible. In surveying, we are usually interested in determining the position of one or more (relatively) fixed points, which are usually monumented either permanently or temporarily. Often, we are primarily interested in the horizontal co-ordinates of points, a 2D application, but might alternatively be interested only in heights, a onedimensional application, or in all three co-ordinates, a three-dimensional application. Instead of walking in the field according to topographical map the GPS can find the destination (borehole, elevation height, geological cross-section etc.) and navigate geomorphologists directly and immediately. A comparison between GPS mapping and conventional geomorphological surveying techniques is provided in table 3. There are three main procedures that will be used in geomorphology to link with spatial databases: Navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of GPS. Navigation receivers are made for aircraft, ships, ground vehicles, and for hand carrying by individuals. Precise positioning is possible using GPS receivers at reference locations providing corrections and relative positioning data for remote receivers. Surveying, geodetic control, and plate tectonic studies are examples. Time and frequency dissemination, based on the precise clocks on board the satellite vehicles and controlled by the monitor stations, is another use for GPS. Astronomical observatories, telecommunications facilities, and laboratory standards can be set to precise time signals or controlled to accurate frequencies by special purpose GPS receivers. In many cases, the positions of points need not be determined in real time, which has made data postprocessing fairly common. This involves generating the actual co-ordinate information back in the office after collecting survey data at project and reference sites. Some survey tasks, however, require real-time positioning. When setting out, for example, surveyors or construction engineers establish ground marks to enable construction works to be correctly located in plan and elevation.

in subframes two and three. Subframes four and five are used to transmit different pages of system data. An entire set of twenty-five frames (125 subframes) makes up the complete Navigation Message that is sent over a 12.5-minute period. Clock data parameters describe the satellite vehicle clock and its relationship to GPS time. Ephemeris data parameters describe satellite vehicle orbits for short sections of the satellite orbits. Normally, a receiver gathers new ephemeris data each hour but can use old data for up to four hours without much error. The ephemeris parameters are used with an algorithm that computes the satellite vehicle position for any time within the period of the orbit described by the ephemeris parameter set. Almanacs are approximate orbital data parameters for all satellite vehicles. The ten-parameter almanacs describe satellite vehicle orbits over extended periods of time (useful for months in some cases) and each satellite vehicle sends a set for all satellite vehicles over a period of 12.5 minutes (at least). Signal acquisition time on receiver start-up can be significantly aided by the availability of current almanacs. The approximate orbital data is used to preset the receiver with the approximate position and carrier Doppler frequency (the frequency shift caused by the rate of change in range to the moving satellite vehicle) of each satellite vehicle in the constellation. Each complete satellite vehicle data set includes an ionospheric model that is used in the receiver to approximate the phase delay through the ionosphere at any location and time.

5. GPS IN FIELD GPS-based tools for GIS data collection are wellestablished and well-suited to applications where precise position and detailed attribute information are required. In order to serve as a GIS data collection tool, GPS must be coupled with field-rugged hardware and software that lends itself to those who are often not computer literate in the traditional sense. The GPS/GIS field procedure is simple while the geomorphologist describes the attributes of a feature, GPS receiver computes its position. This information is stored on the field computer and subsequently downloaded for export to a GIS via industry-standard interchange format. In case of point features, the GPS data may be reduced to a single position. But in the case of polylines and polygons, each feature has a number of associated GPS positions, as well as other attributes. Many GPSbased systems allow field data collection to be control-

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Fig. 2: Example of geomorphological database in use during mapping in the Czech republic

Tab. 3: Comparison of GPS mapping and conventional surveying techniques

Criteria Horizontal accuracy Vertical accuracy Attribute mapping Speed

Survey coverage Monitoring change Operation requirements Portability use in steep terrain

GPS mapping Fast when accuracy can be tolerated Depends on equipment Problematic for accuracy less than 1 metre Time-consuming Suitable for rapid appraisal of feature position, shape and density Fast update of position-required accuracy allows mobile data stream Limited when using DGPS Unsuitable unless magnitude of change is greater than accuracy One person operation feasible-making system highly adaptable to needs Less arduous Problematic in enclosed locations The less liable to loss of lock the larger accuracy GPS device The less liable to loss of lock the larger accuracy GPS device Problematic under canopy Expensive

Conventional surveying techniques Unsuitable for resolution less than 5 metres Levelling more accurate Much faster than surveying in mapping planform features Much faster Much larger areas can be covered No requirement for monumented control points Unsuitable unless magnitude of change sufficient No need for line of sight One person reconnaissance impossible with convesional surveying Position fix blocked by steep slopes No requirement to move reference station

Use in dense vegetation Cost

No limit

Cheaper than total station

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of an intended operation. In many cases, system availability implies signal availability, which is expressed as the percentage of time that the systems transmitted signals are accessible for use. In addition to transmitter capability, environmental factors such as anomalous atmospheric conditions or interfering signals might affect availability. The GPS Standard Positioning Service will be available at least 99.85 percent of the time, based on a global average. Continuity. Ideally, any navigation system should be continuously available to users. But, because of scheduled maintenance or unpredictable outages, a particular system may be unavailable at a certain time. Continuity, accordingly, is the ability of a total navigation system to function without interruption during an intended period of operation. More specifically, it indicates the probability that the system will maintain its specified performance level for the duration of an operation, presuming system availability at the beginning of that process. Integrity. The integrity of a navigation system refers to its honesty, veracity, and trustworthiness. A system might be available at the start of an operation, and we might predict its continuity at an advertised accuracy during the operation. If some system anomaly results in unacceptable navigation accuracy, the system should detect this and warn the user. Integrity characterises a navigation systems ability to provide this timely warning when it fails to meet its stated accuracy. Traditionally, some component of the navigation system or an independent monitoring unit assures integrity by examining the transmitted signals and providing a timely warning if they are out of specification. GPS satellites are monitored more than 95 percent of the time by a network of five monitoring stations spread around the world. The information collected by the monitoring stations is processed by the Master Control Station at Colorado Springs, Colorado, and used to periodically update the navigation message (including a health message) transmitted by each satellite. Both PPS and SPS users transmit the satellite health message, which is not, changed between satellite navigation message updates, as part of the GPS navigation message for reception. Additionally, satellite-operating parameters such as navigation data errors signal availability/antispoof failures, and certain types of satellite clock fail-

6. PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS IMPACTING DATABASE Accuracy. Perhaps the most obvious navigation system requirement, accuracy describes how well a measured value agrees with a reference value. Ideally, the reference value should be the true value, if known, or some agreed-upon standard value. The accuracy of a clock, for example, is determined by how well it keeps time compared with a standard clock, such as an atomic clock maintained by a national timing laboratory. In terms of GPS positioning, a reference value might be the published co-ordinates of a geodetic reference mark. Surveyed positions are usually relative, that is, surveyors determine them with respect to the co-ordinates of one or more other points. The required accuracy typically depends on the distance to these other points and could range from millimetres, in the case of very short distances, to tens of centimetres over distances as far apart as hundreds of kilometres or more. The required position accuracy (or acceptable error) depends mainly on the application. A measurements error is simply the difference between the obtained value and the reference value. If we make a series of repeated measurements and calculate the mean value, the difference between the mean and the reference value is called the bias or systematic error. Therefore, we usually take accuracy to mean the absence of bias, and we measure inaccuracy by the size of the bias. Note that accuracy is not necessarily the same thing as precision. Precision denotes a measurement quality that describes how well repeated measurements agree with themselves rather than with a reference value. In other words, the scatter or dispersion of the measurements determines it. We have various ways of quantifying precision, including standard deviation, variance, range, and confidence and probability intervals. Accuracy, however, cannot be calculated solely from measurement values. If we can calibrate a systems bias, though, or if the bias is negligible, then we can, with caution, interpret precision estimates as accuracy estimates. Availability. Navigation systems availability refers to its ability to provide the required function and performance within the specified coverage area at the start

Tab. 4: GPS accuracy and cost

GPS approach SPS navigation SPS differential > 30 km SPS differential < 30 km PPS navigation Anti-spoofing navigation L1 Carrier phase survey L1 L2 Carrier phase survey

Accuracy estimate 100 m 10 m 1m 10 m 10 m 0.1 m 0.01 m

Receiver cost (year 2000 estimate) $ 1,000 $ 5,000 $ 5,000 $ 10,000 $ 20,000 $ 10,000 $ 15,000

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Tab. 5: Types of GPS receivers and their suitability for geomorphogical mapping

Receiver Characteristics and suitability for GPS geomorphological mapping by Architecture Sequential The sequential receiver uses one or two hardware radio channels to sequentially provide individual satellite observations. These receivers are among the cheapest available due to the limited circuitry needed. However, they provide the poorest time-to first-fix and cannot track satellites while moving at high speeds. They make mapping slow. Suitable for mapping special point objects (landslides, cliffs etc.). Cheap. Continuous The continuous receiver has sufficient dedicated hardware radio channels to provide continuous satellite observations. This type of receiver has the best performance of all the receiver architectures. Four hardware radio channels at minimum are required for continuous operation. A five-channel receiver can view four satellites and read the NAV message from a fifth, thus continuously keeping the receiver's database of satellite orbital parameters up-to-date. A six-channel receiver can read NAV messages, track four satellites and a keep a fifth in reserve in case one of the four is lost for any reason. An all-in-view receiver has sufficient hardware radio channels (sometimes 12) to lock onto all the satellites that happen to be in view at any time. Very good for geomorphological mapping. Expensive. Multiplex The multiplex receiver acts like a sequential receiver in that it switches between satellites being tracked; however, it does it at a fast sample rate (approximately 50 Hz) and can track more satellites than a sequential receiver. Its performance is still lower than a continuous receiver because it can't integrate all of the satellite's transmitted spread spectrum power. Slightly more suitable and more expensive than sequential receivers. by Method of Operation Code These receivers determine position by processing information found in the code that is transmitted by the Correlation satellites. The drawback is only moderate accuracy, on the order of 5 meters or worse. The advantage to this method is low cost. Suitable for geomorphologists. Carrier These receivers determine position by processing measurements of the carrier phase of the satellite vehicles Phase over time. They do not need to decode the information being transmitted except for locating the satellites. Some such receivers may have no code reception capability at all, in which case the receiver must be preloaded with that data from another source. The advantage to this method is very high accuracy. Such receivers can provide centimetre level accuracy in real time when used with differential correction. The drawback is high cost. Very suitable for geomorphologists but in some procedures in the field their capability can be unutilised. by Application General These receivers are characterised by being small and portable, battery powered and having a built in Purpose display. The display is usually a LCD for low power consumption, and can be either alphanumeric or Handheld graphical. Some of these receivers may have the ability to display aeronautical or marine charts from data cards. The antenna may be detachable for mounting outside a vehicle. Very useful and quite precise. Cost is acceptable. Attitude These receivers are used to determine the 3D position an object with respect to the earth. These receivers Determinati - use multiple antennas, the relative placement of which must be known. Good but high price. tion on Aviation These receivers are optimised for aviation navigation and can display aeronautical charts. Accuracy varies depending on the class of aircraft in which the device is to be used. Receivers intended for use by general aviation may not use any correction, thus being limited to 100 meter 95 % accuracy. Receivers integrated into the navigation suite of a commercial passenger aircraft may be capable of using local area differential broadcasts, increasing the precision of the aircraft's navigation system to the point that the aircraft can land automatically. Automobile These receivers are mounted in cars, trucks and trains. The purpose of the receiver may vary depending on Navigation, the application but the characteristics will be similar. Receivers used in cars are generally intended for IVHS and driver navigation or for sending the position of a car to an emergency response centre in case of accident. Fleet GPS receivers used on busses, trucks and trains will generally be intended for fleet tracking. High cost and Location unsuitable for GPS mapping in geomorphology due to hard link to vehicles.

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These receivers are optimised for collecting data to be exported to an external database. They often have moderate to good autonomous accuracy with differentially corrected accuracy as good as 1 meter. Often they will have an attached computer dedicated to data collection. Such data collection computers can be preloaded with feature libraries so that the operator has preset classes of items to choose from. These receivers may be carried a persons hand, with extra batteries and the GPS antenna fixed to a backpack. The most suitable type of GPS receivers with cost from cheap to very expensive. These receivers are intended for high-accuracy measurements intended for some form of land surveying solution. Such receivers will have external tripod-mounted antennas and be able to swap power sources while operating. Too high accuracy (cm) and too high cost. Needless for geomorphological mapping. This type of receiver is intended to act as a time and frequency reference. Position is secondary information to these receivers and is often ignored by the user. The primary benefits of GPS-derived time and frequency are long-term stability and co-ordination with the worldwide time network via the GPS time standard.

Mapping & Data Collection

Surveying

Timing

ures are monitored internally within the satellite. If such internal failures are detected, users are notified within six seconds. Other failures detectable only by the control segment may take from 15 minutes to several hours to rectify.

standard for defining locations and addresses and it allows scientists to monitor and use natural resources more efficiently than ever before.

SUMMARY 7. CONCLUSION The GIS-based modeling experiences of the past ten years reiterate the need to develop new methods for collecting and characterising the spatial variability of key processes and properties in landscapes, and the importance of modeling error and uncertainty in spatial databases and their effects on model predictions. Geographic information systems and related technologies (GPS receivers, remote sensing platforms, geostatistical techniques, etc.) can help with the collection and interpretation of these data and by doing so expedite the development of new and improved spatial models of key land surface/subsurface processes in future years. All too often we get hung up on the stated or claimed accuracy of a positioning or navigation system, forgetting that occasionally the actual real-time accuracy may be worse than the stated accuracy because of system failures. Integrity protects us against these rare occurrences. Stand-alone and augmented GPS offer various levels of integrity protection depending on system use, and continuing research will enhance GPS integrity even further. Cartographical techniques play an essential role in geomorphology, since it is the means of representing most vividly and quantitatively on the maps the generalised information and the result of analysis. The scientific level and quality of the maps depend on the level of geomorphological knowledge, not only of the relief of the particular area for which the map is compiled, but also the basis theoretical knowledge of geomorphology. As long as the accuracy and precision of the system in use is borne in mind, the geomorphological applications with GPS are numerous and will increase. The rapid accumulation of data provides information that would be difficult to collect by any other means. The new utility of GPS gives the world a new international The potential use of linking GPS and GIS techniques in detailed geomorphological mapping requires building of spatial databases for both field work and post-processing in GIS. These databases can collect various information sources (satellites, books, spreadsheets etc.), various formats (digital vector maps, raster maps, texts, images etc.) and various details (points, cross-sections, different map scales etc.). They have to meet general requirements for database structure to be independent in terms of software. They also have to accept all features of mapping procedures in geomorphological research to be maximally useful during GPS work in the field. The paper brings more information on GPS data and GPS receivers (and their parameters) which can be useful for choosing of GPS technology in certain purpose.

SOUHRN PROSTOROV DATABZE PRO GEOMORFOLOGICK MAPOVN POMOC METOD GPS Rozmach informanch technologi se za poslednch 15 let vrazn promtl i do procesu mapovn. Zemmick prce jsou vtinou zaloeny na vyuvn digitlnch podklad a jejich aktualizaci. Technologie GPS se vak v mapovacch procedurch dlch geografickch vd doposud neuplatuj. Ovem potencil pro vyuit GPS metod pi geomorfologickm mapovn je znan. Jako podklad pro GPS geomorfologick mapovn je nezbytn vytvoit prostorov databze obsahujc informace, kter jsou pro podrobn geomorfologick mapovn nezbytn. Tyto mohou bt podkladov (slouc k umstn mapovanch objekt) nebo interaktivn (k zkladn orientaci a topologickmu uren pozice geo-

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morfologa v ternu). Ty se bu pipravuj ped vlastn prac v ternu nebo se vytvej pmo v prbhu mapovn. Takovto geomorfologick databze mohou obsahovat vektorov vrstvy, rastrov data (nap. snmky), digitln model relifu, texty, profily, schmata, tabulky a dal informan zdroje. Vechny informace v geomorfologickch databzch musej bt souadnicov pipojen a jejich vrohodnost mus bt zajitna. Pro vlastn prci s geomorfologickmi databzemi je nejvhodnj vyuit prosted GIS, kter jsou svmi uivatelskmi rozhranmi nejkomunikativnjmi nstroji pi ternnm mapovn. Z velkho mnostv GPS pijma je vhodn pracovat pouze s pijmai vybavenmi minimln 6 kanly pro plynul sbr dat a pracovat v reimu dGPS (differential GPS) zaji ujc korekci S/A na pesnost 25 metr. Tato pesnost je dostaten pro mapovn v mtku 1:10 000 a menm.

Higgitt, D. L., Warburton, J. (1999): Application of differential GPS in upland fluvial geomorphology. Geomorphology 29, p. 121134. Kaplan, E. D. (ed.) (1996): Understanding GPS: Principles and Applications. Boston: Artech House Publishers. Parkinson, B. W., Spilker. J. J. (eds.) (1996): Global Positioning System: Theory and Practice. Volumes I and II. Washington, DC: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. Voenlek, V. (1994): From Topographic Map to Terrain and Hydrological Digital Data: an ARC/INFO Approach. Acta UPO, Fac. rer. nat. 118, Geographica-Geologica 33, p. 8392. Voenlek, V. (1996): Fundament of Digital Elevation Model as a Tool for Geomorphological Research. Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomouc, fac. rer. nat., Geographica 34. Voenlek, V. (1998): Geografick informan systmy I pojet, historie a zkladn komponenty. Olomouc, Vydavatelstv Univerzity Palackho, 173 pp. The paper was completed as a part of realisation of the grant Linking and Application of GIS and GPS Technologies in Thematic Mapping of Landscape (Grant Agency of Czech Republic, No 205/99/0329).

REFERENCES
Demek, J. (ed.) (1972): Manual of Detailed Geomorphological Mapping. Prague, Academia, 344 pp. Demek, J., Embleton, C. (ed.) (1978): Guide to Medium-Scale Geomorphological Mapping. Brno, Geografick stav SAV, 348 pp. Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., Lichtenegger, H., Collins, J. (1997): Global Positioning System: Theory and Practice. 4th revised edition, Springer-Verlag, New York.

doc. RNDr. Vt Voenlek, CSc. Department of Geography Palacky University in Olomouc T. Svobody 26 771 46 Olomouc Czech Republic

Reviewed: Dr. Jaromr Kaok

Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc. Fac. Rer. Nat. (2000), Geographica 36 97105