Optimal Drill and Blast Techniques for Underground Mining

SECTION

HOLE CHARGING
9
With the advent of so many type of explosives and new forms of blasting, hole loading
methods and equipment have also had to evolve to provide good loading rates and
efficiency. Explosives come in various forms and packaging sizes, which need to be
placed into holes in any orientation. Bulk products are pumped or poured; packaged
products are dropped or tamped into place.

This next section outlines some of the loading equipment available for modern explosives
along with some general information on the safe use of this equipment with explosives.

9.1 PNEUMATIC LOADERS

With the discovery of the ANFO explosive products in the early 1960’s, specialised
equipment which blow loaded the ANFO into holes was manufactured. This equipment is
relatively simple in design and operation. They are the mainstay of the underground
loading equipment and new ways to utilise this equipment are becoming apparent.

9.1.1 Venturi Loaders

These loaders use venturi pressure characteristics to produce a vacuum that ‘sucks’
ANFO prills into a jetstream of air flowing along a low static hose. The general
construction is of a hopper that contains around 25kg of ANFO, a venturi device, low
static hose and a thumb actuator.

Once the thumb actuator is activated it opens the airflow along the hose, gravity and the
suction cause prills to be sucked into the stream. Loading rates of around 10 -15kg/min
are possible to load to a density of around 0.90g/cc.

They are generally quite inexpensive and are very lightweight due to the construction.
This makes them extremely useful for inaccessible areas such as handheld stopes and
raises. It can also be used for loading ANFO-PS type products. The disadvantage is that
the small hopper capacity requires frequent refilling, lowering productivity and the
limited loading hose length, around 10m.

As with any loading device used for explosives, the unit should be grounded to eliminate
the build up of static electricity.
9.1.2 Pressure Vessels

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These loading vessels utilise a sealed pressure vessel to force ANFO along the low static
loading hose. The pressure vessels are available in various sizes up to around 1 tonne,
which are extremely useful for bulk explosive usage.

The ANFO is loaded into the vessel, with the lid being closed and compressed air fed
into the system, sealing the unit. A ball valve, either manually or remotely activated,
allows some of the air / ANFO out of the vessel along the loading hose. The compressed
air pressure supplied to an ANFO kettle will determine to speed at which the hole is
loaded but if to high may damage the prill. It is recommend that for a 500 kg kettle that
the pressures used for perimeter holes is 2 Bar (200 kPa) and for main blast holes/cut is 4
Bar (400 kPa).

Loading rates of around 25kg/min through a 1 inch hose over 30m are usual. The low
airflows reduce the crushing effect seen in the venturi loaders. This lower density will
result in a lower powder factor and slower VOD thus reducing the energy output from
the explosive.

Costs for this type of equipment is in the thousands with a small loader costing around
$4500 to a 500kg model around $13,000.

Spillage of explosives through prills exiting with the air stream from the hole can be
excessive and costly. Again ANFO-PS products can also be loaded with this type of
loader.

9.1.3 Combination Pressure and Venturi Loaders

These are the common units found at nearly all underground mines in Australia. They
find applications of loading upholes as the venturi action helps to compact the prills on
loading allowing ANFO to stick in upholes. Loading pressures are usually higher than
pressure loaders and allow higher ANFO loading densities. Densities in the range of 1.0
-1.05g/cc are possible. If too high a pressure is used ANFO can be compressed passed its
critical density rendering it inert. Loading hose lengths are not restricted by airflow thus
allow long upholes and downholes to be loaded efficiently.

9.1.4 Pneumatic Loading Techniques

There are many methods and pressures that can be used when loading with the
pneumatic loading equipment. When loading holes, blow back ANFO losses can be
reduced by lowering the vessel pressure or speeding hose withdraw. A rigid loading pipe
attached to the end with centralising fins can be used. This stops the ANFO impacting on
the borehole wall before impacting on the ANFO load.

A standoff distance between the hose end and ANFO charge of around 0.5m will ensure
good compaction. Many operators use far to high a pressure and airflow, resulting in
wasting considerable amounts of explosives. Sounds made during the loading are used by
many operators as an indication of proper loading.

ANFO-PS type products may have problems sticking in large diameter up-holes, as the
polystyrene will not compact. This is where the SANFOLD products come into play with
the emulsion forming a sticky agent. ANFO-PS must be blow loaded into long down

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holes as loose pouring of this product will allow segregation and improper loading
characteristics.

Water has been added to ANFO in the past, to around 1% by weight, to allow ANFO to
stick in large diameter upholes. This practice should not be used as the resultant
reduction in energy and increases in fumes are unnecessary. Adding diesel fuel will
provide the same result with lesser problems with energy loss or fume. Local regulations
should be consulted before using this technique to ensure compliance.

9.1.5 Pneumatic Cartridge Loaders

This type of equipment has been used since the 1940’s but is little used in the Australian
mining industry today. With the introduction of bulk loading equipment cartridge loaders
do not provide the efficiency or productivity of the new methods, though there is a cost
benefit in some situations.

Pneumatic loading of chubbed explosives allows fast loading than by hand with an
increase in the packed density of around 50%. The units are useful in loading deep holes
where the volume of explosives used can not justify an expensive bulk pumping system.

Basic operation is to set up the gun with a compressed air line and feed the loading hose
into the hole. By pushing the chub into the gun, airflow pushes the chub along the hose
to the back of the hole. Before exiting a small tack or knife slits the cartridge so that the
explosives will pack better and also provide adhesion to the walls of the blasthole.
Figures indicate up to 95% of hole coupling is possible.

They are usually design to load chubs up to 300mm long by 32mm diameter but can be
modified to load 400mm chubs

The hose used for loading is usually low static and grooved to reduce friction and back
pressure.

9.1.6 Pneumatic Loader Safety

There are many safety aspects, which must be understood with the use of
pressure/pneumatic loading vessels. The relevant local authority must approve each
vessel as it is a pressure vessel, and any work carried out on the vessel must only be by
authorised tradesmen.

- Always check the vessel and associated parts for damage or wear. ANFO is extremely
corrosive to steel so caution is advised.

- Ensure air valves and fittings are in good order, and pressure relief valve is functional

- Always wear safety glasses when using loading vessels due to high velocity air.

- Always discharge air from the vessel once finished loading.

- Never attach or disconnect an air hose under pressure. Use safety clips to ensure no
join comes apart.

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- Never allow tradesmen to work on a loading vessel unless inspected that the kettle is
empty and washed out. Risk of explosive may result from welding or oxy cutting.

- Always ground loading vessels to eliminate static electricity build up from loading
operations.

- Always use approved low static loading hose

9.1.7 Static Electricity

Static electricity is capable of providing sufficient energy to initiate explosives, especially

electric detonators. The static charge can build up on the charge persons body or the
equipment in the same way a capacitor stores charge. Precaution against static electricity
will ensure safer charging and handling.

Steps to be taken:

- Equipment should be constructed of conductive material and should be grounded. The

maximum resistance between loader and earth should be less than 1,000,000 Ohms.
Never ground the loading vessel to service pipes underground or any other equipment
as these many be a source of stray current. If the loader is mounted onto mobile
equipment ensure that there is a grounding device on either the support jacks or a
dragging chain.

- Always use a Low Static hose when pneumatically loading ANFO. This semi
conductive hose should have a minimum resistance specified in the AS2187, (currently
under review) and has a maximum resistance of 2.0M Ohms.

- Physical contact by the operator with the loading hose is essential to ensure they don’t
become statically charged. Wearing gloves whilst loading stops physical contact.
Unless operators are earthed in some other fashion, operators should NOT wear
gloves if the gloves are non-conducting.

- The relative humidity should be at least 50% to minimise the build up of charge.
Water vapour builds up in thin layers on the surface of objects and provides a path
back to earth. The humidity of the compressed air provides moisture to the ANFO
particles, which will help drain charge from the ANFO to the borehole wall.

- Hole liners that are not conductive should not be used; these provide a barrier to
static discharge. Only hole liners designed for loading should be used.

- Periodic checks should be made to ensure equipment is sufficiently grounded. These

tests include, grounding resistance, static voltage buildup and relative humidity of the
mine environment.

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9.2 EMULSION PUMPING SYSTEM

A recent push from the explosive suppliers to provide their customers with newer more
technical loading solutions, along with the emulsion explosives, has lead to the
introduction of emulsion or slurry pumping systems. This equipment is usually extremely
advanced and utilises the newest technology available.

The pumping systems utilise better understanding of emulsion technology and

formulations to allow the explosive to be pumped into long holes with precise accuracy,
sometimes in the range of + 1kg.

Specialised pumps are used to pump the explosive from a bulk container along a loading
hose. For upholes, once the emulsion is pumped along the hose, it is usually subjected to
an in-line shearing device to increase the viscosity to ensure the product stays up the
hole.

Attachments such as water rings, which provide an annulus of water around the
explosive to reduce pumping pressure, are used in conjunction with surfactants to allow
long charge lengths of viscous emulsions without the shearing devices.

New emulsion explosives are being developed to work with newer pumping systems
especially for long up-hole applications. It is extremely difficult to take an existing
product and make it perform in an application it is not designed for. Always ensure that
the emulsion being used has been formulated for the particular task.

Emulsions can be mixed with ANFO to make blends with higher bulk energy and lower
unit costs. The pumping systems used for this application are totally different than those
for straight emulsions. The ANFO greatly increases the viscosity and most emulsion
blends used today do no exceed 30% ANFO. Higher blending rates require auguring into
down holes only as it is currently extremely difficult to load in up holes.

These newer systems are extremely costly as they can include options such as remote
loading, computerised control units, hose pushers, load data collection and automatic
shutdown systems. Ongoing maintenance costs are usually high and highly trained
operators are required to effectively load. For these reasons most manufacturers will
provide some form of on-site service with their own personnel operating the equipment.

The two common types of systems used today are:

- gassed emulsions, chemicals are added on pumping to form gas bubbles that make the
product explosive. This system requires more technology and is therefore more
expensive.

- solid sensitised, this product is already an explosive so only requires loading into the
hole and less technology.

9.2.1 Product Handling

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One of the large advantages to using these newer pumping systems is that they are very
amenable to bulk loading and supply situations. The emulsions can be delivered to site in
various ways:

- Manufactured on site
- Delivered in tankers and pumped to site bins
- Delivered in site bins

If an emulsion is to be gassed underground to provide sensitivity, then it will usually be

classed a 5.1 Oxidising Agent for road transport. Solid sensitised emulsion are usually
classed a 1.1 Explosive though some are Class 1.5.

Transfer bins and diaphragm pumps are used to transfer the explosive to magazines
underground, though in mines with declines large trucks can deliver directly to the
loading unit.

9.2.2 Pump Safety

The pumping systems used today are designed to operate as safely as is possible. The
pumps used on explosive loading systems are special types and should never be worked
on or modified by anyone else but qualified tradesmen.

Many safety systems have been added to the pump loaders to ensure that preset limits on
temperature, flow and pressure limits are not exceeded. Pumps must be maintained and
inspected on a regular basis usually dictated by the manufacturer. Only genuine
replacement parts should be used.

Due to the high pressures involved and varying characteristics of the emulsion explosive,
unsafe operating conditions may result if products and equipment are miss matched.

9.2.3 Evaluating the Pumping Systems

The recent push by users and manufacturers to use bulk emulsion technology has led to
sites evaluating the systems on cost of explosive product and not the total effect the new
technology will have. Some of the major advantages and disadvantages may have been
overlooked on a pure cost analysis.

Factors that must also be considered include:

- Product cost per tonnes, shipping and secondary handling

- Reduction of drilling cost changes due to higher density explosives
- Improved fragmentation on handling, hoisting, milling
- Productivity of charge hands in loading, cycle times, production rates
- Equipment cost, pumps, bins, payback period, maintenance
- Manual handling reduction and improved safety
- Product and technical support, spare parts, services, and response times.
9.2.4 Emulsion Explosive Pumping

The main application of emulsion technology underground is in areas where high water
flow condition prevails. ANFO cannot easily be used in these areas, so emulsions become
economically justifiable. Correctly loaded emulsions will displace water and will sleep for
many days in water if required. Holes are normally loaded from the toe to ensure water is

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pushed from the hole. Special hose pushing devices have been manufactured to allow
long upholes to be loaded and greatly increase effectiveness and productivity. Emulsion
formulations are available that will easily stay in up holes of 100mm diameter.

Primers are loaded at the toe of the hole via usual methods. Holes are usually blocked off
once loading is complete to ensure explosive retention. This is not required for most
explosives. Stemming material should be added to increase the confinement.

Toe loading is the most effective way to load to ensure full hole loading and good
retention. An alternative is to collar load up holes with the use of breather tubes and
plugs. This process is similar to grouting. With the collar sealed, a low viscosity emulsion
is pumped into the hole until the breather tube is full. More equipment and time is
required for this method.

A varying loading profile is created when using a gassed emulsion due to hydrostatic
head increasing the density of the product. This must be taken into account when
designing a blast. This is not the case for solid sensitised emulsion, which has a more
consistent density along the hole length.

When using gassed emulsions, time must be given to allow the gassing reaction to take
place, anywhere from 10mins to 1 hr, before stemming the holes. If stemming is placed
before the gassing takes place, incorrect loading will result greatly affecting the end
result.

Mobile units that carry large volumes of emulsion and loading equipment are available to
purchase. These units run into the hundreds of thousands of dollars and can only be
justified by large emulsion users. The units consist of a carrier, storage bin, pump unit,
charging basket and hose pusher. The hose pushers are an integral part of the system’s
efficiency and also allow remote loading. Holes up to 50m to be loaded effectively with
little to no manhandling.

9.2.5 Pneumatic Emulsion Loading

Dyno Nobel currently has both equipment and emulsion formulations that utilise existing
pressure vessels to ‘pump’ explosives into development rounds. This equipment can be
used in overseas mines that have serious water problems.

A basic loading vessel and a water ring injection system are set up in parallel, this allows
emulsions to be pushed through a loading hose. This method is extremely useful for
loading lifters in development rounds and also loading rounds susceptible to Sulphide
Dust explosions with inhibited emulsion.

9.3 MANUAL LOADING

With some of the larger mining operations the size of the blastholes used for production
allows for manual loading of the explosives by pouring or tamping. Some points to
consider when undertaking manual loading include compaction, coupling, segregation
and risk of manual handling injuries.

9.3.1 ANFO Products

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ANFO is the most commonly used explosive in underground mines for large scale
blasting. Due to its nature it can easily be poured down holes with an inclination up to
around 30o.

Some care must be taken when trying to load ANFO-PS products in this manner due to
the difference between the AN prills and the polystyrene falling at different rates. This
leads to alternative layers of ANFO then layers of polystyrene being deposited, on
detonation the VOD varies as the explosives detonate and slow down periodically. The
newer low energy ANFO products do contain emulsion to bind the polystyrene into a
matrix for more stability when loading.

The lack of compaction can also lead to a reduced powder factor and slower VOD thus
affecting the overall energy output from the explosives. The manual handling issue also
needs to be addressed as worker injuries from carrying and handling of bags is common.

9.3.2 Cartridged Explosives

Package explosives should be lowered into holes not ‘air mailed’ or dropped. This is to
reduce unsafe impact or product desensitisation. The primer should always be lowered
down with the second cartridge. The loading density of the cartridges can be increased
by slitting the chubs to allow for better coupling.

If non-viscous emulsions are to be used in holes full of water, the emulsion should not be
poured into the hole but allowed to sink in its slit package. This will avoid water
entrapment and effective loading.

Tamping is usually undertaken to maximise loading density and secure the chub in the
hole. High pressure gasses from adjoining holes can and do push loose cartridges out of
non-stemmed holes. Tamping rods should be made of wood or plastic NOT scaling bars
or drill rods, which can cause sparks. Tamping should not be excessive and primers
should never be tamped. Excessive tamping can desensitise the product.

Detonators should never be force through the plastic wrapper, a wooden pricker is
provided to create a hole.

9.4 EFFECT OF DESIGN ON HOLE LOADING

Some of the important factors that will ultimately define the way in which the explosive
will break ground are related to the design of the blast. It is usually the role of the
Engineer to design a blast to work with the rock structure, and then use the outcome to
help define changes to the design. The shotfirer is usually the most precious source of
information into how the explosive design has worked, along with the loader drivers in
defining how easy the broken rock is to dig. It is a team approach with much refining
necessary to obtain the optimum design.

Factors of importance:

- Charge Diameter and Length

- Stemming (Type & Length)
- Loading method

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- Degree of Coupling
- Degree of Confinement
. Timing
. Hole layout
. Primer Placement

9.4.1 Charge Diameter and Length

The intimacy of the explosives with the borehole will determine the amount of energy
transfer. Packaged explosives when loaded usually contain many voids, where as bulk
emulsions totally fill the hole. The hole size will dictate how much explosive can be placed
into a rock mass thus affecting the powder factor.

Charge diameter also affects the VOD of the explosive and most commercial explosive
shoot quicker in larger holes, thus releasing energy differently from the same explosive in a
smaller hole.

Charge height can influence the hydrostatic forces on an emulsion explosive; increasing its
density past it’s critical density, rendering it very insensitive or inert.

9.4.2 Stemming

Stemming on all blastholes, be they development or production holes, is used to help

confine the gasses generated from detonation. The type of stemming usually
recommended is an angular rock sized to around 10-15% of the blasthole size. Since the
gas pressure is a major contributor to the Effective Energy it must be stopped from
venting along the blasthole, if this is achieved much less explosives can be used to
achieve the required result.

9.4.3 Loading Method

The loading method can influence the density of the product. High-pressure blow loading
ANFO crushes the prills, this collapses the voids increasing density, changing the powder
factor. Emulsion pumping stresses the explosives and changes it’s properties making it
more viscous. Excessive pumping can break down the emulsion structure. The profile of
density for a gassed explosive is important when considering where the most explosives
are placed. Cartridge loaders will also stress cartridged explosives and produce a higher
loaded density than if the explosives are pushed by hand.
9.4.4 Degree of Confinement

The confinement of the explosive will dictate how the explosive will perform and release
energy. It is affected by many factors such as the timing of the shot, hole layout and
primer placement. Timing will dictate if any rock movement has occurred before the next
hole detonates. Obviously too long a delay can lead to gasses intruding into the next
hole, reducing confinement. Too short a delay will lead to blastholes ‘seeing’ too much
ground and lead to cratering.

Hole layout will dictate how quickly the gasses can vent to atmosphere, if at all. Too
much burden and the hole will rifle, too little and the hole will prematurely vent wasting
energy.

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Primer placement will dictate where the major initial pressure is and how much
confinement the detonating explosive will have. This is discussed more fully in the
priming section.

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