Importance of Geological

Structures
 Effects of Folding and their Civil Engineering
Importance
• Folds occur due to tectonic forces
• Affected rocks get deformed, distorted or
disturbed.
• The rocks experience great strain which when
released say in tunnelling may cause bulging,
caving etc.
• Folded rocks possess fractures (tension joints,
release joints, shear joints, etc.) to different
degrees in different parts.
• The affected rocks are hard and tough along
trough portions
• The effects are important in location of:
– Dams
– Reservoirs
– Tunnelling
– Quarrying
– Roads
– Railways etc
 Location of Dams
• Inclination of the limbs may be more favourable
or unfavourable
• Anticlinal folds are commonly segmented by
intensive joints and may also be associated with a
fault
• At a dam site folds may create foundation
problems including
– Leakage
– Deterioration of the rock through weathering and
erosion due to infiltration of water along joints
• At dam site if beds of limb dip gently upstream it
is favourable and advantageous because:
– Weight of dam (W) acts vertically downwards
– A great lateral thrust (T) exists due to reservoir water
– Resultant force (R) of these two will always be inclined
in downstream direction
– Depending on quantum of reservoir water the
inclination of R may vary from 10 o to 30 o from vertical
– The beds with gentle upstream dip will be
perpendicular to the resultant force
– The beds can offer their best competence to withstand
the stresses or loads acting in the area
• Complete elimination of possible uplift
pressure also enhances stability of the dam
• Any possible leakage of reservoir water is
directed to the upstream side by virtue of
upstream inclination of beds
• If the beds are horizontal:
– Resultant force in dam is inclined slightly in the
downstream direction
– Resultant force not perpendicular to bedding lanes of
strata
– Geological situation not ideal though not bad
– Reservior water (which is under great pressure will
attempt to leak beneath the dam along the horizontal
bedding planes
– This causes uplift pressure
– Heavy weight of dam acting vertically downwards will
effectively obstruct possible flow of water under dam
– Uplift pressure over dam is minimum though not absent
Horizontal bedding at dam site
• If dam is located at site with dip of beds in
downstream direction
– the resultant force of dam will be parallel or
nearly parallel (depending on dip amount of beds
and inclination of resultant force) to the bedding
planes (indication that the beds are less
competent)
– Leakage of reservoir water along bedding planes
will occur
– There will be considerable uplift pressures
– Stability of dam structure will be reduced
Downstream dip of beds
 Location of Reservoirs
• If beds of limb dip upstream no effective
leakage of water from the reservoir occurs
• All percolated water will be directed in
upstream direction only
• If strata at reservoir site are horizontal little
seepage of water downstream may occur
along the horizontal bedding planes
• When strata dip in downstream direction
considerable leakage of reservoir water along
the bedding planes will occur.
 Location of Tunnels
• Folded beds generally unsuitable for tunnel
• Affected rocks are under great strain
• Subsurface removal of material may cause release of
constrained strain resulting in:
– Roof collapse
– Caving or
– Bulging of sides or floor
• Tunnelling should be done along the thick beds of limb
parallel to fold axis
• Crests of folds contain numerous tension and other features.
– Frequent falling of rocks from roof may occur
– Overbreak also occurs there necessitating lining work
– Excavation process may however be easier and faster therefore
requiring less explosives
• Rocks along the trough will be highly
compressed and therefore are tough and
offer greater resistance for excavation
• By virtue of dip of limbs all percolated water
will accumulate along troughs
• Tunnelling along troughs may encounter
severe ground water problems
 Quarrying
• Convenient and desirable along strike and
along limbs for:
– Good quantity of rocks of same kind
– Easy breaking of rocks along bedding plane
– Suitable sizes obtained from limbs as severe
fractures associated with crests and troughs are
absent from limbs
– Seepage problems associated with crests and
troughs can be avoided
 Ground Water occurrence
• Synclines sometimes provide favourable
conditions for enormous quantity of ground
water
• Fractures in folded regions provide channels
for ground water movement
 Laying of Roads and Railway Tracks along Hill
Slopes
• Stability of the ground depends on the mutual
relation of dip of beds and slope of the cutting
wall
 Effects of Faulting
• Location of Dams
– Planning dams over faults should not be practiced
due to the incompetence and instability of the
faulted ground
Faults at Dam Site
A-A’ dips upstream far above dam site
B-B’ dips downstream far below dam site
• A-A’ dips upstream far above dam site
• B-B’ dips downstream far below dam site
Both are not harmful unless local tectonic history
indicates they are active
• Faults A-A” and B- B” may be harmful even though
they dip in opposite directions with A-A” more harmful
because of downstream dip
• Dam can not be located over faults C-C” or D-D”
irrespective of its dip direction unless it is a dead fault.
• Adequate precautions should be taken to improve
competence of site before
 Location of Reservoirs
• Faults cause enormous leakage of water if
they occur in the reservoir basin
• Faults with downstream dip are more harmful
– They cause significant loss of water
– Endanger safety of dam by creating uplift pressure
over it
 Location of Tunnels
• Tunnel alignment should not come in the way
of faults
• Possible consequences
– Fault zones are incompetent to provide safety or
stability
– Severe ground water problems likely to occur
– displacement of ground with renewed faulting
• Inactive faults or minor ones can however be
treated
 Quarrying
• Blocks of good size can not be produced
• Fault zone materials may be significantly
weathered
 Laying Roads and Railway Tracks alonf Hill
Slopes
• Effects similar to bedding planes
• Renewed faulting will trigger off landslides
• Saturation of adversely placed fault zones
increases risk of landslide
 Ground Water Occurence
• Fault zones significantly improve ground water
potential
 Effects of Joints and Their Civil Engineering
Significance
• Jointed sites are not compact, massive or coherent
therefore are physically weak
• Physical strength of the rocks may further be reduced
through weathering
• Such sites are not suitable for:
– foundation of dams
– Bridges etc
– Reservoirs
– Power tunnels
– The region is unsuitable for tunnelling also
• Joints may cause landslides along hill slopes
• Joints however increase ground water potential of a
region and facilitate quarrying

Note:
• Joints are less harmful than faults but more harmful
than bedding
• No special expensive safety measures are needed in
sites having joints as compared to sites with faults
• In comparison with bedding planes joints result in
total detachment of rocks along joint planes
• Such open breaks do not occur along bedding planes