Heat Rate by NTPC PDF

(For internal circulation only)
./i;:
ENERGY & EFFICIENCY

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Doc. No.:CenPEEP/March-07/EEMG/Rev 01
Centre for Power Efficiency & Environmental Protection

. (CenPEEP)
~~
[tr.l~"'.)
NTPC NTPC -; Limited
(~-- OJ (A Government of India Enterprise)
CenPEEP Preface
Preface
A document on “Energy & Efficiency Management System’ was prepared for coal
stations and issued in the year 2005 with an aim to implement uniform system of
efficiency monitoring, performance testing, performance gap assessment, calculations
of key performance indicators and reporting. The document got an overwhelming
response and the system has been implemented in all NTPC stations. This has
facilitated accurate assessment of efficiency gaps of different components and
development of appropriate Heat rate recovery action plans. The approach has yielded
benefits and overall improvement in efficiency in all NTPC stations has been observed.
We had invited comments on the document from the users on the contents, coverage,
tests frequency reporting formats on efficiency gaps etc. from stations and regions /
CC. CenPEEP team also visited all NTPC stations and obtained direct feedback on
manual, calculation procedures and improvements based on experience of use. A need
was felt to revise the document to include various observations of stations, other users
and additional points not covered earlier. Accordingly, the document has been revised.
Unaccountable HR losses are currently one of the major areas of concern and vary from
10 kcal to 100 kcal in stations. To give due importance to this, a chapter has been
added on the unaccountable losses; it describes calculation methodologies and
strategies for reduction of unaccountable losses. We have also included methodology for
calculation of losses on account of TDBFP.
Globally, turbine cycle and boiler math models are widely used for accurate
performance analysis and assessment. CenPEEP has been striving hard to popularize
uses of math models. It has also organized training and demonstration programs on
modeling and analysis. As a natural corollary to this effort, we have added a chapter on
modeling of plant and equipments, methodologies and likely benefits.
Some fine tuning has also been done in calculations and related procedure as well. The
reporting format has also been modified to bring out the performance gaps more
accurately with focus on exceptions in HR recovery action plan and its implementation.
We have also added latest learnings that has taken place through trainings and visits of
external experts to India and visits of NTPC engineers to utilities in Europe & USA.
We are sure that this revised document shall be useful to the people involved in the day
to day activity of efficiency monitoring and its improvement at station, region and
corporate. This document shall also be useful as a reference document for both the
newcomers and the practicing engineers.
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ENERGY & EFFICIENCY MANAGEMENT SYSYEM i
CenPEEP Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
In preparation of this document the support and cooperation of station, regional

representatives and knowledge team members was vital, without which this documents
could not have been successfully revised.
The information available in “Heat rate guidelines for Indian power Plant” has been used
and customized as applicable, for implementation in NTPC. The Learning from various
training programs in India & abroad has been included as a part of improvement.
The continued support and guidance of management has helped in finalizing various
system and practices covered in the document.
______________________________________________________________
ENERGY & EFFICIENCY MANAGEMENT SYSYEM ii
CenPEEP _____Salient Points
Salient Points of Revised Documents
• More definitions provided in section –2
• More conceptual explanations provided in section – 3
• Impact of Performance parameter deviations included in the section – 5
• Testing frequency revised and rationalized
• Instrumentations coverage increased based on experience
• Single Cell CT testing procedure included in the section – 8
• Mill Performance test updated based on the experience.
• For system water loss assessment, D/A drop test procedure included in the
section – 8
• TD BFP Test procedure included in the section – 8
• A Chapter on unaccounted loss included as section – 13
• Heat rate improvement activities discussed in length in section – 14.
• A separate section on math modeling included as section – 15.
______________________________________________________________
ENERGY & EFFICIENCY MANAGEMENT SYSYEM iii
CenPEEP ________Contents
CONTENTS
Section Page
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objective 1-2
2.0 DEFINITION 2-1
3.0 HEAT RATE ASSESSMENT

3.1 Monitoring Of Primary Process Indicators 3-1
3.2 Heat Rate Deviation Trending 3-7
3.3 Parameters To Be Tracked 3-9
4.0 BASELINE FOR PERFORMANCE COMPARISION

4.1 Design 4-1
4.2 Performance Guarantee Test 4-1
4.3 Historical Operating Data 4-2
4.4 Benchmarking Of Similar Units 4-2
4.5 “Expected” Performance 4-3
5.0 METHODOLOGY OF HEAT RATE DEVIATION CALCULATION

5.1 Data Collection Methodology 5-1
5.2 Deviation Calculation Methodology 5-1
5.3 Monthly & Weekly Heat Rate Deviation 5-15
6.0 PERIODIC TESTING WITH ONLINE INSTRUMENT

6.1 Introduction 6-1
6.2 Types of Tests 6-1
6.3 Testing Frequency 6-9
7.0 INSTRUMENTATION
7.1 Test Equipment Calibration 7-1
7.2 Instrument Installation & Setup 7-5
7.3 Calibration Schedule of Instruments 7-9
7.4 Accuracy Level of Test Instrument 7-10
7.5 Test Equipment Matrix 7-11
7.6 Test Equipments For EEEMG Lab Setup 7-12
8.0 Typical Test Procedures

8.1 HP/IP Turbine Efficiency Test 8.1-1
8.2 Gross Turbine Cycle Heat Rate Test 8.2-1
8.3 HP Heater Performance Test 8.3-1
8.4 Condenser Performance Test 8.4-1
8.5 Cooling Tower Thermal Performance Test 8.5-1
8.6 Mill Performance Test 8.6-1
8.7 Air Heater Performance Test 8.7-1
8.8 Boiler Efficiency Test 8.8-1
8.9 Deaerator Drop Test 8.9-1
8.10 TD BFP Test 8.10-1
9.0 HEATRATE ACTION PLAN

9.1 Preparation of action Plan 9-1
9.2 Calculate Unit, Station HR 9-2
______________________________________________________________
ENERGY & EFFICIENCY MANAGEMENT SYSYEM iv
CenPEEP ________Contents
Section Page
9.3 Review the Plan 9-2

9.4 Annual Targeting 9-3
10.0 REPORTING SYSTEM AND FORMATS

10.2 Periodic Review Meeting at Station 10-1
11.0 EEMG STRUCTURE AND RESPONSIBILITY

11.1 EEMG Setup – Station 11-1
11.2 Setup at Region 11-4
11.3 Setup at Corporate Center 11-5
12.0 TOOLS
12.2 Comprehensive Thermal Kit 12-1
12.3 Thermodynamic Model of the Plant 12-8
13.0 UNACCOUNTABLE LOSS

13.2 Calculation of Unaccountable Loss 13-2
13.3 Unaccounted Losses & its reduction 13-3
14.0 HEAT RATE IMPROVEMENT ACTIVITIES

14.2 Improved Condenser Cleanliness 14-1
14.3 Condenser Air In-leakage 14-2
14.4 Improved Cycle Isolation 14-4
14.5 Milling System 14-5
14.6 Optimised Furnace O2 Operation 14-7
14.7 Attemperation Valves Passing 14-7
14.8 Instrument Calibration 14-8
14.9 Boiler Cleanliness 14-9
14.10 Flue Gas Analysis 14-10
14.11 High Exit Gas Temperature 14-10
14.12 HP/IP/LP Efficiency 14-12
14.13 HP Heater Performance 14-12
14.14 CT High Cold Water Temperature 14-14
14.15 Variable Speed Drives for Major Auxiliaries 14-15
14.16 Infrared Thermography and Ultrasonic Acoustics 14-15
15.0 MATH MODELLING OF POWER PLANT

15.2 What is modeling? 15-1
15.3 Power Plant Applications 15-2
15.4 Methodology 15-3
15.5 Performance prediction under off design Conditions 15-3
15.6 Boiler Applications 15-6
15.7 Approach / Strategy 15-6
15.8 CenPEEP Initiative 15-7
15.9 Conclusion 15-8
16.0 FAULT TREES 16-1
______________________________________________________________
ENERGY & EFFICIENCY MANAGEMENT SYSYEM v
CenPEEP Introduction
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Efficient operation of power plants has always been important to utilities.

The heat rate of a conventional Coal fired power plant is a measure of
how efficiently it converts the chemical energy contained in the fuel into
electrical energy. This conversion is accomplished in four major steps.
First, the chemical energy in the fuel is converted into thermal energy,
then the thermal energy is converted into kinetic energy, then the kinetic
energy is converted in mechanical energy, and last the mechanical
energy is converted to electrical energy. In each of these sub-processes,
some energy is lost to the environment. Some of the fuel is not burned
completely, some of the thermal energy is lost out through the stack and
also rejected to the cooling water, some of the kinetic and mechanical
energy produces heat instead of electricity, and last, some of the
electricity that is produced is used by these sub-processes. The heat rate
of a power plant is the amount of chemical energy, in the fuel, that must
be supplied to produce one unit of electrical energy. Heat rate is
expressed in kcal/kWh.
If a power plant is able to convert 100% of the chemical energy in the

fuel into electricity, the plant would have a heat rate of 860 kcal/kWh.
Unfortunately, due to the losses described above, a modern conventional
power plant might have at best a design full load heat rate of the order of
2200 kcal/kWh, which is about 39% efficient.
Many factors affect the actual, operating heat rate of a plant:
i. The initial design. Some units are designed to be more efficient

than others. Some units have more stages of feed water heaters,
resulting in better efficiency; some units have steam driven pumps
and fans instead of electric drives; some units operate at higher
initial temperature and/or pressure, which results in higher
efficiency i,e lower heat rate.
ii. Ambient conditions: A plant is more efficient when the condenser

circulating water inlet temperature is cooler.
iii. Load Factor: Conventional power plants are most efficient at full
load, and the efficiency decreases as the load decreases.
iv. The fuel that is supplied: A plant may have been designed to burn
a low moisture bituminous coal, but it is receiving a high moisture
sub- bituminous coal. This will adversely affect the heat rate.
v. How well the plant is operated and maintained: Power plants can
be operated efficiently or inefficiently. Equipment deterioration may
not be corrected speedily or completely, drain valves could be
passing, unnecessary auxiliary equipment may be run, the initial
steam temperature may not be continuously maintained as high as
it should be, etc.
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ENERGY & EFFICIENCY MANAGEMENT SYSYEM PAGE 1-1
CenPEEP Introduction
It is this last category, which is very important for a running plant to

bring out the cost of generation.
1.1 Objective
The purpose of a heat rate monitoring and subsequent improvement is to

reduce the heat rate of a unit. This result in several benefits:
The amount of money spent for fuel will be reduced. This lowers the cost
of generation of electricity.
The amount of emissions to the environment will be reduced. Improving

the heat rate reduces the amount of greenhouse gas that is produced.
Less fuel burned means less ash to be disposed of, and less particulate
matter go out of the stack.
Because less fuel is required to produce the same amount of electricity,

the amount of wear and tear on equipment such as pulverizers, coal
pipes and nozzles, CHP and AHP equipments etc., is reduced. Also, along
with reduced fuel flows, the airflow is reduced, thereby reducing velocities
through the boiler, which in turn causes less erosion and reduced fan
power consumption.
Heat rate improvement results in an increase in the generation of the

unit, allowing the unit to run at a higher plant load factor. This
advantage can be very valuable, especially during summer when the
condenser cooling water inlet temperatures and ambient air temperatures
are high, which sometimes results in generation being limited due to
higher condenser back pressure or running out of fan(s) capacity.
_________________________________________________________
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9
CenPEEP Heat Rate Assessment
3.0 HEAT RATE ASSESSMENT
3.1 MONITORING OF PRIMARY PROCESS INDICATORS
3.1.1 Purpose
Heat rate monitoring is focused on identifying heat rate gaps and then
identifying and implementing corrective actions to eliminate the efficiency
loss. In this approach, heat rate deviations from expected or design
levels are identified and quantified. Then using fault trees or other
resources the cause(s) of such gaps are identified. This method is useful,
but the fact is, the heat rate should not be allowed to deteriorate to the
point that unexpected or unknown deviations exist.
The personnel operating or maintaining the equipment should be aware

of equipment deterioration and suitable corrective action should be taken
prior to the point that it significantly impacts the heat rate. By following
good O&M practices and proactive action, heat rate deteriorations can be
avoided (or at least accounted for) before they are reflected in the overall
performance statistics.
This pro-active approach is accomplished by identifying key “primary

process indicators”, monitoring them and taking corrective actions
immediately as indicated. If this is done, the improvement in higher-
level performance parameters (heat rate, availability, etc.) will follow.
A secondary purpose for monitoring primary process indicators is to assist

data validation/instrument drift and its calibration need. By closely
monitoring critical instruments, drifts or irregularities can be quickly
identified and the instrument can be calibrated or replaced.
3.1.2 Definition of Primary Process Indicators
It is the information to be monitored, measured, or tracked that will give

an indication that the process is in trouble and needs corrective action (or
that there has been a change in the process) prior to seeing adverse
impacts to a higher indicator, such as a heat rate deviation.
Some indicators are also “parameters” used to calculate heat rate

deviations, such as hot reheat steam temperature. However, most
indicators are at a much lower level, such as mill outlet temperature.
Normally, heat rate deviations are not calculated for mill outlet
temperature, even though it affects the thermal performance (and other
characteristics) of the unit. Another example of a primary process
indicator is condenser water box differential pressure. If it increases (due
to fouling of the inlet tube sheet, for example), it can reduce the
condenser circulating water flow, resulting in a higher condenser back
pressure and a higher heat rate. Monitoring this differential pressure will
_________________________________________________________
immediately show when a change has occurred, and signal for corrective
action to be taken, before it adversely affects the unit heat rate.
Each system in the power plant (fuel supply, combustion, feed water,
condenser, circulating water, etc.) has multiple Primary Process
Indicators that can be used to determine whether the process is
functioning as designed, (or if there has been a change to the process).
There are several available sources that can be used to help develop a list
of indicators, such as original equipment manufacturers manuals, heat
rate deviation fault trees, etc. List of indicators enclosed is considered to
be useful in identifying problem in initial stage.
3.1.3 Data Collection and Analysis Methods
The second step is to determine the data collection methodology for each
indicator. Some Primary Process Indicators may be monitored
continuously via a computer system or a recorder or indicator in the unit
control room. Others may have a site/auxiliary control room/local board
indication that is only periodically checked, or only measured during
routine or special tests.
3.1.4 List of Primary Process Indicators
The following is a partial list of Primary Process Indicators that should be

monitored. Because each unit has different designs, this list is
only a guide, and items should be added or deleted as necessary.
Items marked “(H)” should be given the highest priority, and should be
control charted/trend charted on all units. Items marked “(M)” are a
medium priority and should be control charted/trend charted wherever
practical. Items marked “(L)” are the lowest priority and should be
control charted/trend charted where these points are available on a DAS
and/or if there are known problems. There are certain parameters which
are applicable for the new station only.
3.1.4.1 Boiler - Water/Steam Side
a) Steam Temperatures:
i. Final Superheat outlet temperature(s) (H)
ii. Hot Reheat outlet temperature(s) (H)
iii. ∆ T across attemperation station when the steam

Temperature is below set point (H)
_________________________________________________________
b) Attemperation Flows
i. Reheat (H)
ii. Superheat (H)
c) FW temperature at economizer outlet (H)
d) Water/Steam temperature rise across each sections (M)

(Econ , WW, Primary SH, Final SH, Reheater, etc.)
e) Pressure Drop
i. Economizer (L)
ii. Economizer outlet – Final SH outlet

(Once through units) (M)
3.1.4.2 Boiler - Fire Side
a) Flue gas temperatures
i. Air Pre heater inlet gas temperature(s) (H)
ii. Air Pre heater outlet gas temperature(s) (H)
b) Primary air header pressure (H)
c) Wind box pressure (H)
d) Furnace draft (L)
e) Wind box to furnace differential (M)
f) Draft loss through each bank of convection pass (L)

(i.e. FSH, LTSH, RH)
g) Furnace exit gas temperature (M)
h) Flue gas oxygen percentage rise

– goose neck to AH inlet. (M)
i) Flue gas oxygen percentage rise

- AH outlet to ID fan inlet (M)
j) Damper positions
(fuel/air, aux. air, over fire, AA, etc.) (M)
k) Burner tilt position (M)
_________________________________________________________
l) Soot blowing steam usage (M)
m) Ratio of fan amps to flow (FDF, IDF, PAF) (M)
3.1.4.3 Air Heater (AH)
a) Air temperature entering AH (units with steam coils) (L)
b) ∆ T at AH outlet/cold air bypass junction (H)
c) Flue gas analysis - oxygen at AH inlet/ outlet (H)
d) Flue gas analysis - carbon monoxide at goose neck

area and between Economizer outlet & ID Fan (M)
e) Draft loss through Air Heater
i. Air side (L)
ii. Gas Side (L)
f) AH x-ratio * (M)
g) AH gas side efficiency * (M)
h) AH Leakage * (H)
i) Ratio of total primary air flow to total

secondary air flow (M)
3.1.4.4 Pulverizer
a) Mill outlet temperatures (mill in service) (H)
b) Mill outlet temperatures (mill out of service) (H)
c) Temperature drop at air / tempering air junction (M)
d) Ratio of mill amps to coal flow (M)
e) Ratio of mill ∆ P to coal flow (M)
f) Mill Fineness:
i. % Retention through a 50 mesh (H)
ii. % Passing through a 200 mesh (H)
_________________________________________________________
g) For each coal pipe, the difference between it’s air flow
and the average for all pipes from that mill. (M)
3.1.4.5 Turbine
a) MS pressure (H)
b) Pressure ratio
i. HPT - First Stage / HPT exhaust (H)
ii. IP - inlet / outlet (H)
iii. LP - inlet / last extraction (M)
c) Ratio of corrected first stage pressure to

corrected flow (H)
d) Section efficiencies * (M)
3.1.4.6 Feed water (Heaters and Feed Pump)
a) Terminal Temperature Differences * (TTD) (M)
a) Drain Cooler Approaches * (DCA) (L)
b) Water side pressure drop (L)
c) Pressure drop in extraction piping (L)
d) Feed water temperature at HPH outlet (H)
e) ∆ T at Top HPH FW outlet /

FW temp after bypass junction (M)
f) Heater level (L)
g) Heater vent positions (L)
3.1.4.7 Boiler Feed Pump & TD BFP
a) BFP balancing drum leak off (BDLO) pressure (H)
b) Ratio of pump amps to feed water

flow through the pump (M)
c) % of total FW flow carried by each pump (L)
_________________________________________________________
d) Recirculation V/V passing (H)
e) Steam Flow to TD BFP (M)
3.1.4.8 Condenser
a) Condenser CW Flow (H)
b) Air In leakage (H)
c) Water box Differential Pressure (H)
d) Terminal Temperature Difference (M)
e) Temperature Rise (M)
f) Deviation from expected Condenser Back Pressure (H)
g) Pressure drop across trash rack/

traveling water screens (M)
h) Condensate sub cooling (L)
i) Air steam mixture sub cooling (L)
j) Tube Cleanliness factor (M)
3.1.4.9 Cooling Tower
a) Range (H)
b) Approach (H)
c) CW Flow (H)
d) WBT at Tower inlet (M)
e) CT inlet temperature [H]
f) CT outlet temperature [H]
g) CT fan power [M]
3.1.4.10 Others
a] Unit Station service, from unit board(s) (H)
b] Common Station Service (L)
_________________________________________________________
c] Coal size leaving the crushers (L)
d] Number of leaking valves (may be divided into three

Categories, based on heat rate impact) (M)
e] Soot blower availability by area

(WW, PSH, Final SH, RH, Econ., etc.) (M)
f] Makeup water flow (M)
g] Steam flow to auxiliary equipment (SCAPH,

other units, etc.) (M)
* Calculated data based on monthly test.
3.2 HEAT RATE DEVIATION TRENDING
“Heat Rate parameters” are operating data or calculated values from

operating data for which heat rate deviations can be calculated.
By calculating actual heat rate and comparing the actual heat rate to
some “baseline” and trending the deviation, we can determine if the
performance of the unit is improving or deteriorating. One advantage of
this method is that the cost of the overall performance deterioration can
be calculated
a) The magnitude (heat rate deviation) of each problem area can be

determined. On an individual unit, the problem areas can be
ranked, and the most costly can be prioritized and addressed first.
b) The heat rate deviation can be readily converted to a cost. When

a corrective action is determined, the cost/benefit of the action
can be calculated.
c) Trade-off between parameters can be calculated. For example, if

a unit is having problems maintaining steam temperatures, a
temporary solution might be to increase the air flow to the boiler.
Unless you can calculate the heat rate deviation for the low steam
temperature and compare it to the heat rate deviation due to the
additional airflow, you cannot determine if it is more economical to
run at reduced temperature or at higher air flows.
d) Problems at different units can be compared and ranked. By

doing this, the problems areas at multiple units of a plant or over
an entire system can be ranked. For example, a 200 MW unit
might have a condenser pressure 25 mmHg higher than the
“expected” value; a 500 MW unit might have an exit gas
temperature 25 0C higher than expected. Unless the impacts of
both problems are converted to a heat rate deviation (then cost),
which problem should be addressed first cannot be determined.
_________________________________________________________
e) Once the heat rate deviations for each parameter are known, they
can be summed to give a “accountable” heat rate deviation.
Usually this value is smaller than the total heat rate deviation. The
difference is the “unaccountable” heat rate deviation, and
represents problems areas that are not tracked by a parameter
(for example LP turbine efficiency, cycle isolation problems, etc.)
3.3 PARAMETERS TO BE TRACKED
There are two methods to track Heat rate deviation.
First, deviations could be assigned to each equipment, i.e., a heat rate

deviation would be computed for the high pressure turbine, the air pre
heater, the boiler, the feed water heaters, the BFP, the condenser, the
CW pumps, etc. There are definite advantages to this method, in that it
would be known precisely which equipment is not operating or
maintained properly. However, the overall performance of most
equipment is not continuously monitored, but instead the steam/air/flue
gas conditions around the equipment are monitored. For example, if the
steam temperature at the intercept valve is low, it is relatively easy to
calculate a heat rate deviation for it. It is much time taking to routinely
determine the equipment that is causing the deviation, it could be the
attemperator valve leaking, the reheater could be fouled or slagged, the
gas recirculating fans or high pressure feed water heaters could be out of
service, etc.
The second method of tracking heat rate deviations would then be by

steam/air/flue gas conditions, i.e., a heat rate deviation would be
computed for the MS temperature, the HRH steam temperature at the
intercept valve, the condenser pressure, the flue gas temperature leaving
the AH, the flow rate to the APH coils, etc.
The combination of these two methods is a better way of calculating

actual heat rate deviation. Heat rate deviations are calculated for some
equipment (i.e., the turbine sections), but most losses are calculated
from the conditions of the steam/air or flue gas at various locations (i.e.
Main Steam Throttle pressure, condenser pressure, AH exit gas
temperature). If one of the steam/air/flue gas conditions is causing a
significant deviation, then the next level of analysis is performed to
determine the root cause.
3.3.1 Boiler Cycle
3.3.1.1 Air Heater Performance Indices
Air heater operating performance depends on a large number of factors.

Some of them are listed below.
a) Operating excess air levels
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b) Primary air to secondary air ratio

c) Inlet air and inlet gas temperatures
d) Frequency & effectiveness of air heater soot blowing
e) No. of mills in service
f) Primary air header pressure
g) Coal moisture
h) Boiler air ingress levels
i) Air heater upstream ash evacuation
j) Physical condition of heating elements, seals, sector plates,
diaphragm plates etc.
So to correctly assess any degradations in Air heater performance, it’s
important to test air heaters under same operating regime (Operating O2,
no. of mills in service, Primary Air header pressure, boiler loading) to
reduce the effect of the operational variables.
The following Air heater test indices are computed and compared with the
design / PG test and last test values. Also, these indices can be plotted
on a time line graph showing historical, design and /or acceptance test
data.
• Air-in-Leakage
• Gas Side Efficiency
• X - ratio
• Flue gas temperature drop
• Air side temperature rise
• Gas & Air side pressure drops
These indices are computed and compared with design or Acceptance test
values. For a meaningful comparison, the air & gas flows through the air
heater should be close to nominal values. This makes analysis a little
difficult especially in 500 MW units where the relative proportion of gas
flows to Primary & Secondary air heaters is not known.
3.3.1.2 Air heater leakage
It is expressed as a percentage of gas flow entering the air heater. Bi-

sector regenerative air heaters with proper seal clearances should have
leakage rates around 6% to 8% while the leakage rates for tri-sector air
heaters should be between 10 - 13%. Increase in Air heater leakage can
lead to
• Reduced Air heater efficiency
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• Increased fan power consumption

• Higher gas velocities that affect ESP performance
• Loss of fan margins leading to inefficient operation and at times
restricting unit loading
Typically recuperative or tubular air heaters should have zero leakage,

but tube failures due to corrosion or mechanical damage / spool tube
erosion can result in appreciable leakages. If the unit is equipped with
bypass dampers or recirculation dampers, they should also be inspected.
Air leakage occurring at the hot end of the air heater affects its thermal
and hydraulic performance while cold end leakage only increases
fans’ loading.
A significant increase in air heater leakage warrants a physical inspection

of the air heater. Possible causes of increased leakage are axial and radial
seal mechanical damage or wear; sector plate mechanical damage or
warping; rotor eccentricity or excessive air to gas side differential
pressure.
AH Leakage is quantified by using the following equations.
AL = (CO2 ge – CO2gl) x 0.9 x 100

CO2 gl
= (O2 gl – O2 ge) x 0.9 x 100

(21 - O2 gl)
AL = air heater leakage, % of gas flow entering air heater

CO2ge = percent CO2 in gas entering air heater
CO2gl = percent CO2 in gas leaving air heater
O2ge = percent O 2 in gas entering air heater
O2gl = percent O 2 in gas leaving air heater
Leakage assessment should be done by a grid survey in the flue gas

ducts using a portable gas analyzer. CO2 measurement is preferred due
to high absolute values; In case of any measurement errors, the resultant
influence on leakage calculation is small.
O2 measurement feedback using orsat or an extractive portable analyzer

is on dry basis while in situ zirconia measurement is on wet basis. The
following equation approximates the relation between the two.
O2 (dry) = O2 (wet) .
(1 - % Moisture in Flue Gas /100)
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Air heater leakage dilutes the flue gas and lowers the as measured exit
gas temperatures. Gas outlet temperature corrected to ‘no leakage’
condition is calculated using the following formula.
Tgnl = AL x Cpa x (Tgl – Tae) + Tgl

100 x Cpg
Tgnl = gas outlet temperature corrected for ‘0’ leakage

Cpa = the mean specific heat between Tae and Tgl
Tae = temperature of air entering air heater
Tgl = temperature of gas leaving air heater
Cpg = mean specific heat between Tgl and Tgnl
3.3.1.3 Air heater gas side efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of temperature drop, corrected for leakage, to

the available temperature head, expressed as a percentage. Temperature
drop is obtained by subtracting the corrected gas outlet temperature from
the gas inlet temperature. Temperature head is obtained by subtracting
air inlet temperature from the gas inlet temperature. The corrected gas
outlet temperature is defined as the outlet gas temperature calculated for
‘no air heater leakage’.
Gas Side Efficiency GSE= (Temp drop / Temperature head) * 100
GSE = Tge – Tgnl x 100

Tge - Tae
Tae = Temperature of air entering air heater

Tge = Temperature of gas entering air heater
Tgnl = gas out temp corrected for no leakage
Gas side efficiency is an indicator of thermal performance of the air

heater and depends on the internal condition of the air heater.
Deterioration in gas side efficiency is generally accompanied by an
increase in exit gas temperature and a decrease in air heater air outlet
temperature.
If a significant reduction in air heater gas side efficiency occurs and

operator controllable parameters (air heater soot blowing, damper
adjustments, etc) are determined not to be responsible, an internal
inspection of the air heater should be performed at the next available
shutdown. Possible causes of performance degradation include: bypass,
isolation or recirculation dampers mispositioned, air heater baskets
corroded / eroded or fouled air heater baskets. A fouled air heater will
also experience a significant increase in gas side pressure drop.
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3.3.1.4 Air heater X-ratio
It is the ratio of heat capacity of air passing through the air heater to the
heat capacity of flue gas passing through the air heater and is calculated
using the following formulae
= Wair out * Cpa

Wgas in * Cpg
= Tge - Tgnl
Tao - Tae
Tge = temperature of gas entering air heater

Tgnl = gas outlet temperature corrected for ‘0’
leakage
Tao = Temperature of air leaving air heater
Tae = temperature of air entering air heater
X-Ratio depends on the moisture in coal, air infiltration in the boiler, air &
gas mass flow rates, leakage from the setting and specific heats of air &
flue gas. X-ratio does not provide a measure of thermal performance of
the air heater, but is a measure of variations in the operating conditions.
Since the values of specific heats of air and flue gas are comparable,
changes in X-ratio vis-à-vis design provide an indication of change in
proportion of air and flue gas flows through the air heater.
A lower than design X-ratio indicates excessive gas weight through the
air heater or that airflow is bypassing the air heater. A lower than design
X-ratio leads to higher than design gas outlet temperature & can be used
as an indication of excessive tempering air to the mills or excessive
boiler air-in-leakage.
Flue gas temperature drop across air heater: The difference of flue
gas temperatures at air heater inlet and outlet
Air side temperature rise: The difference of air temperatures at air

heater inlet and outlet
Gas & Air side pressure drops: The difference of flue gas and air
pressures at air heater inlet and outlet
Air & gas side pressure drops change approximately in proportion to the
square of the gas & air weights through the air heaters. If excess air is
greater than expected, the pressure drops will be greater than expected.
Also, any deposits / choking of the basket elements would lead to an

increase in pressure drops.
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3.3.1.5 Air Heaters - Exit Gas Temperatures
Ideal flue gas temperature at stack outlet should be just above the dew
point to avoid corrosion; higher gas temperatures reduce efficiency;
possible causes of temperature deviations are
• Dirty heat transfer surfaces

• Over firing / Higher than design boiler loading
• High Excess air
• Excessive casing air ingress
• Fouled/corroded/eroded Air heater baskets
• Non - representative measurement
An increase in AH leakage causes dilution of flue gas & a drop in ‘As read’
exit gas temperatures. So gas outlet temperature corrected to ‘no
leakage’ condition’ is calculated as in Section 1.1. Other corrections are
also applied before comparing exit gas temperatures with design or the
last test results viz.
a) Entering air temperature - Any changes would change exit gas

temperature in same direction
b) Entering Gas Temperature - Any changes would change exit gas
temperature in same direction
c) X-ratio - An increase in X-ratio would decrease exit gas
temperatures & vice versa
d) Gas Weight - Increase in gas weight would result in higher exit
gas temperatures
ASME PTC 4.3 recommends corrections for all of the above and provides
methodology for the first two, while the last two corrections are unique to
a specific air heater and provided by the equipment manufacturer as
algorithms.
3.3.1.6 Boiler Losses
Two major controllable losses are ‘Dry flue gas loss’ & ‘Unburnt carbon in
ash loss’.
3.3.1.6.1 Dry flue gas loss
Dry Gas loss is the most significant portion of the boiler losses. It is the
heat carried away by the flue gas from the stack. It is a function of flue
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gas quantity and the temperature difference between air heater exit gas
temperature and air heater inlet air temperature. Typically 20 degree C
increase in exit gas temperature could lead to 1% reduction in boiler
efficiency.
High DFG Loss usually results from high excess air, over firing, boiler
casing leakage, air heater fouling, convection pass fouling, or excessive
furnace water wall fouling.
High Excess Air increases the quantity of gases leaving the boiler. In
addition, the exit gas temperature increases because the water and
steam flows are unchanged and they do not cool the increase flue gas
flow as much.
Convection Pass Fouling of the superheater and reheater sections of the
boiler results in less cooling of flue gas and higher gas temperatures
throughout the boiler. High gas temperature entering the air heater
results in high exit gas temperature.
Boiler Casing Leakage on balanced draft boilers affects the heat transfer
patterns by increasing the quantity of flue gas flow. This results in
increased exit gas temperature. High exit gas temperature, accompanied
by high air outlet temperature, is an indication of boiler casing leakage.
Reduction in Dry Gas loss can be achieved by following.
• Boiler operation at optimum excess air
• Ensuring cleanliness of boiler surfaces with adequate soot blowing
• Good combustion of fuel
• Reduction of tempering air to mills
• Reduction in air-in-leakage in the boiler
• Cleaning of air heater surfaces and proper heating elements / surface
area
3.3.1.6.2 Flue Gas Exit Gas Temperature
The temperature of the flue gas leaving the air heaters is measured. The
temperature at this location is stratified; therefore it is important to
measure the temperature at enough locations to get a representative
value of the average temperature in the duct. It’s recommended to
compare the feedback from online thermocouples to the average values
of the grid survey done during boiler tests.
3.3.1.6.3 Oxygen at the Boiler Outlet / Air Heater Inlet
Dry gas loss also depends on quantity of gas that leaves the boiler.
Normally, rather than directly measuring the amount of gas flow, it is
calculated from the O2 concentration of the gas and the coal analysis.
Due to air in-leakage in the convection pass, the percentage of oxygen in
the flue gas varies from point to point in the duct. It’s important to
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ensure that the oxygen value read by online zirconia probes is

representative of the duct average. This is done by (a) periodic
calibration check of zirconia probes (b) traversing the flue gas ducts with
multi point probes during a boiler test and comparing average values with
online values.
3.3.1.6.4 Unburnt Carbon Loss
It is also an operator controllable loss. The amount of unburnt in fly ash

and bottom ash is a measure of effectiveness of combustion process in
general and mills / burners in particular.
Factors influencing Unburnt carbon loss are Mills problems, Burner

problems, Insufficient Excess air, and most importantly the mal
distribution of air or coal (or both) between the burners. Mills problems
that affect the boiler efficiency are the inability of the mill to grind the
coal to the desires fineness.
Factors influencing Unburnt carbon loss includes the followings:
• Type of mills and firing system

• PF fineness (Worn Pulveriser component, Classifier adjustment
incorrect)
• Primary Air Flow too high or too low
• Furnace size
• Coal FC/VM ratio, coal reactivity
• Burners design / condition
• Insufficient excess air in combustion zone
• Air damper / register settings
• Burner to burner PF balance / worn orifices
3.3.1.6.5 Combustibles in Bottom Ash
Incremental ash samples are collected from the bottom ash and the
carbon content of the ash determined. The unburned carbon represents
chemical energy that was supplied to the boiler, but was not converted to
thermal energy. To convert this to a heat rate deviation some assumption
about how much ash goes to fly ash and how much ash goes to bottom
ash must be made. (Typically, for pulverized coal fired unit it is assumed
that 80 % of the ash in the coal goes to fly ash and 20 % of the ash goes
to bottom ash.)
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3.3.1.6.6 Combustibles in Fly Ash

Two important considerations in fly ash sampling are the location and the
frequency. As the fly ash leaves the convection pass, some ash is usually
collected on hoppers between the economizer and the air pre heater.
There are additional hoppers collecting some ash after the air pre heater.
Most of the ash is collected in the precipitators. At any time the carbon
content of the ash at any of these locations can vary considerably. The
preferred method is to collect a representative fly ash sample using a
‘High Volume Sampler’ from gas ducts at Econonomiser exit. The
drawback to this method is that this area is extremely hot and it is not
easy to collect the sample. For this reason, fly ash samples are collected
further downstream. If this is done, ash samples should be collected
from both places (Economizer & ESP) and the relationship between the
two sampling ports determined and applied to subsequent samples drawn
at the downstream location.
(Typically, for pulverized coal fired unit it is assumed that 80 % of the
ash in the coal goes to fly ash and 20 % of the ash goes to bottom ash.)
3.3.2 Fuel Characteristics
As the amount of moisture in the fuel increases, the boiler efficiency

decreases as some of the heat released goes into heating and vaporizing
the moisture. Also, as the hydrogen content of the fuel increases, the
boiler losses increase as the water is formed from the burning of the
hydrogen. These two losses are treated as uncontrollable, as is the
condenser circulating water temperature, air inlet temperatures to APH
and the expected values for moisture and hydrogen are continually set
equal to the actual value and the expected heat rate changes with the
fuel analysis
3.3.3 Turbine Cycle
3.3.3.1 Condenser Back Pressure
Condenser back pressure is usually one of the largest heat rate deviations
at a plant. As the back pressure in the condenser rises, the amount of
energy extracted from each kilogram of steam is reduced. Approximately
1% of the output of the IP/LP turbine will be lost for every 6 mm Hg
increase in condenser pressure. Usually a heat rate deviation is
calculated due to the difference between the expected and actual
condenser pressure. Expected condenser pressure is the pressure arrived
after correcting the same for design CW inlet temperature.
Condenser performance problems can generally be grouped into three

areas: circulating water flow problems, air in-leakage/air removal
problems, or poor heat transfer (fouling) problems. For closed-loop
cooling systems, the controllable circulating water inlet temperature
should also be considered a potential problem area.
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The first step in diagnosing condenser problems is to pinpoint the area of

the problem. It is important to check for corroborating symptoms and to
periodically trend the condenser data to identify incipient problems. Most
heat transfer (fouling) problems, associated with high backpressure in the
condenser, tend to develop slowly. If high backpressure occurs quickly, a
problem is suspected with air-in leakage/air removal or circulating water
flow.
3.3.3.1.1 Low Circulating Water Flow
Low circulating water flow through the condenser tubes results in an

increase in the average circulating water temperature. Since a decrease
in flow also results in a decrease in water velocity through the tubes, the
water has more residence time in the tubes and absorbs more heat.
Therefore, the average water temperature increases and the temperature
of the circulating water leaving the condenser also rises. Low Circulating
water flow may be due to:
3.3.3.1.1.1 Circulating Water System/Equipment Problems –
• Proper number of circulating water pumps in not service

• Pumps are not operating properly
• Discharge valves or valves in the system not fully open
3.3.3.1.1.2 Plugging—One of the causes of insufficient circulating water flow is

tube plugging. Plugging shares symptoms with both low flow and fouling.
Plugging problems are typically indicated by a high circulating water
temperature rise, high pump discharge pressure, and high differential
pressure across the water boxes. If plugging is found, the condenser tube
sheet should be cleaned of debris and the source of the material located.
3.3.3.1.1.3 Low Water box Level—Another low flow problem involves inadequate
venting of the condenser’s water boxes. If a portion of the tubes do not
have circulating water flowing through them, they do not transfer heat
and the effective surface area of the condenser is reduced results in
higher backpressure. Air in the water boxes shares most of the symptoms
of tube sheet plugging. Whenever tube sheet plugging is suspected,
water box level and/or the air evacuation system should be visually
checked.
3.3.3.1.2 High Circulating Water Flow
High Circulating water flow may sometimes lead to increase in turbine

leaving losses, affect condenser performance and reduce plant efficiency.
These problems are usually associated with very low cold water
temperature creating low condenser back pressure.
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• Choked Flow at the turbine exhaust can occur at high load with
low backpressure. Excessive circulation water flow helps to lower
backpressure and may lead to a choked flow condition.
• Excessive Pump Power is another high flow problem. Placing an

additional pump in service increases circulating water flow and
reduces backpressure. However, the additional pump power
affects the net plant output. There is a trade-off between low
backpressure and increased pump power that varies with load and
seasonal conditions. A trade-off analysis should be performed to
determine the optimum point to start an additional pump or
remove one from service.
• Subcooling of the condensate can occur when there is excessive

circulating water flow. Excessive flow of cold, circulating water
cools the condensate further. It is not uncommon to have a
condenser with several degrees of subcooling, especially at
reduced loads. Subcooling can also occur when condenser
backpressure is high. Subcooling occurs near the tube bundle and
is minimized by the reheat function of the condenser. Anything
which interferes with the turbine exhaust steam coming into
contact with falling condensate (baffling or air pockets) can result
in both high back pressure and subcooling of the condensate.
3.3.3.1.3 Air In-Leakage/Air Removal Problems
Most of the heat transfer problems associated with high backpressure in

the condenser tend to develop slowly. If a high backpressure problem
develops quickly, air in-leakage or a failure of air removal equipment is
suspected. air in-leakage/air removal problems can be caused by:
vacuum leaks through various components, inadequate air removal due
to vacuum pump problems, and inadequate air removal due to excessive
moisture loading of the air removal system
Besides raising backpressure, air in-leakage/removal problems allow

oxygen to accumulate inside the turbine cycle. Because oxygen is a
universal corrosive agent, this provides a mechanism for corrosion that
can result in serious degradation problems in the feedwater and boiler
systems. High levels of dissolved oxygen in the condensate leaving the
condenser are expected in the case of air in-leakage/removal problems.
o Air Ingress—Air in-leakage can occur through gland seals or

leaks in the piping or through any equipment / valves under
vacuum. The vacuum pump air flow meters should be checked. If
rotatmeter indicates greater than normal airflow, the cause of the
high turbine backpressure is most likely an air leakage problem.
Vacuum pump seal leakage can result in a significant amount of
airflow. Therefore, the observed airflow may not be indicative of
air in-leakage into the condenser. Placing another vacuum pump
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in service increases the capacity of the air removal system and

should help reduce condenser backpressure.
Another indication of excessive air leakage or inadequate

air removal is subcooling of the condensate. This occurs
because air pockets form on the steam side of the
condenser tube bundles interfere in the contact area
between the incoming steam and the condensate drips.
Common causes for air leakage include:
Inadequate turbine shaft sealing (low seal steam or water
pressure)
Vacuum breaker leaks
Air leaking in expansion joints
Leakage through various components under vacuum
Leakage around pressure relief diaphragm
Seal steam pressure at the shaft seals
Air Removal Problems indicate operating problems with the air
removal system if air pockets are suspected and there is no
indication of excessive in-leakage. Most air removal systems are
designed to pump a nearly constant volume of air/non-
condensable and water vapor. The volume is constant at the
suction conditions of the air removal system. As backpressure
decreases, air removal system capacity also decreases. If an
additional vacuum pump improves condenser backpressure, the
original vacuum pump should be removed from service. A problem
with a single vacuum pump may or may not affect the remainder
of the air removal equipment, depending on system configuration.
Moisture Loading in the air cooler section of the condenser is

another area that can cause air leakage/removal problems. If too
many air cooler tubes are plugged or the air cooler does not
function properly for any reason, the air removal system is forced
to pump a higher percentage of water vapor. This displaces the
air/non-condensable and has the same impact as high air in-
leakage.
3.3.3.1.4 Heat Transfer (Fouling) Problems
High condenser backpressure is also a result of the inability of the

condenser tubes to effectively transfer heat from the exhaust steam to
the circulating water. Fouling problems are difficult to diagnose since they
share many of the symptoms of air in leakage/air removal problems, and
if plugging occurs, with low flow problems. Thus, fouling is often
diagnosed by eliminating other possible causes of high backpressure or
by a positive response to some sort of cleaning process.
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The cleanliness of the tubes in the condenser has a significant impact on

the condenser’s ability to transfer heat from the exhaust steam to the
circulating water. Increasing terminal temperature difference (TTD)
indicates heat transfer impairment. If efforts to remove the fouling or
debris are unsuccessful while the unit is on-line, the removal of a section
of the condenser for mechanical cleaning should be considered.
• Organic Fouling attaching to the circulating waterside of the

condenser tubes or silt deposits usually causes tube fouling. On
cooling systems with chlorine treatment, the chlorination system is
designed to prevent organic slime or algae growth from occurring
in the first place.
• Tube Sheet Plugging can occur in closed cooling water systems

when cooling tower fill make its way to the condenser water boxes
and lodges on the tube sheet and in the tubes. This results in a
reduction in circulating water flow and an increase in
backpressure. This may occur slowly or rapidly, depending on the
size and quantity of the debris. Silt deposits within the tubes may
also result in reduced heat transfer and slowly increasing
backpressure. Corrosion product from CW duct also causes
plugging.
3.3.3.1.5 High Circulating Water Temperature
Even with a perfectly clean condenser, high backpressure results from a

high circulating water inlet temperature. The rate of heat rejection is
directly related to the difference in temperature between the steam and
the circulating water. If the circulating water inlet temperature rises, the
temperature of the steam exiting the turbine must also rise (and so will
the backpressure) to re-establish the required temperature difference.
• Cooling Tower Operation affects circulating water temperature.

If the circulating water temperature is higher than normal,
consideration should be given to placing additional cooling tower
fans in service. As with circulating water pumps, the optimum
number of cooling tower fans to have in service is a trade-off
between auxiliary power and condenser backpressure.
The circulating water pump inlet screens should be checked to ensure

they are clean and the suction of the circulating water pumps is free of
debris.
Other items to watch for during cooling tower operation that effect
cooling tower efficiency are fill damage, silting of the collecting basin and
plugging of the tower distribution nozzles.
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3.3.3.1.6 High Heat Load
Condenser backpressure varies with heat loading. While this may not
seem like a problem, unanticipated heat loads can give the appearance of
high backpressure for a given unit load. For example, if the feedwater
heater emergency drains are routed back to the condenser, instead of
cascading from one heater to the next, the heat load on the condenser is
slightly higher than anticipated. Likewise, if the condensate low flow
recirculation valve remains open at higher loads, the condenser’s heat
load is higher than normal. Although most of these additional heat loads
are small, compared to the heat in the main turbine exhaust steam, they
can accumulate. The condenser is the waste heat collector for the turbine
cycle. Anything that reduces turbine cycle efficiency (turbine fouling or
deposits, excessive reheat sprays, etc.) increases the heat loading on the
condenser and effects condenser backpressure for a given unit electrical
load.
3.3.3.2 Final Feed water Temperature & High Pressure Heaters

Bypassed
There are three ways of calculating deviations due to the feed water
performance. First, a deviation can be calculated due to the final feed
water temperature being lower than expected. Second, a deviation can be
calculated from the amount of time a heater or a string of heaters are
bypassed. Third, both methods can be combined, where the final feed
water temperature deviation is used when all heaters are in service and
the deviation for heaters being bypassed is used (and the final feed water
temperature is ignored) when one or more heaters is bypassed. The
reason the final feed water temperature cannot be used alone is two fold.
First, the heat rate deviation for the top heater being bypassed is
different from the deviation that would be calculated based on the
resulting final feed water temperature. Second, if a lower pressure
heater is bypassed, the final feed water temperature may not change, but
there is a heat rate deviation due to the higher extraction flow to higher-
pressure heaters.
3.3.3.3 Makeup
Makeup is the quantity of water that is lost from the cycle during
operation. It is not simply the water supplied to a unit, as water is also
supplied for boiler hydrostatic tests, chemical cleanings, etc. Water
supplied for these purposes should be excluded. The heat rate deviation
for makeup is an approximation, as the location in the cycle of each loss
is not known, therefore the exact heat rate deviation is not known.
Losses from main steam are the most expensive, because so much
energy has been added to it.Losses from LP heaters are relatively
inexpensive. Typically, an assumption is made that the loss is from the
boiler drum, half at saturated liquid condition and half at saturated
vapour.
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3.3.3.4 Turbine Efficiency
The loss due to reduced turbine section efficiency is calculated for each
turbine that operates entirely in the superheated steam region. This can
be done by continuously calculating each section’s efficiency (from station
temperatures and pressures) and comparing to an “expected” value.
However, it is more common to periodically test the turbines (usually at
valves wide open) and to compare that efficiency to the expected VWO
efficiency, and to assume that the heat rate deviation is constant over the
load range. The heat rate correction factors for turbine efficiency are
usually obtained from the manufacturer, or they can be calculated with
the use of a thermodynamic model of the plant. The actual deviation can
be due to various factors, depending on the cause of the efficiency loss.
If the steam path is worn or rough, the exhaust temperature increases,
so less energy per kilogram of steam flow is converted to mechanical
work. In the HP turbine this loss is partially offset because less energy
will be required to be added in the reheater. This small gain can also be
lost if the amount of reheat attemperation must be increased. If the
stage pressures are also affected, then there are additional effects due to
change in extraction flow rates. Usually heat rate deviations are
calculated for the following sections:
• High Pressure Section Efficiency
• Intermediate Pressure Section Efficiency
3.3.3.5 Auxiliary Steam Usage
Several auxiliary equipment present in the plants that are supplied with
steam. The steam that is used may be main steam, from a turbine
extraction, from the CRH, or some other location. Regardless of the
source of the steam, its use comes at some price. If the auxiliary
equipment does not use the steam, it would flow through the turbine,
producing kilowatts. Therefore the use (or excessive use) of this steam
causes a heat rate deviation. It is worthwhile to monitor the flow rate of
steam to each auxiliary but taking total usage is also useful. The flow
rate may be measured with orifice plates, nozzles,. Or the flow may be
derived from a pressure reading. Some equipment, such as SCAPH, has
a relatively constant steam flow, and only the number of hours of use is
tracked. Some potential auxiliary steam users are:
• SCAPH
• TDBFP
• Steam Jet Air Ejectors (SJAE)
• Steam supplied to/received from other units
• Misc. auxiliary steam headers
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3.3.4 Main Steam Pressure before ESV
If the unit is operating at a pressure at the stop valves different from the
“expected”, there is a heat rate penalty. This is due to the fact that the
higher the pressure the higher the available energy. For a unit operating
under “Rated Pressure”, the “Expected” value will be same as “Design”
pressure of the unit. (Occasionally a unit may permanently lower its Main
steam pressure due to reliability issues, and then their “expected” value
would be some value less than the “design” value.) For a unit operating
under “Variable Pressure”, the “expected” value will vary as a function of
the steam flow to the turbine.
3.3.5 Main Steam Temperature before ESV
As with the Main steam pressure, this is measured just before the turbine
stop valves. If there are multiple lines between the super heater outlet
and the turbine, the temperature should be measured in each location, as
there can be differences pipe to pipe.
3.3.6 Hot Reheat Steam Temperature before IV
Because there is usually some small temperature drop between the hot
reheat outlet and the turbine, this temperature should be measured as
close to the IV valves as possible. As stated for Main steam temperature,
it should be measured in each pipe.
3.3.7 Reheat Attemperation
Reheat attemperation temperature, is normally determined by measuring

the pressure drop across a flow orifice. This flow rate is then divided by
the feed water or main steam flow and expressed as a percentage.
Reheat attemperation affects the unit heat rate in two ways. First, the
quantity of FW used for RH spray did not pass through HP turbine.
Secondly in some of the units the heat picks up through HP heater does
not take place as the spray is taken before HPH
3.3.8 Superheat Attemperation
Superheat attemperation, is normally determined by measuring the

pressure drop across a flow orifice. This flow rate is then divided by the
feed water or main steam flow and expressed as a percentage. If the
flow is taken downstream of the high-pressure heaters, the heat rate
deviation is negligible. If the flow is taken from the BFP discharge, then
there is a heat rate deviation because the flow bypasses the high-
pressure feed water heaters
_________________________________________________________
3.3.9 Start-up Fuel
Normally, the reported heat rate of a unit is calculated using the entire
quantity of fuel that is supplied to the unit during the time in question
(this includes fuel burned when on-line, as well as fuel burned during
startups & shutdowns). In order to account for the heat rate deviation
due to fuel burned prior to synchronization, the quantity of fuel burned
before the unit is synchronized is measured. If this deviation and the
deviation for “Station Service (Prorated) - Idle” are subtracted from the
actual heat rate, the result is the “operating” heat rate.
3.3.10 Auxiliary and Station Power
The heat rate deviation due to auxiliary power usage is divided into three
areas: unit auxiliary power, station service-operation, and station service-
idle.
3.3.10.1 Unit Auxiliary Power
This is the deviation due to higher than expected unit (auxiliary) power
usage. This source of power only applies during the time when the unit is
on line. This is the power supplied directly to major auxiliaries for a
single unit.
3.3.10.2 Station Service - Operating
This second deviation is due to prorata station service power usage while
the unit is on line. This includes power used by the coal and ash handling
equipment, makeup water plant, office and maintenance shops, etc.
3.3.10.3 Station Service – Idle
The third deviation is due to prorated station service power usage while
the unit is off line. The running auxiliaries for the unit in idle condition
need to be monitored.
3.3.11 Unaccountable Loss
The last category of losses is called “unaccountable Loss.” It is the loss

which are generally not measured with the available system or
equipments. However some of the losses may be measured with special
tests but efforts involved in assessment are much more than the actual
benefits derived. “Unaccountable” heat rate loss is defined as the
deference between the corrected test heat rate based on test and the
sum of the expected heat rate and all “accountable” heat rate deviations.
There are two types of problems that contribute to this area.
_________________________________________________________
First, it is true losses that are not able to be measured, such as low
pressure turbine efficiency, cycle isolation, radiation losses, low pressure
feed water heater performance, etc.
The second types of problems are errors. All errors end up in the
unaccountable heat rate deviation group. Examples of such errors are
coal heating value measurements; any instrument errors that are
measuring parameters such as Main steam temperature, condenser
pressure or boiler outlet O2,Feed flow/steam flow, MW etc.
Other types of, errors include calculation procedure errors, i.e. the
calculated heat rate deviation of a 2% point change in HP turbine
efficiency could be different from the true heat rate deviation.
_________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Baseline for comparision
4.0 BASELINE FOR PERFORMANCE COMPARISION
To calculate a heat rate deviation for a parameter/system, its actual

value must be compared to some standard. There are several options
that may be used. They are
Design
Performance Guarantee Test
Historical Operating Data
Benchmarking Of Similar Units
Expected” Performance
4.1 Design
One baseline that the current performance of the unit could be compared
to is the “design” heat rate. From the point of view of setting up the
tracking system, this is the easiest baseline to obtain. However, there
are several problems with this method:
• The actual initial performance of the unit may have never reached
the design, or even if it did, the performance of some areas may
have been better, while others were worse.
• The “design” heat rate is based on some ambient conditions that

vary during the year. Frequently the design heat rate is calculated
at some design condenser pressure (or inlet water temperature).
During some parts of the year, the condenser pressure should be
lower than the design; therefore the heat rate should be lower
than the design.
• Over time, as changes are made to the plant, the “original design”
may not represent the “current design” performance of each
parameter or the overall heat rate.
4.2 Performance Guarantee Test
A better baseline to use would be the performance guarantee

(acceptance) test results. It represents the performance level that was
achieved when the unit was new, and as such, it is a level that should be
achievable. (It may not be economically feasible to return all equipment
to this level, but it is possible.) There are three problems with this
method
_________________________________________________________
• While the results of the acceptance test are achievable, they may
not be the best possible. For example, the vendor is usually only
interested in demonstrating that the guarantee can be met.
Sometimes, the performance can be improved by minor
adjustments to operating set points, to achieve even better
performance.
• The operating conditions under which the acceptance tests were

run may not be possible for everyday operation, as acceptance
tests are run with the makeup isolated, no soot blowing, no
sluicing, etc.
• Over time, as changes are made to the plant, the “original design”
may not represent the “current design” performance of each
parameter or the overall heat rate.
• PG Test are not done for all units of a stations and PG test data for
very old units may not be available.
4.3 Historical Operating Test Data
Sometimes, a unit did not have an acceptance test. For those units,
historical operating/test data, taken from a certain time period when the
unit operation was considered to be “good”, can be reviewed to
determine what level of performance is possible. A large amount of data
should be collected when the unit is operating at steady state conditions,
and using some “engineering judgment” a curve can be drawn through
the “better” points. There are two primary problems with this method:
• The available operating data may not represent the best

achievable performance
• The “best” data for one parameter (which occurred at one point of
time), when combined with the “best” data for another parameter
(which occurred at a different point of time), may not be
achievable together, or may not result in the best overall unit
performance. For example, for some load, at some time, the
amount of combustible matter in the fly ash may have been very
low. At some other time the amount of excess air at the same
load may have been low. However these two levels cannot occur
at the same time.
4.4 Benchmarking Of Similar Units
A fourth method that can be used is similar to the previous method but,
instead of looking at the performance of a particular unit, all similar units
in the utility or in the industry are surveyed. Then operating or test data
from the better or best performing unit(s) is reviewed and used to set
_________________________________________________________
expected levels. Potential problems with this method include the two
problems mentioned above. Also, care must be taken when picking units
to use. Just because the design of a unit is the same as another, other
factors can cause differences in their performance. An obvious example
would be the type of coal being burned and ash characteristics. A low
ash fusion temperature coal will be fired differently, and the expected exit
gas temperatures, total air, etc., for the two should be different. Another
example is the condenser cooling water source at one location may allow
that plant to maintain a certain cleanliness factor, whereas the water at
another location may cause faster fouling and a lower average cleanliness
factor.
4.5 “Expected” Performance
The last method, and the one that is recommended, is to compare the
actual current performance to an “expected” value. Design heat rate is
taken as reference.
• Expected Boiler efficiency: In design, boiler efficiency projections,

OEM has generally considered very high margin of unburnt loss
and most of the stations are achieving unburnt carbon loss much
less than the design projections. In order to make it more
realistic, expected boiler efficiency is calculated by considering
expected Unburnt loss (%) , based on best achieved value of the
units. Expected Dry Flue gas Loss is also calculated using expected
Unburnt loss.
• Expected Unit Heat rate = Design GTCHR*100/Expected Blr. Effy
• Test Corrected Boiler efficiency of a unit is corrected to design coal

and design A/H air inlet temperature to arrive at Corrected Boiler
Efficiency, which can be compared with expected boiler efficiency.
• Test gross turbine cycle heat rate of unit is corrected to design

cooling water inlet temperature to arrive at corrected GTCHR.
• Test corrected Unit Heat rate =

Test Corrected GTCHR*100/Test Corrected Blr. Effy.
• Difference of Expected Unit Heat rate & test Corrected Unit Heat
rate accounts for gap in performance of the unit.
_________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Methodology for Heat Rate Deviation
5.0 METHODOLOGY OF HEAT RATE DEVIATION CALCULATION
5.1 Data Collection Methodology
Heat rate deviations are calculated on the basis of parameter having

direct impact on Heat Rate. For arriving at best possible deviation value,
duration of data collection and frequency of data collection plays vital
role. Heat rate deviation calculation on daily basis should be based on 24
hrs daily average value. And for daily heat rate deviation calculation
correction for load and other boundary conditions are to be applied.
5.2 Deviation Calculation Methodology
5.2.1 Load
Daily average load based on 24 hr gross energy meter reading is to be

taken for calculation. This average value of Load is to be compared with
Full load capacity of unit. The difference of Load will be taken for Heat
rate deviation calculation. The heat rate deviation is to be derived from
Load Vs HR deviation curve. Customized/OEM correction curves are to be
used.
Sample Calculation (Column wise w.r.t Daily HR Deviation Report)
Design Full Load = 210 MW

Expected Load = 210 MW
Actual Load = 168 MW
Variance (Exp. Load - Act. Load) = 42 MW
Turbine HR Deviation = 45 kcal/kWh
(From Curve)
Design Boiler η = 86.8 %
HR Deviation = (45/(86.8/100))
= 51.8 kcal/kWh
5.2.2 Main Steam Pressure
MS Pressure before ESV – Day average of 24 hr is to be taken for

calculation. This average value of actual pressure will be compared with
expected pressure (Expected pressure = Design pressure) required. The
difference of Pressure will be taken for Heat rate deviation calculation
based on customized correction curves. Customized/OEM correction
curves are to be used.
Design Pressure = 151 kg/cm2 (abs)

Expected Pressure = 151 kg/cm2 (abs)
Actual Pressure = 149 kg/cm2 (abs)
Variance (Exp.Press- Act. Press) = 2 kg/cm2 (abs)

Turbine HR Correction Factor = 0.999 from Curve

Design Turbine HR = 2000 Kcal/kWh
HR Deviation = 2000/(86.8/100)*(1-0.999)
= 2.3 kcal/kWh
5.2.3 Main Steam Temperature
Main steam temperature before ESV- Day average of 24 hrs of all the
available temperature points located before ESV is to be taken for
calculation. This average value of temperature is to be compared with
expected temperature. (Expected temperature = Design Temperature).
The difference will be taken for Heat rate deviation calculation based on
customized correction curves. Customized/OEM correction curves are to
be used.
Sample calculation (Column wise w.r.t Daily HR Deviation Report)

0
Design M.S Temperature = 537 C
0
Expected M.S Temperature = 537 C
Actual M.S Temperature = 529.5 0C
Variance (Exp. - Act. M.S Temp) = -7.52 0C
Turbine HR Correction Factor = 0.998 From Curve
HR Deviation = (2000/(86.8/100))*(1-0.998)
= 4.6 kcal/kWh
5.2.4 Hot Reheat Temperature
Hot Reheat Temperature before IV- Day average of 24 hrs of all the
available temperature points located before IV is to be taken for
calculation. This average value of temperature is to be compared with
expected temperature. (Expected temperature = Design Temperature).
The difference of temperature will be taken for Heat rate deviation
calculation based on customized correction curves. Customized/OEM
correction curves are to be used.

0
Design HRH Temperature = 538 C
0
Expected HRH Temperature = 538 C
0
Actual Temperature = 530 C
Variance (Exp - Act HRH Temp) = -8.0 0C
Turbine HR Correction Factor = 0.998 from Curve

HR Deviation = 2000/(86.8/100)*(1-0.998)
= 4.6 kcal/kWh
5.2.5 Superheat Attemperation

S/H attemperation to the boiler – Day average of 24 hrs is to be taken for
calculation. This average value of S/H attemperation to be compared with
expected S/H attemperation. (Expected S/H attemperation = Value
corresponding to actual load is to be derived using Load vs superheat
attemperation curve). Load vs superheat attemperation curve, if not
available, may be developed from design data of Boiler. The difference of
average value of day and expected value of S/H attemperation is to be
taken for Heat rate deviation calculation based on customized correction
curves. Customized/OEM correction curves are to be used.
Corrections for S/H spray is to be applied in case tapping of S/H Spray is

taken from the location before HP heater.
Design S/H Attemperation = 0 t/hr

Expected S/H Attemperation = 16 t/hr
Actual S/H Attemperation = 46 t/hr
Variance (Exp. – Act. Attemp) = -30 t/hr
= -5 % of Main Steam Flow
Turbine HR Correction Factor = 0.999 From Curve
Design Tested Boiler η = 86.8 %
HR Deviation = 2000/(86.8/100)*(1-0.999)
= 2.3 kcal/kWh
5.2.6 Reheat Attemperation
R/H attemperation to the boiler – day average of 24 hrs is to be taken for
calculation. This average value of R/H attemperation to be compared with
expected R/H attemperation (Expected R/H attemperation = Value
corresponding to actual load is to be derived using Load vs reheat
attemperation curve). Load vs reheat attemperation curve, if not
available, may be developed from design data of Boiler. The difference of
average value of day and expected value of R/H attemperation is to be
taken for Heat rate deviation calculation based on customized correction
curves. Customized/OEM correction curves are to be used.
Design R/H Attemperation = 0 t/hr

Expected R/H Attemperation = 6 t/hr
Actual R/H Attemperation = 18 t/hr
Variance (Exp. – Act. Attemp) = -12 t/hr
= -2 % of Main Steam Flow
Turbine HR Correction Factor = 0.9968 (From Curve)


HR Deviation = 2000/(86.8/100)*(1-0.997)
= 7.4 kcal/kWh
5.2.7 Condenser Back Pressure
Condenser backpressure based on 24 hrs averages is to be taken for

calculation. This average value of Condenser backpressure is to be
compared with expected condenser backpressure (Expected condenser
back pressure = Design condenser back pressure corrected for 24 hrs
average Load, CW inlet temperature). The difference of Average value of
Day and Expected value of condenser backpressure is to be taken for
Heat rate deviation calculation based on customized correction curves.
Customized/OEM correction curves are to be used.
Design Condenser Back Pressure = 76 mm Hg

Expected Condenser Back Pressure = 51 mm Hg
Actual Condenser Back Pressure = 58 mm Hg
Variance (Exp. – Act. Cond. B.P.) = -7 mm Hg
Turbine HR Correction Factor = 0.995(From Curve)

HR Deviation = 2000/(86.8/100)*(1-0.995)
= 11.5 kcal/kWh
5.2.8 CW inlet temperature
CW inlet temperature based on 24 hrs average is to be taken for

calculation. This average value of CW inlet temperature is to be compared
with expected CW inlet temperature. (Expected CW inlet temp= Design
CW inlet temperature). Condenser backpressure deviation is to be
calculated due to difference of average value of day and expected value
of CW inlet temperature. Heat rate deviation is to be calculated based on
customized correction curves prepared by station for CW inlet
temperature vs Condenser backpressure. Customized/OEM correction
curves are to be used.

0
Design CW Inlet Temperature = 30 C
0
Expected CW Inlet Temperature = 30 C
0
Actual CW Inlet Temperature = 25 C
0
Variance (Exp. – Act. CW Temp) = -5 C
Change In Back Pressure. = 16.5 mm Hg

Turbine HR Correction Factor = 0.99 (From Curve)

HR Deviation = (2000/(86.8/100))*(1-0.99)
= 23.0 kcal/kWh
5.2.9 DM Makeup Water
Total DM Make up to the boiler in a unit is to be taken for calculation of %

DM makeup. This is to be taken from individual flow meter installed in the
unit for make up reading. This average value of DM make up to be
compared with 0 % DM makeup as PG test is carried out with make up in
isolated condition. For comparing Heat rate loss due to DM make up, it
can be divided into 50:50 ratio as 50 % steam side leakage and 50 %
water leakage of total % of DM makeup. DM make up after boiler light up
is to be considered for calculation in case the unit has come after
shutdown or tripping.
Heat Value of make up, H (Dev)= 0.5*(H1 - H2) + 0.5* (H3 - H2)
HR (Dev) = [MU(Act) *H(Dev)*1000] / (GG)
Where
Daily DM Makeup = MU[Act] tones
MS enthalpy = H1 kcal/kg
Makeup water enthalpy = H2 kcal/kg
Feed water enthalpy = H3 kcal/kg
Gross generation = GG kWh
Heat Rate Deviation = HR (Dev) kcal/kWh
Design DM Make Up = 0 %
Expected DM Make Up = 0 %
Actual DM Make Up-MU (Act) = 100 tones
Variance (Exp. – Act. Makeup) = -100 tones
MS enthalpy H1 = 850 kcal/kg

Makeup water enthalpy H2 = 40 kcal/kg
Feed water enthalpy H3 = 250 kcal/kg
Gross generation GG = 4.032x1000000 kWh
H (Dev) = 0.5*(850-40)+0.5*(250-40)
HR Deviation = (100*510*1000)/4.032/1000000
= 12.6 kcal/kWh
5.2.10 Feed Water Temperature
Feed water temperature at top HPH outlet after joining of HPH bypass
line, based on daily 24 hrs averages is to be taken for calculation. This

average value of Feed water temperature is to be compared with the

expected value of Feed water temperature (Expected FW temperature =
Feed water temperature corrected for load, derived from curve between
feed water temperature vs load). The difference of Average value of Day
and Expected value of Feed water temperature is to be taken for Heat
rate deviation calculation based on customized correction curves.
Customized/OEM correction curves are to be used.

0
Design FW Temperature = 248 C
0
Expected FW Temperature = 236 C
0
Actual FW Temperature = 234 C
0
Variance (Exp. – Act. FW Temp) = 2 C
Turbine HR Corr. Factor at 236 0C = 0.996 From Curve

Turbine HR Corr. Factor at 234 0C = 0.995 From Curve
HR Deviation = (2000/(86.8/100))*(0.996-.995)
= 2.3 kcal/kWh
5.2.11 Flue Gas Loss
Calculation of Dry flue gas loss for calculating HR deviations shall be

based on following parameters
5.2.11.1 AH Exit Temperature
Daily last 24 hrs Average Value shall be used for computations. It’s
important to ensure that the online measurements of air and flue gas
temperatures are representative of average temperatures in the duct.
The on line feedback of flue gas exit temperature after air heaters can be
affected by gas stratification and may require more number of
thermocouples than presently installed.
In some layouts, the online thermocouples for flue gas temperature

measurement are mounted too close to air heaters in a cluster and need
to be relocated for representative measurement. Similarly the location
and number of temperature sensors on airside at air heater inlet and
outlet should be reviewed to obtain a representative average. In some
plants, on line thermocouples for secondary air outlet temperatures at air
heater outlet are mounted too close to the air heater and need to be
relocated downstream the ducts at an appropriate location for
representative feedback.
In 500 MW units, the flue gas sampling and temperature measurement

should be done in the common flue gas duct of Primary and Secondary
air heater outlet on each side. At present the flue gas temperature is

monitored only at outlet of each air heater and an average value based
on assumed proportions of flue gas flow through primary and secondary
air heaters, is used for efficiency computation. A no of thermocouples
should be installed in each common outlet duct for representative on line
feedback of average flue gas temperatures.
Daily last 24 hrs Average Value shall be used for computations. It’s
important to ensure that the online measurement of flue gas oxygen of
zirconia on both sides is representative of average value in the duct. The
same can be confirmed by doing a multi point grid survey. To improve
the accuracy of the feedback, two no. zirconia should be provided in each
duct for flue gas oxygen measurement.
5.2.11.2 Average Air Inlet Temperature to AH
Daily last 24 hrs Average Value shall be used for computations. The
reference value shall be computed based on proportions of actual primary
air and secondary air flows through the air heaters.
5.2.11.3 Proximate analysis of coal
Last tested proximate analysis shall be used.
5.2.11.4 Air Heater Leakage
Average air heater leakage value from the last test shall be used. For 500
MW units a weighted average value of air heater leakage shall be used in
proportion to the air flows through the air heaters.
5.2.11.5 Unburnt carbon
Unburnt carbon in fly ash and bottom ash value from the last test shall be
used.
5.2.11.6 Calculations
For arriving at expected value of Dry flue gas loss station is to draw curve
of dry flue gas loss Vs load based on predicted boiler performance given
by manufacturer.
Step-1 - Conversion from Proximate Analysis to Ultimate

Analysis
Reporting of Proximate Analysis of as fired coal should be on ‘Total

Moisture’ basis
- TOTAL MOISTURE = M %
- ASH = A %

- VOLATILE MATTER = VM %
- FIXED CARBON = FC %
-------------------
TOTAL - 100 %
FcDc(T) = Free Carbon On Dry Ash Free Basis

= FC/[1-(1.1* A/100)–(M/100)]
VmDf(T) = Volatile Matter On Dry Ash Free Basis

= [100 - FcDc(T)]
Cdf(T) = Fixed Carbon On Dry Ash Free Basis

= [FcDc(T)+ 0.9*[VmDf(T) – 14 ]
Hdf(T) = Hydrogen On Dry Ash Free Basis

= VmDf(T)* [(7.35/VmDf(T) + 10)-0.013)
Ndf(T) = Nitrogen On Dry Ash Free Basis

= [ 2.1 - ( 0.012 * VmDf(T)]
Ca % = Carbon Percentage (Ultimate Value)

= Cdf(T) * [ VM+ FC(T)] /[ VmDf(T) + FcDc(T) ]
H % = Hydrogen Percentage (Ultimate Value)

= Hdf(T) * [VM(T)+ FC] / [VmDf(T) + FcDc(T) ]
N % = Nitrogen Percentage (Ultimate Value)

= Ndf(T) * [VM(T)+ C(T)] / [ VmDf(T) + FcDc(T) ]
S % = Sulphur Percentage (Ultimate Value)

= Assumed As Per Site Reference Value.
0% = Oxygen % (Ultimate Value)

= 100 – M - A – Ca – H – N – S
Step-2 - Reference Primary air Temperature:
Weighted Temp Air In = Tsai*Rsa + Tpai*Rpa
Where
Rsa - Ratio SA flow to Total Air flow = Fsa/Fta
Rpa - Ratio PA flow to Total Air flow = Fpa/Fta
Tpai = Primary air to AH inlet Temp
Tsai = Secondary air to AH in Temp

Step-3 - Calculation of CO2 at AH Outlet
Wet Oout = ((21* L) + 90*Oin)/(L + 90)

Dry Oout = Wet Oout / (1- %Flue Gas Moisture/100)
Where
Oin = % oxygen at AH Inlet from Zirconia
Wet Oout
= % oxygen at AH Outlet on wet basis
L = % Average Air Heater Leakage
Dry Oout = % oxygen at AH Outlet on dry basis
CO2 % at AH Outlet
CO2 = X – Dry Oout where X - % O2 + CO2 in Flue Gas (Orsat) for

station coal
Step-4 - Calculation of Weight of Dry Flue gas loss
Unburnt C in ash (Cash) = Pfa/100*Cfa + Pba/100*Cba
Where
Pfa/Pba - % of ash in flyash and bottom ash respectively
Cfa/Cba - % Unburnt in flyash and bottom ash respectively
C in ash / kg of coal (U) = A/100*Cash/(100-Cash) kg

Where
A= ash %
Weight of Dry Flue gas
Weight of dry gas = (Ca+S/2.67-100*U)/(12*CO2out) kg/kg coal
Where
Ca = % Carbon in fuel
S = % Sulfur in fuel
U = Carbon in ash / kg of fuel
CO2 = % Carbon dioxide at AH outlet
Sensible Heat dry gas
(Sh) = Wd*30.6(Tgo-Trai) kJ/kg
Where
Cp = Specific heat of gas kg/kg/C
Tgo = Avg. Flue Gas Temp at AH Out

Dry Gas Loss = Sh*100/(Gcv*4.186) %
Where
Sh = Sensible Heat of dry gas
Gcv = Gross calorific Value of coal
Sample calculation
1. Proximate Analysis Of Coal
Moisture = 12.2 %
Ash = 40 %
Volatile Matter = 22.9 %
Fixed Carbon = 24.9 %
Gross Calorific Value = 3320 %
Ultimate Analysis by preceding formulae

Carbon - 39.71 %; Sulphur – 0.6 %; Hydrogen – 2.58 %; Moisture 12.2
%; Nitrogen – 0.76 %; Oxygen - 4.14 %; Ash - 40 %; GCV – 3320
kcal/kg
Design Ultimate Analysis - Carbon - 37 %; Sulphur – 0.3 %;

Hydrogen – 2.3 %; Moisture 12 %; Nitrogen – 0.8 %; Oxygen – 7.6 %;
Ash - 40 %; GCV – 3300kcal/kg
2. Reference Air Temperature & Gas Temperature
Primary air to AH inlet Tpai = 40 0C

Secondary air to AH inlet Tsai = 34 0C
Weighted Temp Air In Tsai*Rsa + Tpai*Rpa = 36.1 C
Avg. F.G Temp At AH Outlet Tgo = 35 0C
3. Calculation of CO2 at AH Outlet
Leakage = 10 %
AH Inlet Oin (Wet) = 2.7 %
Moisture in Flue Gas = 10 %
Wet Oout = ((21* L) + 90*Oin)/(L + 90) = 4.5 %
Dry Oout = Wet Oout / (1- %Flue Gas Moisture/100) = 5.0%
CO2 % at AH outlet = 19.3 – 5 = 14.3 %
4. Carbon in ash
% of Fly Ash Pfa = 80 %

% of Bottom ash Pba = 20 %
% Unburnt in fly ash Cfa = 0.4 % (Last Test value)
% Unburnt in Bottom ash Cba = 1.2 % (Last Test value)
% of Ash in Coal A = 40 %

Unburnt C in ash Cash = Pfa/100*Cfa + Pba/100*Cba
= 80/100*0.4+20/100*1.2
= 0.56 %
C in ash / kg of coal (U) = A/100*Cash/(100-Cash)

= 0.002251 kg/kg of coal
6. Weight of dry gas (Wd)

= (Ca+S/2.67-100*U)/
(12*CO2out)
= 0.2314 kg/kg of coal
7. Sensible Heat Dry Gas (Sh)

= Wd*30.6*(Tgo-Trai)
= 700.09 KJ/kg
8. Dry Flue Gas Loss (DFG)

= Sh*100/(Gcv*4.186) %
= 5.038 %
Design Dry Gas Loss = 4.26 %
Expected Dry Gas Loss = 4.26 %
Actual Dry Gas Loss = 5.04 %
Variance (Exp. – Act. DFG) = 0.78 %
Total HR Deviation = (2000/((86.8-0.78)/100))-

2000/(86.8/100))
= 20.9 kcal/kWh
Dry Gas Losses Corrected for Ambient air

And Design Coal = 4.71 %
Impact of Coal on Dry Gas Loss = 5.04 - 4.71 = 0.33 %

HR Deviation = (2000/(86.8-0.33)/100)-
(2000/(86.8/100))
= 8.8 kcal/kWh
5.2.12 Wet Flue Gas Loss
Calculation of Wet flue gas loss for calculating HR deviations shall be

based on following parameters
• AH Exit Temperature - Daily 24 hrs Average Value
• Air Inlet Temperature to AH- Daily 24 hrs Average Value
• Proximate analysis of coal from the last test

For arriving at expected value of Wet flue gas loss station is to draw
curve of dry flue gas loss Vs load based on predicted boiler performance
given by manufacturer.
Sensible heat of water vapour (Sw)

=1.88*(Tgo-25)+2442+4.2*(25-Trai) KJ/kg
=2602 KJ/kg
Loss due to moisture in fuel =Sw*M/(Gcv*4.186)

=2.284 %
Loss due to Hydrogen in Fuel

=9*H*Sw/ (Gcv*4.186) = 4.35 %
Wet Flue Gas Loss = 2.28 + 4.35 = 6.64 %
Design Wet Flue Gas loss = 4.82 %

Expected Wet flue gas Loss = 4.82 %
Actual Wet Flue gas Loss = 6.64 %
Variance (Exp. – Act. Wet flue gas loss) = 1.82 %

HR Deviation = (2000/(86.8-1.82/100) –
(2000/(86.8/100))
= 49.3 kcal/kWh
5.2.13 Combustibles In Fly Ash
Last tested value of Combustible in fly ash is to be taken for calculation.

The last tested value of Combustible in fly ash to be compared with PG
Test / Best achieved value of Combustible in fly ash which ever is lower.
The difference is to be taken for Heat rate deviation calculations.
Change in Blr Efficiency with Unburnt =0.8* (UBE-UBA) * ASH *

80.77/GCV
UBE - Expected level of unburned carbon expressed as percent by weight

of carbon in ash
UBA - Measured value of unburned carbon (%)
ASH - Ash content of coal from proximate analysis (%)
GCV - Gross Calorific value of the as-fired fuel (kcal/kg)
Sample Calculation
Ash % = 40 %
GCV = 3320 Kcal/kg
Expected Unburnt in Fly Ash = 0.5 %
Actual Unburnt in Fly Ash = 0.4 %
Variance (Expected - Actual Unburnt in FA) = -0.1 %

Design Turbine HR = 2000 kcal/kWh

Change in Boiler Efficiency with change in FA Unburnt = -0.062 %
HR Deviation = (2000/((86.8-0.062)/100))-(2000/(86.8/100))
= - 1.6 kcal/kWh
5.2.14 Combustibles In Bottom Ash
Last tested value of Combustible in bottom ash is to be taken for

calculation. The last tested value of Combustible in bottom ash to be
compared with PG Test / Best achieved value of Combustible in bottom
ash which ever is lower. The difference is to be taken for Heat rate
deviation calculation.
Change in Blr. Efficiency with change in Bottom ash Unburnt

= 0.2*(UBE-UBA)*ASH*80.77/GCV
UBE - Expected level of unburned carbon expressed as percent by weight

of carbon in ash
UBA - Measured value of unburned carbon (%)
ASH - Ash content of coal from proximate analysis (%)

GCV - Gross Calorific value of the as-fired fuel (kcal/kg)
Sample Calculation
Expected Unburnt in Bottom Ash(BA) = 2%
Actual Unburnt in Bottom Ash = 2.5 %
Variance (Expected – Actual Unburnt ) = 0.50 %
Change in Blr Efficiency with Unburnt = -0.077 %
HR Deviation = (2000/((86.8-0.077)/100))-(2000/(86.8/100))
= 2.1 kcal/kWh
5.2.15 Startup - Oil Consumption
Total oil consumption during startups (Light up to synchronization) and

planned shut down is to be considered for loading in to heat rate
deviation.
Total Oil Consumption = 10 KL

Day Generation = 4.0 Mus
HR Deviation = 10*10/4
= 25 kcal/kWh

5.2.16 HP Turbine Efficiency
Last tested value of HP Turbine Efficiency in Valve Wide Open (VWO)

condition is to be taken for calculation. Comparison to be done with HPT
efficiency calculated from design value corresponding to VWO heat
balance diagram. The difference between last tested HP Turbine efficiency
at VWO and Design HP Turbine efficiency at VWO condition is to be taken
for Heat rate deviation calculation.
Heat rate deviation is to be calculated based on customized correction

curves prepared by station with the use of PEPSE for HP Turbine
%.However thumb rule says that HR Deviation due to Change in 1% HP
Turbine Efficiency = 0.2 % of Unit heat rate
Design HP Turbine Efficiency = 87.5 %

Actual HP Cylinder Efficiency = 86.5 %
Variance (Design. – Act. HPT Effiy) = 1.00 %

HR Deviation = 0.2/100*(2000/(86.8/100))
= 4.6 kcal/kWh
5.2.17 IP Turbine Efficiency
Last tested value of IP Turbine Efficiency is to be taken for calculation.

Comparison to be done with IPT efficiency calculated from design value.
The difference between last tested and Design value of IP Turbine
Efficiency is to be taken for Heat rate deviation calculation.
Heat rate deviation is to be calculated based on customized correction

curves prepared by station with the use of PEPSE for HP Turbine
%.However thumb rule says that HR Deviation due to Change in 1% HP
Turbine Efficiency = 0.2 % of Unit heat rate
Design IP Turbine Efficiency = 91.0 %

Actual IP Turbine Efficiency = 90.0 %
Variance(Design – Act. IPT Eff.) = 1.00 %

HR Deviation = 0.2/100*(2000/(86.8/100))
= 4.6 kcal/kWh

5.2.18 TD BFP Efficiency
Last tested value of TDBFP is to be taken for calculation. Comparison to

be done with design value TDBFP efficiency. The difference between total
enthalpy requirement during the test and Design total enthalpy
requirement is to be taken for Heat rate deviation calculation.
Design Inlet Steam Enthalpy = 725.3 kcal/kg

Design Exhaust steam Enthalpy = 578.7 kcal/kg
Design Enthalpy drop = 146.6 kcal/kg
Test Inlet Steam Enthalpy = 733.5 kcal/kg
Design Exhaust steam Enthalpy = 578.7 kcal/kg
Enthalpy drop = 155.2 kcal/kg
Addition Heat required by BFP = 8.6 kcal/kg

Additional Heat input = steam flow of TDBFP * 8.6
HR Deviation = 70*1000*8.6/500/1000
= 1.2 kcal/kWh
5.3 Monthly & Weekly Heat Rate Deviation:
Monthly & Weekly Heat rate deviation based on selected parameters will
be the weighted average of daily Heat rate deviations as the case may
be.
Monthly/Weekly Heat rate = (Sum of product of daily Heat rate & daily
Generation) / (Total generation of the month/Weekly)

DAILY HEAT RATE DEVIATION REPORT

STATION: UNIT NO: REPORT DATE:
S. Parameter Unit Parameter Values Heat Rate Deviation

N Design Expe- Actual Varia- Daily Cumml.
cted nce kcal/kWh kcal/kWh
1 Load MW
Accountable HR Deviation
2 Main steam Press before ESV kg/cm2(a)

3 Main steam Temp before ESV °C
4 Hot Reheat Temp before IV °C
5 Superheat Attemperation * t/hr
6 Reheat Attemperation * t/hr
7 Condenser Back Pressure * mm Hg(a)
8 CW inlet temperature °C
9 Makeup Water % MCR
10 FW temperature at HPH O/L * °C
11 Dry Flue Gas loss (DFG)* %
Effect of Coal quality on DFG %
1) Oxygen at Eco Outlet %
2) APH Exit temperature((Correctd) °C
3) APH Leakage %
12 Wet Flue Gas loss* %
1) Moisture in coal %
13 TDBFP Steam Flow t/hr
14 Combustibles in Fly ash** %
15 Combustibles in Bottom ash** %
16 Startup-Oil Consumption KL
17 HP Turbine Efficiency (VWO) %
18 IP Turbine Efficiency %
19 Total (A) (Total kcal/
Accountable HR Deviation) kWh
20 Unaccountable HR Dev ( B ) kcal/

(Based on monthly Test) kWh
21 TOTAL HR Deviation (A+B) kcal/
kWh
22 DESIGN HEAT RATE at Full load kcal/
and Rated condition (C) kWh
23 DERIVED UNIT HEATRATE kcal/
(A+B+C)= D kWh
24 REPORTED HEAT RATE = E kcal/
(On The Basis Of Coal) kWh
25 DIFF OF (E-D) kcal/
kWh
Note: 1. * - Value in Expected Column is based on Actual Load condition
2. Actual parameters used are 24 hours average value taken from DAS Format-5.1
3. Coal Analysis Used is based on the latest Proximate Analysis
4. For arriving at Unit Heat rate Deviation, Design Boiler Efficiency & GTCHR is taken as
reference .
5. **Combustibles in fly ash & bottom ash to be taken based on last analysis report.

Impact of Performance parameter Deviation on Heat Rate
(A Typical List)
S.N Parameters Units Deviation Average Typical range

HR loss of HR Loss
kcal/kWh kcal/kWh
1 HP Turbine Efficiency % 1 4.74 4.51-5.42
2 IP Turbine Efficiency % 1 3.68 2.77-4.82
3 Main Steam Pressure Kg/cm2 1 0.088 0.008-0.16
4 Main Steam °C 1 0.64 0.32-0.77

Temperature
5 Reheat Temperature °C 1 0.59 0.41-0.86
6 Super heater Spray Tones /hr 10 0.28 0.15-0.35
7 Reheat Spray Tones /hr 10 2.46 1.1-4.19
8 Excess Air (O2) % 1 7.41 4.5-9.1
9 Exit Gas Temperature °C 1 1.2 0.95-1.91
10 Condenser Pressure mm Hg 1 2.03 0.4-2.7
11 Unburned Carbon % 1 2.96 1.5- 3.23
12 Coal Moisture % 1 2.0 1.5 -2.5
13 Makeup Effect on % 1 6.1 1-22

Heat Rate
14 Feed Water °C 1 0.83 -
Temperature
15 Top Heater out of - 1 23.7 -
service
16 Second Heater out of - 1 17.7 -
service
17 Third Heater out of - 1 17.7 -
service
18 Startup - 1 1.85 0.13-4.8

CenPEEP Periodic Testing with online Instrument
6.0 PERIODIC TESTING WITH ONLINE INSTRUMENT
6.1 Introduction
There are several methods available to assess the condition of equipment

(to determine if corrective actions are necessary) in a power plant. One
method is to periodically “open and inspect” equipment on some
schedule. There are several disadvantages to this. First, many times the
equipment is inspected, at some expense, when it is not required (and
unfortunately sometimes equipment is damaged as a result of the
inspection). Second, if a problem occurs just after an inspection, it may
not be detected for a long time. During operation with such problem,
additional damage is done, and the equipment does not operate
efficiently.
A second method is to use station instruments to provide data for

calculation of equipment condition. While this method is useful for
trending the performance pattern and calculating deviations on the basis
of this. But there is one significant drawback i.e. the accuracy of station
instruments, which, in most cases, is not high enough to provide reliable
information. So, it is difficult to take crucial decisions, which will have
large costs and outage time.
But once trend of deterioration is visible from online instrument, then

extent of deterioration can be known through performance testing with
off line high accuracy instrumentation.
Tests with on line instruments are done to compare the current

performance with expected performance and to assess performance
degradation. Design / Expected performance can be used as the baseline,
or the initial periodic test, conducted after an overhaul can be used to
know degradation after the annual overhaul.
In summary, the periodic performance tests are conducted to:
• Compare the current performance with expected performance

• Evaluate the effectiveness of maintenance work
• Determine the most efficient operating regime for equipment and
system
• Account for heat rate losses
6.2 Types of Tests
6.2.1 HP / IP Turbine Enthalpy Drop Efficiency Test
6.2.1.1 Purpose
The purpose of HP/IP Turbine Enthalpy Drop Test is to determine the

efficiency of HP and IP sections of the turbine, trend their performance

and generate data to pinpoint the probable cause of degradation. The

trends can then be used for determination of the optimum point at which
the costs incurred due to performance degradation exceed the cost to be
incurred for restoration of equipment.
6.2.1.2 Frequency
Time based, typically 6 monthly, but the other triggers can take
precedence:
• Before and after turbine overhauls

• Change in pressure ratio of first stage to HP exhaust or HRH at
Intercept Valve to IP Exhaust
• Increase in Steam flow, at constant valve position
• Abnormal first stage pressure
• High extraction temperatures
6.2.2 Condenser Performance Test
6.2.2.1 Purpose
Condenser tests are done to assess the thermal and hydraulic

performance of the condenser in terms of tube fouling, air-in-leakage and
to optimize condenser-cleaning schedules. It is also used to trend the
performance parameters and generate data to pinpoint the probable
cause of degradation. The trends can then be used for deciding the
future course of action like tube cleaning schedules, attending air-in-
leakage, and adequacy of CW flow.
Note: The condensate temperature can be used from time to time as

saturation temperature and back pressure can be calculated from steam
tables to check the accuracy of the condenser back pressure readings and
its calibration requirement
6.2.2.2 Frequency
Time based, typically every month, but other triggers can take
precedence:
• High condenser back pressure

• Pre and post condenser tube cleaning
• High water box dP
• Excessive CW temperature rise

6.2.3 Feed water Heater Performance Test
6.2.3.1 Purpose
The purpose of Feed water heater tests is to assess the current

performance and to provide data to assist in optimization of normal
operation of the heater. Calculating and monitoring Terminal
Temperature difference (TTD), Drain Cooler Approach (DCA), the
pressure drop on the feed waterside and the temperature rise across the
heater, can analyze heater performance. These parameters are trended
over time for identification of abnormal changes in heater performance
and to determine whether corrective action is required to maintain
optimum performance.
6.2.3.2 Frequency
Time based, typically every month, but the other triggers can take
precedence:
• High TTD
• High DCA
• High drain temperature
• Low FW temperature
• Excessive tube bundle pressure drop
6.2.4 Boiler Feed Pump Performance Test
6.2.4.1 Purpose
BFP Performance tests are run to compare the current performance of the
BFP to its ‘expected’ performance and also to compare its performance
against similar pumps. The parameters to be determined include the total
head developed by the pump, the balancing drum leak off flow and the
efficiency of the ‘train’ (i.e. motor, hydraulic coupling and the pump) over
the normal operating range. This information can be used to determine if
any corrective maintenance is required immediately or will be required in
the future.
6.2.4.2 Frequency
Time based, typically every 12 months, but the other triggers can take
precedence:
• Before and after pump or hydraulic coupling overhauls
• High Balancing Drum Leak Off (BDLO) pressure.

• Abnormal difference in the motor current on two pumps at the

same flow. Or increase in amperage from the normal value.
• Abnormal difference in the flow of two pumps at the same motor
current or high deviation from the pump head & flow graph.
• Change in the flow/motor current ratio
• High power usage recorded during a Unit Auxiliary Power
Consumption Test
6.2.5 Turbine Driven Boiler Feed Pump Performance Test
6.2.5.1 Purpose
TTDBFP Performance tests are run to compare the current performance of

the TDBFP to its ‘expected’ performance and also to compare its
performance against similar pumps. The parameters to be determined
include the extraction steam flow required by the pump, extraction steam
pressure & temperature , feed water flow through pump.
6.2.5.2 Frequency
Time based, typically every 12 months, but the other triggers can take
precedence:
• High steam flow through pump
6.2.6 Turbine Pressure Survey Test
6.2.6.1 Purpose
Turbine pressure survey is a graphical method of obtaining the indication

of turbine internal condition.
6.2.6.2 Frequency
Time based, typically once in a year , but the other triggers can take
precedence:
• Before and after Overhauling
• Change in Turbine pressure trend.
6.2.7 Gross Turbine Cycle Heat Rate Test
6.2.7.1 Purpose
The purpose of the Turbine Cycle Heat Rate test is to determine overall
turbine cycle performance (both heat rate and capability). It is used as
guidance in scheduling maintenance outages on the basis of performance
trends.

6.2.7.2 Frequency
Time based, typically every month, but the other triggers can take
precedence:
• Before and after turbine overhauls

• Increase or decrease in steam flow at constant turbine control
valve position
• Abnormal first stage pressure
• High extraction temperatures
• High Condenser heat load
• Increase in ‘unaccountable” heat rate deviation
6.2.8 Primary Air Flow Calibration
6.2.8.1 Purpose
Calibration of primary airflow through the pulverizers is the first step in

balancing fuel and air to the burners. It is important to ensure that each
primary air flow instrument is indicating the actual primary air flow
through the mill before proceeding with other pulverizer tests. This is
done by calibrating the station flow indication against the flow measured
in a grid using a standard pitot or a calibrated ‘S’ type pitot.
6.2.8.2 Frequency
As per requirement when there is:
• Evidence of coal setting in horizontal pipe runs

• Poor coal fineness
• Excessive mill spillage of coal
• High pressure drop across pulverizer
6.2.9 Mill Dirty Air Flow Test
6.2.9.1 Purpose
The dirty air/coal flow test is done to:
• Detect imbalance, if any, in the air and coal flows between the
discharge pipes of a Pulverizer.

• Collect a representative, iso-kinetic, sample of pulverized coal

from different pipes for determination of fineness fractions
• Crosscheck the readings of the station instrumentation e.g.

primary airflow through the mill, mill outlet temperature, coal flow
through the feeder etc.
6.2.9.2 Frequency
Time based, typically before / after every pulverizer maintenance and

before the unit outage, but the other triggers can take precedence:
• Slag formation around certain burners of the same pulverizer.

• CO imbalance at the furnace exit
• Temperature imbalance at the furnace exit
• High content of combustibles in fly ash
• Poor flame appearance
6.2.10 Flue Gas path O2 Mapping Test
6.2.10.1 Purpose
To quantify Air ingress in the various sections of the boiler
To quantify air-in-leakage in ESPs
To measure pressure drops across various sections of FG duct
6.2.10.2 Frequency
Time based, typically six monthly and before and after the unit overhaul,
but the other triggers can take precedence:
• High Fan Current

• Drop in Flue gas temperature after APH/ESP
• Deterioration in ESP Performance
• High DP across ESP
Two water-cooled HVT probes are traversed across the furnace on left
and right side near gooseneck in the boiler. Gas samples are extracted to
measure furnace gas temperatures and Oxygen percentage & CO levels
at furnace exit. Simultaneously grid measurement of flue gas composition
and temperature is done at air heater inlet and outlet on both sides. HVT
probe survey enables a rough estimation of air ingress across 2nd pass of

boiler. The leakage air appears as a difference in Oxygen level between

furnace exit and the economizer exit.
Gas sampling is also done at ESP inlet, ESP outlet and ID fan outlet for
establishing oxygen percentage in flue gas. Increase in oxygen
percentage and drop in temperature of the flue gas provide an indication
of the increase in air ingress across ESPs and various sections of gas
ducts.
6.2.11 Air Heater Performance Test
6.2.11.1 Purpose
• To determine air heater leakage rate (the amount of air that leaks
to the gas side), which affects station service (fan power) and
affects the “indicated” exit gas temperature used in heat rate
deviation calculations
• To determine air heater x-ratio (which is an indication of boiler air
infiltration, and a driver of APH efficiency)
• To determine air heater gas side efficiency (how well the APH is
transferring heat from the gas side to the air side)
• To validate the station instrument readings like oxygen.
6.2.11.2 Frequency
Time based, once in 3 months, but the other triggers can take
precedence
• Prior to unit outages to determine whether corrective action is

required to maintain optimum air heater performance
• Following outages to assess improvement in air heater

performance on account of work done on the air heater.
6.2.12 Boiler Efficiency Test
6.2.12.1 Purpose
• To determine current operating efficiency of the boiler and

calculate operating and corrected losses.
• To provide information for performance analysis and identify
causes of performance degradation, if any.

6.2.12.2 Frequency
Time based, once in a month, but the other triggers can take precedence
• Prior to or following major outages or whenever major

maintenance work or modifications are carried out in the boiler
6.2.13 Cooling Tower Test
6.2.13.1 Purpose
To determine the Capability of Induced draft & Natural draft cooling tower
by periodic measurement of CW Flow, Range, Approach, fan power etc.
as applicable.
6.2.13.2 Frequency
Time based once in a year, preferably in the period July-Sept or

depending upon design & actual WBT Temperature within the acceptable
deviation range but the other triggers can take precedence
• High condenser pressure
• Increase in CW temperature

6.3 TESTING FREQUENCY
S.N TEST ON LINE TEST OFF LINE TEST Remarks

FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
1 HP/IP cylinder 6 monthly Once in a Year & Additional Test As

Efficiency Pre & Post per requirement
Capital OH
2 Condenser Test Monthly Once in a Year Additional Test As
per requirement
3 HP Heater Monthly Once in a Year Additional Test As
Performance Test per requirement
4 LP Heater Once in a Year - Additional Test As
Performance Test per requirement
4 BFP Performance Once in Year Additional Test As
Test per requirement
MDBFP & TDBFP
5 Turbine Pressure - Once in a Year Additional Test As
Survey with HP/IP per requirement
efficiency Test
And Pre & Post
Capital O/H
6 Turbine Cycle Heat Monthly Once in a Year Additional Test As
rate Test per requirement
7 Primary Air Flow - - Test As per
Calibration requirement
8 Dirty Air Flow Test - Pre & Post O/H Additional Test As
per requirement
9 APH Performance Quarterly Additional Test As
10 FG Path Oxygen - Six Monthly Additional Test As
Mapping And per requirement
Pre & Post O/H
11 Boiler Efficiency Monthly Pre & Post O/H Additional Test As
12 Cooling tower Test Once in a Year Preferably in the Additional Test As
period July-Sept or Depending per requirement
Upon Design & actual WBT
Temperature

CenPEEP Instrumentation
7.0 INSTRUMENTATION
In order to operate power plants efficiently, the operators must have

reliable and accurate information on the unit. Small errors in sensors can
result in large “unaccountable” heat rate deviations. For example, if the
unit is “expected” to operate at 538°C steam temperature at the turbine
stop valves, but the instrumentation is indicating 3°C higher than the
actual temperature, the unit will operate with the steam temperature 3°C
low, resulting in a heat rate deviation of around 2 kcal/kWh. Same is
applicable to the reliability of the test results if accuracy of the instrument
that is used to collect the raw data is not up to the mark. In fact the
standard codes emphasize this to the point that pre and post test
calibrations are required for many instruments. Regular calibration of
instruments ensures the reliability of the performance test data.
7.1 Test Equipment Calibration
Critical to the reliability of the test results, is the accuracy of the test
equipment that is used to collect the raw data. The ASME PTC for steam
turbine acceptance tests emphasizes this to the point that pre and post
test calibrations are required for many instruments. There should be a
regular calibration program for test instruments. Another important part
of an instrument calibration program is the quality of the calibration
facility and the skill of person who work there. This must also be
considered in the calibration procedure. It is preferable that the
calibration be traceable to the National Laboratory standards. The
calibrations may be performed by the plant staff, provided the plant has
appropriate instrument standards available to them.
Usually a 6 to 12 point calibration is performed, with instruments that

exhibit hysteresis being calibrated in both directions (i.e., pressure
transmitters are calibrated under increasing and decreasing pressure).
Calibration records for these instruments should be maintained as
permanent records.
7.1.1 Pressure
7.1.1.1 Pressure Transmitters
Calibration of pressure transmitters involved in on line performance test

is very critical. The priority of calibration should be decided based on the
drift observed during subsequent calibration. The Pressure transmitters
should be upgraded progressively (accuracy level + 0.075%) for
performance testing and for high priority parameter, as shown in the list
of process parameter indicators.
Locations such as the condenser, the use of absolute pressure

transmitters are recommended. An advantage of using an absolute
pressure transmitter for condenser pressure over vacuum gauge pressure

transmitters is that no correction is to be applied for variations in

barometric pressure. If a transmitter is over-ranged, it should also be re-
calibrated. Absolute pressure transmitters should be calibrated to normal
atmospheric pressure equal to 760 mmHg column. Calibration schedule
should be once in a year.
7.1.1.2 Manometers
U tube manometers are considered as a primary standard. Incline and

well type manometers should be compared to a U-tube manometer when
initially obtained. Digital Manometers wherever used as a portable
devices need to be calibrated once in a year.
7.1.2 Temperature Measurement
7.1.2.1 Thermocouples
For boiler testing, the temperatures in large ducts are required to be

measured at several locations. For the air heater exit temperature
measurement, several thermocouples should be installed due to the large
duct size and stratification in the duct. The thermocouples should be
installed a few meters downstream of the air heater to allow some
mixing. Accuracy of thermocouple should be as per current engineering
specification (IEC-751 / ANSI-C96.1-1984) being implemented at new
projects/stations and instruments should be upgraded progressively as
per high priority parameter parameters shown in the list of process
parameter.
Thermocouples should be checked for calibration once in two years.

However, thermocouples that are cycled to elevated temperatures
repeatedly (type E >400 °C, type K>1100 °C, type J > 700 C) may need
more frequent calibration. This would include thermocouples when used
in HVTs, main steam and hot reheat steam thermo wells, hot primary air
flow calibrations, etc.
Thermocouples made from extension wire used in measuring flue gas

temperatures in large grids should be functionally checked before each
use. Also, thermocouples should be calibrated with the extension wire
that it will use.
7.1.2.2 RTDs
At the places where RTDs are being used for measurement of

performance test parameters, the accuracy of RTD should be upgraded
progressively to current engineering specifications(DIN 43760) being
implemented at new projects/stations.
The priority of calibration should be decided based on the drift observed

during subsequent calibration. However Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs) should be calibrated once in a year.

7.1.3 Flow Measurement
7.1.3.1 Air Flow
For measuring airflows, a plant should have S-type and L type pitot of
suitable length depending upon the requirement of the station.
“L” type pitots are used for measuring clean airflows in small ducts or
pipes (such as is done in a pulverizer clean air tests, etc.).
For measuring air or gas flows in large ducts (or in small ducts with large
concentrations of particulate matter) “S” type Pitot tube should be used.
For measuring Dirty air flow through mill, checking burner to burner
balancing, collecting isokinetic PF samples for fineness analysis, plant
should have Dirty air pitot , rotary probe etc.
Pitot tubes should be inspected prior to each use, looking for mechanical
damage (a dent or burr, etc.) or pluggage. If the pitot is damaged, it is
usually discarded. Pitot should be air cleaned before and after each use.
7.1.3.2 Water Flow
For measuring cooling water flow such as CW flow through condenser,

CW flow through Cooling tower, a plant should have calibrated pitot tubes
of required length. Pitot tubes should be inspected prior to each use,
looking for mechanical damage (a dent or burr, etc.) or pluggage. If the
pitot is damaged, it is usually discarded.
7.1.3.3 Feed Flow
One of the most important parameters measured in any power plant is

the fluid flow rate in the various system and components. For Feed water
flow there are flow nozzles/orifice, the DP measurement across the device
is further used for flow computation.
The flow nozzles/orifice data is an important data for flow computation as

such it should be placed in side the feed flow panel as it is very useful at
the time of carrying out offline instrument test.
DP transmitter used in Flow measuring devices should be calibrated once

in a year.
Ultrasonic flow measurement devices are also used to validate the feed
flow measurements at inlet to HPH.
7.1.4 Data Acquisition System
The data acquisition system should be calibrated once in two years,

checking each channel, for all types of inputs (mV,Ω, mA, etc.)

7.1.5 Gas Analyzers
7.1.5.1 Flue Gas Analysis
For performance testing, the gases that are measured in flue gas are
carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2), and carbon monoxide (CO).
Accurate, reliable, and fast gas analyzers are necessary to analyze these
gases. For many years, the use of an Orsat was the standard, and Orsats
are still used today for checking single point measurements. However,
when running a test, an Orsat is not sufficient to perform the number of
analyses necessary in a reasonable amount of time. Various types of
portable electronic analyzers are available. Chemical cell analyzers are
frequently used, but they must be used with caution, as the cell must be
replaced periodically as it exhausts. More accurate analyzers, which use
a paramagnetic sensor for O2 and infrared sensors for CO2 and CO, are
better choices.
Gas analyzers for CO, O2 and CO2 etc. should be checked with standard
gases of different concentration every year. However, the gas analyzers
need to be checked for calibration before the start of the test for
correcting the drifts if any.
Accuracy of analyzer should be +/-1% or better, including linearity and

repeatability.
7.1.5.2 Calibration Gases
For the purpose of regular calibration of the gas analyzers, the following
calibration gases of known standard composition should be available with
the station.
It should be ensured that the calibration gases are within the stability
period as mentioned by the supplier.
• Nitrogen Purity grade (99.9 %) for calibration of zero.

• Oxygen
• CO2
• CO
7.1.6 Energy Meters
Performance tests require that the instantaneous power or integrated

energy produced by the unit, or consumed by auxiliary equipment, be
measured. This requires high accuracy power meters that can measure
the power in all three phases. At present accuracy requirement of energy
meter used for performance test is 0.2 Class. Current engineering
specification being implemented at new projects/stations should be used
for up gradation of Energy meters.

The necessary arrangement for on-line connection of external energy

meters shall be provided for periodic testing and validation of the
information where this provision does not exist.
Energy meters have a direct bearing on the heat rate assessment & thus
have a critical role in performance test. These should be calibrated every
year as per the standards to validate the authenticity and maintain
measurement reliability.
7.1.7 Additional Equipment:
A number of instruments are helpful for correctly diagnosing,

measurement and monitoring of parameters such as Portable Helium
Leak Detector, Portable Infrared Temperature Indicator, Ultrasonic flow
measuring instrument, Handheld Temperature Readout with probe, HVS,
HVT, Psychrometer etc. and other instrument as and when recommended
by CenPEEP/OS.
7.2 Instrument installation & setup
Instruments must be installed following good instrument practices.

Reference the appropriate ASME Performance Test Codes for each
instrument type.
7.2.1 Pressure Measurement
Above Atmospheric Pressure - Pressure sensing lines should be plumbed

with a continuous downward slope from the pressure tap to the sensor to
prevent pockets of steam or air. The lines must be blown down prior to
installing the pressure instruments, and the instrument vented after
pressurization. The appropriate water leg measurements for each
pressure instruments should be made and entered as part of the data.
Below Atmospheric Pressure - Instruments must be plumbed with a

continuous upward slope from the pressure tap to the sensor to prevent
the formation of pockets of condensate. A means to vent instruments
which operate below atmospheric pressure prior to the start of each test
run must be provided.
7.2.2 Temperature Measurement
Following aspects should be taken care for proper measurement:
• all thermo wells (T/W) should be cleaned and bottom polished prior
to installing the temperature sensors
• RTD’s should be installed in a manner to ensure good contact with

the bottom of T/W and should be held firmly against the bottom
during use. Entry point of T/W should be sealed with cotton rope.

• Thermo wells should be kept slanted upwards from the tapping so

that it can hold glass thermometer as well as water for better
contact.
7.2.3 C.W. Flow Measurement
3-port Pitot tube should be used for C.W. flow measurement.

Alternatively C.W. flow may be derived from C.W. pump characteristics
curve or heat balance or calibrated elbow tap differential pressure
measurement.
Ultrasonic flow measurement devices are also used to validate CW flow.
7.2.4 Data Acquisition System (DAS) and Processor & Analyzer

system
It is preferable to use portable DAS and processor & analyzer for

performance testing. This will ease the testing process and provide on
line monitoring of test data and results. It will also help in tracking the
process stability and thereby reduce the uncertainty level of results.
7.2.4.1 Portable Data Collection Unit
One/two portable units may be used to cover the inputs at the test
location. Each DAS unit should have a minimum of 16 universal inputs as
given below:
a) PT 100, 3/4 Wire RTD
b) 4-20 mA, 2 Wire Transmitter output with a built-in facility to

power the Transmitter.
7.2.4.2 Installation
The following precautions should be taken during installation of the data

collection unit with the portable processor.
• Identify the location of power supply
• List out the inputs with respect to Channel No.
• Review the status of fuses.
• Tag input leads at both ends by masking tape, etc.
• Connect the inputs as per channel listing. Cascade the output from
one data collection unit to the other; connect network cable from data
collection to the interface unit/portable processor unit.

• The network cable should be laid away from movement areas, without
obstructing the plant equipment, and 2-3 meters above the floor
level.
• Ensure the tightness of all connections.
• Charge the power supply and check for the channels healthiness.
• Verify the system is networking.
• Carry out a test run to scan and ensure proper system functioning.
7.2.5 Speed Measurement
The speed shall be measured by any reliable revolution counter,

accurately calibrated tachometer or a portable stroboscope.
7.2.6 Sampling / Temperature Train
The Flue Gas sampling/temperature train typically consists of the

following.
1) Multi-point sampling probes made of carbon steel pipes to form a

representative sampling grid at the specific cross section.
2) A single point bubble jar.
3) An ice condenser
4) A desiccant column
5) Vacuum Pump & Flowmeter
6) A Portable Flue Gas analyzer
7) Multi-point probes for air temperature measurement with
thermocouples, to form a representative grid in APH air inlet &
outlet ducts
8) A thermocouple (such as chromel–alumel) and digital
thermometer.
Fig 7.1: Schematics of a Typical Gas Sampling station

The gas sampling train is typically arranged as follows (refer to Figure

7.1)
1 The sampling probe is connected to the condenser through bubble

jar with temperature resistant rubber tubing of sufficient length to
allow maneuvering the sampling probe.
2 The condenser is connected to the desiccant column with either

rubber tubing, such as Tygon tubing.
3 The desiccant column is connected to the analyzers with rubber

tubing through vacuum pump.
4 The thermocouple is wired in place & terminals are connected to

matching ‘K’ type connectors.

7.3 CALIBRATION SCHEDULE OF INSTRUMENTS
Sl.no. Instruments Frequency for Frequency for Remarks

On-line Off-line Instruments
Instruments
1 Diff Press Tx / Yearly Once in two years
Press Tx
2 Thermocouple Yearly Once in two years* * Thermocouples(like MS,HRH,Hot PA etc)
that are cycled to elevated temperatures
may be calibrated more frequently
3 RTD Yearly Once in two years* * RTDs that are cycled to elevated
temperatures may be calibrated more
frequently
4 Portable DAS system ------- Once in two years
5 Flue Gas Analyzer Quarterly Yearly As required based on drift trend
6 Energy meters Yearly Yearly
7 Temperature Read out Yearly Yearly
8 Digital Manometer ------- Yearly
• Offline Instruments should be calibrated from NABL certified laboratories

• Apart from the regular calibration schedule, the instruments may be calibrated as & when required based on drift
pattern.
• Calibration records should be maintained to monitor the drift during subsequent calibration.
• 12 point calibration curve to be used for calibration of RTDs,Press & Diff Press Transmitters

7.4 ACCURACY LEVEL OF TEST INSTRUMENTS
Sl.No. Instruments Accuracy for Accuracy for

On-line Instruments Off-line Instruments
1 Diff Press Tx / +/-0.1% of calibrated span or +/-0.075% of span or better

Press Tx better
2 Thermocouple +/-1.5 degC or 0.4% whichever is +/-1.5 degC or 0.4% whichever is

more ,Special class(Standard more, Special class (Standard
ANSI-C96.1-1984/ IEC 751) ANSI-C96.1-1984)
3 RTD Class A (Standard DIN 43760) Class A (DIN43760)
4 Flue Gas Analyzer(O2/CO/C02) + 1% / + 5% / + 2% of FS + 1% / + 5% / + 2% of FS
5 Energy meters 0.2 class 0.2 class
6 Temperature Read out ---- + 0.2% of reading
7 Digital Manometer ---- +/- 0.1% of FS
FS – Full scale

7.5 TEST EQUIPMENT MATRIX: The following table lists the instrumentation required for various offline tests.
Sl.no. Test PT/dPT RTD He DAS FG TC HVS HVT Dirty Conco IRT
L/D Analyzer wire Pitot system camera
1 GTCHR x x x
2 HP/IP x x x
Turbine
Efficiency
3 Condenser x x x
Performance
4 HPH x x x
Performance
5 BFP x x x
Performance
6 Air in Leak x
Detection
7 Condenser x
cleaning
8 Coal pipe x
balancing
9 Fly ash x
sampling
10 Boiler x x
Furnace
Performance
11 Air heater x x x
Performance
12 Boiler x x x
Efficiency
13 Energy Loss x
x- Instruments required for the off line test.

7.6 Test Equipments for EEMG Lab setup at station
There is need for setting up a dedicated EEMG laboratory to carry on the

routine performance tests at stations. It will facilitate the performance
tests by better upkeep & maintenance of the instruments. It should be
maintained by skilled persons. All data related to test instruments should
be properly maintained in the lab. The laboratory should have sufficient
number of test equipments as per the list given below.
7.6.1 Boiler & Auxiliaries
S.No. Description Qty.
1 Portable CO +O2 + CO2 gas analyzer 2 nos.
2 Handheld Infra Red Thermometer 1 no.
3 Digital Manometer: –400 to +1500 mmwcl 2 nos.
4 ‘K’ Type thermocouple wire 300 feet
5 Hand held Temperature Readout 2 nos.
6 Battery Operated Psychrometer 2 nos.

(Celsius Thermometers)
7 Flue gas conditioning system 2
(Consisting of Ice cooled bubbler, desiccant column,
air filter, vacuum pump, flow meter, clear flow
tubing & carrying case)
8 Calibration gas cylinders & accessories
a) Calibration gas O2-4% 2
b) Calibration gas CO2-15% 2
c) Calibration gas CO-800PPM 2
d) Calibration gas N2-Test purity grade 2
e) Cylinder key 2
f) CO regulator 1
g) O2/N2 regulator 2

7.6.2 Turbine and Auxiliaries
Sr.No Instrument Range Quantity
1 Pr. transmitter 0-5 psia 2


6 Differential pr. transmitter 0-1000” wcl 2
7 RTD 0-600 deg C 35
8 3 hole Pitot for CW flow 1

measurement
9 Data Acquisition System 16 multi type 4
channels, Standalone
node with power chord
10 Lap Top Computer 1
7.7 References
ASME Performance Test Code 19.1 –1985, Measurement Uncertainty.
ASME performance Test Code 19.2 – 1987, Pressure Measurement.
ASME performance Test Code 19.3 – 1974, Temperature Measurement.
ASME Performance Test Code 19.5-1971/2004, Flow Measurement
ASME Performance test Code 19.10 – 1974, Flue and Exhaust Gas
Analyses

CenPEEP HP & IP Turbine Efficiency
8.1 HP & IP TURBINE EFFICIENCY TEST

8.1.1 Introduction
This procedure provides a systematic method for conducting routine
efficiency tests on steam turbine sections operating in the superheated
steam region. The test results produce a statistic, which is an expression
of the steam turbine section enthalpy drop efficiency.
8.1.2 Objective
The objective of the efficiency test is to provide information to allow
accounting for the contribution of steam turbine performance deficiencies
on unit heat rate and capacity and to provide a check of accuracy of
critical station instruments.
8.1.3 Test Procedure

The test method outlined in this procedure is the enthalpy drop efficiency
method. The procedure is performed to provide information for
diagnosing the steam turbine condition and to identify abnormal changes
in performance of steam turbines.
This method determines the ratio of actual enthalpy drop across

turbine section to the isentropic enthalpy drop. This efficiency
method provides a good measure for monitoring purposes, provided
certain qualifications are met in obtaining results.
Each section of the turbine must be considered a separate turbine. For

example, a double flow high-pressure section consists of two turbines,
the governor end section and the generator end section. Each section
must be tested and the results of each trended separately. As well as, it
is necessary to operate the turbine with the same control valve setting
from test to test for the test results to be comparable .In view of this it is
proposed to do Turbine cylinder efficiency test at Valve wide Open
(VWO) condition to avoid variation in CV position from one test to
another; it is also necessary that the feed water heaters served by the
turbine be in service and operated normally, otherwise stage pressure
changes will be affected and mask any actual steam path problems.
To ensure accuracy, each independent variable must be controlled, such

that all subsequent tests may be related to all previous tests.
8.1.3.1 Station Instrumentation Required
Measurement Temper Location Pressure Location

-ature
Main Steam Yes At ESV Yes At ESV
(L&R ) Inlet Inlet
HPT Exhaust Yes Near the Yes Near the
(L&R) Turbine Turbine
Exhaust Exhaust
_________________________________________________________
ENERGY & EFFICIENCY MANAGEMENT SYSYEM PAGE 8.1-1
Measurement Temper Location Pressure Location

-ature
Hot Reheat Yes At IV Inlet Yes At IV Inlet
Steam
(L&R )
IPT Exhaust Yes IPT Yes IPT
(L&R) Exhaust Exhaust
8.1.3.2 Operating Conditions for Each Test Run
• Unit Load Control on manual mode and Steady

• Unit should be in VWO Condition
• Main Steam and Reheat Steam Temperatures at Current Expected
Value
• All Feed water Heaters in Service, Normal Drain cascading.
• No Auxiliary Steam supply to Other Units.
• No Soot Blowing.
• Other aspects as given in sample Check Sheet enclosed (format-
8.1.2)
• The Test Engineer is responsible for ensuring that the unit has
reached steady state before beginning a test data collection
Note: It may not be possible to achieve VWO with rated steam conditions
on certain units. In this case, reducing the main steam pressure, and
thereby increasing the steam specific volume, may allow VWO operation.
As an alternative, if VWO cannot be achieved with rated steam

pressure, a lower valve point may be substituted for VWO on
sequential valve controlled turbines. The travel of the control
valve stem may be used on full throttling turbines
8.1.3.3 Stability Condition
Stability of parameters is to be ensured before starting the test . This is

needed for effective test data. However based on local conditions the best
possible stable parameter may be achieved.
8.1.3.4 Data Collection
i. Form a data group in the DAS for Data collection during the
test (format 8.1.3).
ii. Each test must be conducted for about 30 min for the purposes of
data collection.
_________________________________________________________
iii. The frequency of data collection in DAS should be 1 min or

minimum possible to achieve, depending upon the data
collection rate of DAS.
8.1.3.5 Turbine Efficiency-Calculation
Actual Enthalpy drop

Turbine Efficiency (%) = ----------------------------- X 100
Isentropic Enthalpy drop
hin - hout
= -------------------------- X 100
hin – hisen
Where
hin = Enthalpy of Steam at Cylinder Inlet conditions

hout = Enthalpy Steam at Cylinder Outlet conditions
hisen = Isentropic Enthalpy
8.1.3.6 Sample Computation
8.1.3.6.1 HP Turbine Efficiency
Unit Load MW 500
Main Steam Pressure Before ESV kg/cm2 (abs) 170

0
Main Steam Temperature before ESV C 537.00
HP Turbine Exhaust Pressure kg/cm2 (abs) 44.991
0
HP Turbine Exhaust Temperature C 337.4
HP Turbine Inlet Enthalpy (hin) kcal/kg 810.7
HP Turbine Exhaust Enthalpy (hout) kcal/kg 729.1
HP Turbine Exhaust Isentropic Enthalpy kcal/kg 719.74

(hisen)
(hin - hout)
HP Turbine Efficiency = ---------------- X 100
(hin - hisen)
810.7 – 729.1
= ---------------------- X 100 = 89.73 %
810.7 – 719.74
_________________________________________________________
8.1.3.6.2 IP Turbine Efficiency
Hot reheat pressure at IV inlet kg/cm2 (abs) 39.20

0
Hot Reheat temperature at IV inlet C 538.00
IP Turbine Exhaust Pressure kg/cm2 (abs) 5.14
0
IP Turbine Exhaust Temperature C 265.00
IP Turbine Inlet Enthalpy (hin) Kcal/kg 844.08
IP Turbine Exhaust Enthalpy (hout) Kcal/kg 713.91
IP Turbine Exhaust Enthalpy isentropic Kcal/kg 701.92
(hisen)
(hin - hout)
IP Turbine Efficiency = ---------------- X 100
(hin - hisen)
844.08 - 713.91
= ------------------X 100 = 91.57 %
844.08– 701.92
But for steam turbines with the HP and IP steam turbine sections in a
common casing, the N2 packing leak off is directed to the IP bowl. Leakage
from the HP section to the IP bowl along the steam turbine shaft causes
problems with IP steam turbine efficiency calculations. N2 leakage cools
the steam before beginning the expansion and downstream of the initial
condition measurement points. Consequently, IP efficiency computed from
hot reheat conditions only is often above design by several percentage
points. Although N2 leakage has no effect on actual IP efficiency, kilowatt
output is reduced because the leakage bypasses the HP steam turbine. To
account for N2 leakage in the efficiency calculation following methods can
be used.
Temperature Variation Method—This method seeks to determine N2

leakage by studying the variation in cooling effect with changes in throttle
temperature relative to reheat temperature. A series of two or three
standard IP efficiency tests are run at a fixed valve position, first with
steam temperatures equal, then with reheat steam temperature below
throttle temperature, and finally with reheat temperature above throttle
temperature. The method is applied by computing enthalpy-drop
efficiencies from each test by first assuming no leakage and then by
assuming a large leakage. The resulting efficiencies are then plotted
versus leakage .The points of intersection occur at the actual N2 leakage
rate and IP efficiency.
(Refer: Advanced Performance Analysis of General Physics).
_________________________________________________________
Slope Method—Another method useful for estimating N2 leakage.

Measurement of IP enthalpy-drop data at two different loads is required.
Unlike the HP steam turbine, the efficiency of the IP steam turbine
section is constant across the load range because it operates at a
constant pressure ratio. However, the cooling effect of the N2 leakage is
greater at lower loads because the first stage enthalpy is decreased. Thus
IP efficiencies, calculated from reheat pipe enthalpy with no adjustment
for N2 leakage, are higher at lower loads.
Under the Slope Method, the two test efficiencies are recomputed
assuming varying percentages of N2 leakage. The correct leakage and
efficiencies are arrived at when the two test efficiencies are equal to one
another. By employing both methods to estimate N2 leakage, greater
confidence can be placed in the results.
(Refer: Advanced Performance Analysis of General Physics).
8.1.4 References
ASME Performance Test Code 6 – 1996, Steam Turbines.

Advanced Performance Analysis For Plant Engineers And Managers
_________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Gross Turbine Cycle Heatrate
8.2 GROSS TURBINE CYCLE HEAT RATE TEST
8.2.1 Introduction
This procedure provides a systematic method for conducting Gross

Turbine Cycle Heat rate (GTCHR) test on steam turbine.
8.2.2 Objective
The objective of the Gross Turbine Cycle Heat rate (GTCHR) test is the
measure of efficiency of a Steam turbine cycle. It is defined as heat
energy used by the turbine cycle to generate one unit of Electrical
energy.
This method determines the overall efficiency of Turbine cycle along with
the auxiliaries. The unit is to be operated at steady conditions at constant
load with feed water heaters in service at normal cascading.
Measurement Tempe- Press- Flow Electric

rature ure Power
Feed water (At Eco inlet) Yes Yes Yes -

Feed water (At HPH Inlet & Yes Yes - -
Outlet)
Reheater Attemperation Yes Yes Yes -
SH Attemperation Yes Yes Yes -
(as applicable)
Main Steam (L&R) Yes Yes - -
Before ESV
HPT Exhaust (L&R) Yes Yes - -
Hot Reheat Steam Yes Yes - -
(L&R)Before IV
HP Turbine Extraction to HPH Yes Yes - -
at Heater end
HPH Drip Yes - - -
Gross Generator Output - - Yes
_________________________________________________________
Fig-8.2.1
i. Unit Load Control on manual mode and Steady
ii. Main Steam and Reheat Steam Temperatures at Current

Expected Value
iii. All Feed water Heaters in Service, Normal Drain cascading,
iv. No Auxiliary Steam supply to Other Units.
v. No Soot Blowing.
vi. No DM make up
vii. Other aspects as given in sample Check Sheet enclosed

(Format- 8.2.1).
viii. The Test Engineer is responsible for ensuring that the unit has
reached steady state before beginning a test data collection.

i. Form a data group in the DAS for Data collection during the test
(See Format –8.2.2)
data collection.
_________________________________________________________
minimum possible to achieve, depending upon the data collection

rate of DAS.
8.2.3.4 Turbine Cycle Heat Rate.
Turbine Cycle Heat Rate (kcal/kWh) =
(Heat Added to Feed Water + Heat added to SH Attemperation +

Heat Added CRH + Heat added to RH Attemperation) / Gross load
Qf (H1 - h1) + Qs (H1-hs)+Q2 (H3 - H2 )+ Qr (H3-hr)

= ---------------------------------------------------------------------
Gross Load
Where
Main Steam Flow t/hr (Q1)

Feed Water Flow t/hr (Qf)
CRH Flow t/hr (Q2)
S/H Attemperation Flow t/hr (Qs)
R/H Attemperation Flow t/hr (Qr)
Enthalpy of MS at HPT inlet Kcal/Kg H1
Enthalpy at HPT Exhaust Kcal/Kg H2
Enthalpy at HRH at IPT inlet Kcal/Kg H3
Enthalpy of FW at Economizer inlet Kcal/Kg h1
Enthalpy of HPH Extraction Steam Kcal/Kg Hext
Enthalpy of FW Entering HPH Kcal/Kg Hin
Enthalpy of FW Leaving HPH Kcal/Kg Hout
Enthalpy of HPH drain Kcal/Kg Hdrain
Enthalpy of S/H Attemperation Kcal/Kg hs
Enthalpy of R/H Attemperation Kcal/Kg hr
8.2.3.5 Calculation of Main Steam Flow
Total steam flow (Q1) = Feed Flow (Qf)+ S/H Attemperation Flow (Qs)
Note: Care to be taken in computing Main Steam flow depending upon SH

/RH Attemperation tapings.
8.2.3.6 Calculation of Reheat Steam Flow
CRH Flow (Q2) = Steam Flow (Q1) – Extraction Steam Flow (Qe) to
HPH - HP Leak Off Steam flow
a) Leak off steam flow derived from design leak off flow as per load
from HBD)
b) Extraction flow to all HP Heaters having Extraction From HP

Turbine to be considered for computing CRH Flow
_________________________________________________________
8.2.3.7 Calculation of Extraction Steam Flow
Qf (h fw out – hfw in) + Qdrain in (hdrains out- hdrains in)

(Qe)= ------------------------------------------------------------------
(hext – hdrains out )
Where:
Qf = Feed Flow
h fw out = Feed Water Enthalpy at HPH Out.
hfw in = Feed Water Enthalpy at HPH in
Qe = Extraction Steam Flow
hext = Enthalpy of Extraction Steam
hdrains out = Enthalpy of Drain Out
hdrains in = Enthalpy of Drain In
Qdrain in = Drain Inlet flow
Sample test report format is given in Format-8.2.3
8.2.4 References
ASME Performance Test Code 6 – 1996, Steam Turbines.
_________________________________________________________
8.2.5 SAMPLE COMPUTATION: GROSS TURBINE CYCLE HEAT RATE
S.N PARAMETER UNIT Test Data

1 Generator Load MW 500
2
2 MS Pressure Before ESV kg/cm (abs) 169.79
0
3 MS Temperature Before ESV C 538
5 HP Turbine Exhaust Pressure kg/cm2(abs) 42.45
0
6 HP Turbine Exhaust Temperature C 340.8
7 HRH Press at IP Turbine Inlet kg/cm2(abs) 38.2
0
8 HRH Temp at IP Turbine Inlet C 538
9 FW Press. At eco in / HPH outlet kg/cm2(abs) 200
0
10 FW Temp at Eco Inlet C 251.1
11 Feed Flow t/hr 1502.76
12 S/H Attemperation Flow t/hr 0
13 R/H Attemperation Flow t/hr 0
0
14 S/H Attemperation Temperature C 154.3
0
15 R/H Attemperation Temperature C 154.3
16 HP Leak off flow t/hr 16.92
0
17 HPH Ext. Steam Temp (Heater End) C 340.8
18 HPH Ext. Steam Press (Heater End) kg/cm2(abs) 42.45
0
19 FW Temp at HPH Inlet C 194.3
0
20 FW Temp at HPH Outlet C 251.1
0
21 Drain out temperature C 206
22 Drain Inlet Flow t/hr -
0
23 Inlet Drain Temperature C -
24 Enthalpy at HP Turbine Inlet kcal/kg 811.47
25 Enthalpy of HRH at IP Turbine Inlet kcal/kg 844.04
26 Enthalpy at HP turbine Exhaust kcal/kg 732.71
27 Enthalpy of FW at Eco. inlet. kcal/kg 260.78
28 Enthalpy of S/H Attemperation kcal/kg 158.27
29 Enthalpy of R/H Attemperation kcal/kg 158.27
30 Mean Enthalpy of FW leaving HPH kcal/kg 260.78
31 Mean Enthalpy of FW Entering HPH kcal/kg 199.47
32 Mean Enthalpy of Extraction Steam kcal/kg 732.71
33 Mean Enthalpy of drain Out kcal/kg 206.56
Calculation of Main Steam Flow:
Total steam flow (Q1) = Feed Flow (Qf) +S/H Attemp. Flow(Qs)
= 1502.76+0 =1502.76 t/hr
_________________________________________________________
Calculation of Extraction Steam Flow:
Qf (h fw out – hfw in) + Qdrain in (hdrains out- hdrains in )

(Qe) =-------- --------------------------------------------------
Where:
Qf = Feed Flow
ext = Enthalpy of Extraction Steam
drain in = Drain Inlet flow
1502.76* (260.78-199.47) +0
= -------------------------------------- = 175.11 t/hr
732.71- 206.56
Calculation of Reheat Steam Flow:
CRH Flow (Q2) = Steam Flow (Q1) – Extraction Steam Flow (Qe) of
HPH – HP Leak Off Steam flow
= 1502.76 – 175.11 – 16.92
= 1310.73 t/hr
Turbine Cycle Heat Rate:
Turbine Cycle Heat Rate (kcal/kWh)
Qf (H1 - h1) + Qs (H1-hs)+Q2 (H3 - H2 )+ Qr (H3-hr)

= -----------------------------------------------------------------
Gross Load
1502.76* (811.47 –260.78) + 0* (811.47-158.27) +1310.73*

(844.04 –732.71 )+ 0* (732.71-158.27)
= -------------------------------------------------------------------
500*1000
= 1946.95 kcl/kwh
_________________________________________________________
Turbine Heat Rate Test
Pre – Test Check Sheet
Station : ________________ Unit No:_______

Date: ____/____/____
Checks Made By:____________________
Description Status Initials

Control Valve Position “A” & “B” %
Auxiliary Steam Feed Isolated
Both NRVs to No ----- HP FWH: Open
Both NRVs to Deaerator: Open
Both NRVs to No ----- LPH Open
Gland Steam Pressure Controller: Auto and set to ---
- kg/cm2
HP Bypass Valves “A” & “B” Closed
LP Bypass Valves “A” & “B” Closed
Main Steam Line Drains (total) Closed
Hot Reheat Drains (----No. total) Closed
Cold Reheat Drains (---- No. total) Closed
HP Steam Chest Warming (---- No. total) Closed
HPH Drain Cooling Zone Steam Vent Closed
HPH Drip to Condenser Closed
HPH --- Extr. Drain to condenser (----No. total) Closed
HPH --- Extr. Drain to condenser (---- No. total) Closed
DA High Load Extr. Drain to Condenser (---- No. total) Closed
DA Low Load Extr. Drain to Condenser (----- No. total) Closed
LPH --- Extr. Drain to Condenser (----No. total) Closed
Trap Bypasses Closed
Notes / Special Conditions:
Format-8.2.1
_________________________________________________________
Turbine Heat Rate Test

Station : ________________ Unit No:_______
Date: ____/____/____
S. N Description Unit Readings

1 Avg. Unit Load (From Energy Meter) MW
2 MS Pressure Before ESV kg/cm2(abs)
0
3 MS Temperature Before ESV C
4 HP Turbine Exhaust Pressure kg/cm2(abs)
0
5 HP Turbine Exhaust Temp C
6 HRH Pressure at IP Turbine Inlet kg/cm2(abs)
0
7 HRH Temperature at IP Turbine Inlet C
8 FW Press at Eco In / HPH outlet kg/cm2(abs)
0
9 FW Temperature at Eco Inlet C
10 Feed water Flow t/hr
(Excluding S/H & R/H Attemperation)
11 SH Attemperation Flow t/hr
12 RH Attemperation Flow t/hr
0
13 SH Attemperation Temperature C
0
14 RH Attemperation Temperature C
15 HP Leak off flow t/hr
0
16 HPH-7 Ext. Temp (Htr end) If applicable C
17 HP H-7 Ext. Press. (Htr end) if applicable kg/cm2(abs)
0
18 FW Inlet Temp at HPH-7 (if applicable) C
0
19 FW Outlet Temp at HPH-7 (If applicable) C
0
20 HPH-7 Drain Temperature (If applicable) C
0
21 HPH-6 Ext. Temp (Htr end) C
22 HP H-6 Ext. Press. (Htr end) kg/cm2(abs)
0
23 FW Inlet Temp at HPH-6 C
0
24 FW Outlet Temp at HPH-6 C
0
25 HPH-6 Drain Temperature C
0
26 Condenser CW inlet temperature C
27 1st Stage Pressure kg/cm2(abs)
Format-8.2.2
_________________________________________________________
Gross Turbine Cycle Heat Rate -Report
Station: Date:
S.N PARAMETER UNIT Unit-1 Unit-2 Unit-3

1 Unit Load MW
2 First Stage Pressure kg/cm2(abs)
3 MS Pressure Before ESV kg/cm2(abs)
0
5 HRH Press at IP Turbine Inlet kg/cm2(abs)
0
6 HRH Temp at IP Turbine Inlet C
7 HP Turbine Exhaust Pressure kg/cm2(abs)
0
8 HP Turbine Exhaust Temperature C
0
9 FW Temp at Eco Inlet C
10 Feed Flow t/hr
11 S/H Attemperation Flow t/hr
12 R/H Attemperation Flow t/hr
0
14 Test Gross Turbine Cycle heat rate kcal/kWh
15 Corrected Test Gross Turbine Cycle kcal/kWh
Heatrate (Corrected for Cooling water
inlet temperature)
16 Design Gross Turbine Cycle Heatrate kcal/kWh
Test Condition
Remarks
Format-8.2.3
_________________________________________________________
ENERGY & EFFICIENCY MANAGEMENT SYSYEM PAGE-8.2-9
CenPEEP HP Heater Performance
8.3 HP HEATER PERFORMANCE TEST
8.3.1 Introduction
The performance of feed water heaters can be analyzed by monitoring

the terminal temperature difference (TTD), drain cooler approach
temperature (DCA), the pressure drop on the feed water side and the
temperature rise across the heater. To monitor these it is desirable to
carry out a simplified routine performance test on feed water heaters at a
specified frequency. This will help in identifying the level of deviations
and trending of performance.
8.3.2 Objective
The objectives of the routine on line high pressure feed water heater test
are:
i. Prior to an outage, provide information to determine whether

corrective action is required to maintain optimum feed water
heater performance and provide guidance in determining
requirement of materials, tools and equipment, workers, cost
estimates, and scheduling.
ii. Following an outage, provide information to allow evaluation of the

effect of work on the feed water heater.
iii. During normal operation, provide information to allow

identification of abnormal changes in heater performance and
provide information to assist in identifying the source of the
change.
iv. During normal operation, provide information to assist in

optimizing the operation of the heater.
v. During normal operation, provide information to allow accounting

for the contribution of heater performance deficiencies on unit
heat rate and capacity.
8.3.3.1 Instrumentation
The parameters required to be monitored to conduct the HPH

performance test consist of temperature, pressure/differential pressure
instruments.

Measurement Temperature Pressure Remarks
FW Inlet to Heater 1 1
FW Outlet to Heater 1 1
Extr. Steam at Heater End 1 1
Drain Temperature 1
FW Pressure Inlet& Outlet - 1
Shell Pressure - 1*
*Preferably individual heater or differential pressure across the heater

train
Fig-8.3.1

The performance test data from instruments will be recorded using sample
format as given in the format 8.3.1.
8.3.3.3 Test Setup
i. Unit should be in operation at normal full feed water flow and

steady state condition.
ii. Ensure the heater drains are cascading as per the specified cycle
conditions.
iii. Ensure venting of steam side and waterside to remove non-

condensable gases.
iv. Operation of the feed water heater shall be brought to the steady
state condition prior to initiating the test run. It shall be kept at this
condition throughout the test run.
v. First test run is conducted at heater water level at normal design

value. Subsequently, other test runs are conducted by varying the
heater levels above and below the normal level.
8.3.3.4 Duration of Test Run and Frequency of Readings
(see format 8.3.1)
data collection.

rate of DAS.
8.3.3.5 Calculation and Analysis
8.3.3.5.1 Terminal Temperature (TTD)
TTD = t sat –t fw out
Where,
t sat = Saturation temperature corresponding to the heater shell press,
o
C.
o
t fw out = temperature of feed water leaving the heater, C.

8.3.3.5.2 Drain Cooler Approach Temperature (DCA)
DCA = t drains -t fw in
Where:
o
t drains = temperature of the drains leaving the heater, C
o
t fw in = temperature of feed water entering the heater, C
8.3.3.5.3 Temperature Rise (TR)
TR = t fw out –t fw in
8.3.3.5.4 Extraction Steam Flow

(Qe)= ----------------------------------------------------------------
Where:
Qf = Feed Flow
Sample test report format is given in format- 8.3.2
8.3.4 Reference
Based on ASME performance test code PTC 12.1, 1978 on Closed Feed
Water Heaters and HEI standards for Closed Feed Water Heaters.

8.3.5 Sample Computation: HP Heater Performance
1 Load Mw 500.0
0
2 Fw Inlet Temp C 194.3
0
3 Fw Outlet Temp C 251.1
2
4 Extraction Steam Press kg/cm (abs) 42.5
0
5 Extraction Steam Temp C 340.8
0
6 Drain Temp C 202.8
7 Fw Flow t/hr 751.4
0
8 Drain in Temperature C 0
9 Drain Inlet Flow t/hr 0
0
10 Saturation Temperature C 252.8
Corresponding To Shell Press.
11 Enthalpy Fw Out kcal/kg 259.8
12 Enthalpy Fw In kcal/kg 196.8
13 Enthalpy Of Extraction Steam kcal/kg 729.4
14 Enthalpy Of Drain Out kcal/kg 205.9
• Terminal Temperature (TTD)
TTD =t sat –t fw out
o
= 252.8- 251.1=1.7 C.
• Drain Cooler Apporach Temperature (DCA)
DCA =t drains -t fw in
= 202.8- 194.3 = 8.5 o C.
• Temperature Rise (TR)
TR =t fw out –t fw in
o
= 251.1-194.3 = 56.8 C.

• Extraction Steam Flow

(Qe)= ----------------------------------------------------------------
Where:
Qf = Feed Flow
751.2* (259.7 – 196.8)+0

Qe = ------------------------------------- = 90.2 t/hr
(729.4 – 205.95)

HP Heater Performance Test Data
Station: ............. Unit: ......... Test Date: ..................
S. N. MEASUREMENT Unit Test
1 Load MW
2 Feed Water Flow t/hr

0
3. HPH-5 Extraction Temp. C
4. HPH-5 Extraction Press. kg/cm2(abs)
0
5. FW Entering HPH-5 Temp. C
6. FW Entering HPH-5 Press kg/cm2(abs)
0
7. HPH-5 Drain Out Temp. C
0
8. Drain Inlet Temp to HPH-5 C
0
0
0
0
14. Drain Inlet Temp to HPH-6 (if C
applicable)
0
0
0
20. FW Differential Pressure kg/cm2(abs)
21 HPH-5 Level mm
22 HPH-6 Level mm
23 HPH-7 Level mm
Format-8.3.1

HP Heater Performance TEST Report
Station Unit Date of test
S.N PARAMETER UNIT DESIGN HPH6A HPH6B DESIGN HPH5A HPH5B

1 LOAD MW
0
2 FW INLET TEMP C
0
3 FW OUTLET TEMP C
0
4 DRAIN TEMP C
5 SHELL PRESS. kg/cm2(abs)
0
6 SAT. TEMP.(w.r.t Shell Pr). C
7 FW FLOW t/hr
8 ENTHALPY FW OUT kcal/kg
9 ENTHALPY FW IN kcal/kg
10 EXTRACTION STEAM PRESS kg/cm2(abs)
0
11 EXTRACTION STEAM TEMP C
12 ENTHALPY OF EXT. STEAM kcal/kg
13 ENTHALPY OF DRAIN kcal/kg
RESULTS
0
1 TTD (Sat Temp -FW out Temp) C
0
2 DCA(Drip Temp - FW in Temp) C
3 EXTRACTION FLOW t/hr
0
4 FW TEMPERATURE RISE C
Format-8.3.2

CenPEEP Condenser Performance Test
8.4 CONDENSER PERFORMANCE TEST

8.4.1 Introduction
The Condenser is the most important component of the Turbine Cycle
that affects Turbine cycle heat rate. The function of the condenser is to
condense the steam exhausted from the LP turbine by removing its heat
of vaporization. The heat removed from the steam is transferred to the
circulating water flowing inside the condenser tubes. The condenser
vacuum plays an important role in the overall improvement of Turbine
cycle heat rate and the amount of work that can be extracted from the
steam in the turbine will be more if the condenser performance is better.
Monitoring of condenser performance assumes much significance because
of this.
8.4.2 Objective
This test procedure shall determine the condenser performance with
regard to one or more performance indices as follows.
i Absolute Back Pressure Deviation from Expected Value.
ii Effect on Heat Rate deviation and its Financial Implications
iii Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD).
iv Sub-cooling of Air-steam Mixture and Condensate.
v Effectiveness of Cleaning the Tubes.
vi Circulating Water Temperature Rise.
vii Flow of Air-steam Mixture.
viii Effects of Physical Changes in the Condenser like New Tubes, etc.
ix Circulating Water Velocity in Tubes.
8.4.3 Plant Specific Data and Characteristics

i Condenser Design Data as per Format 8.4.1.
ii Heat Load Vs. Condenser Back Pressure for Different C.W
Inlet Temperature
iii Generator Loss curve
iv VWO Heat Balance

8.4.4.1 Instrumentation
The Instrumentations required for conducting performance test are:
(Refer to sketch given at – Fig- 8.4.1 & Fig 8.4.2)

i Condenser Back Pressure (L&R)

ii CW Inlet Temperature (L&R)
iii Water Flow
iv CW Outlet Temperature (L&R) – Grid Measurement
v Condensate temperature
vi Air-steam mixture temperature (L&R)
vii Water box differential pressure (L&R)
TYPICAL CONDENSER INSTRUMENTATION
STEAM INLET NON-CONDENSABLE

OUTLET T
F
P
NON-COND.
AIR/VAPOR REMOVAL
OUTLET SYSTEM
P P P
W W
CONDENSATE W T
LEVEL
P
P
(∆ P)
WATER OUTLET
CIRCULATING
WATER INLET
(∆ P) T
CIRCULATING
DO S
CONDENSATE
LEVEL F PERF. TEST
T 4 Nos. CONNECTION
F = FLOW MEASUREMENT T = TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SUPPLEMENTAL
W = WATER LEVEL MEASUREMENT DO = DISSOLVED OXYGEN MEASUREMENT TEST CONNECTION
P = PRESSURE MEASUREMENT S = SALINITY MEASUREMENT
Fig-8.4.1

Condenser Back Pressure and CW Inlet / Outlet Temperature Measurement
AT OPERATING
FLOOR.
~ ~
Side View Plan

Tapping Arrangement for Measurement
of Condenser Back Pressure
Note: 1. Tapping may be kept nearer Note: 1 Slope of impulse line
to LPC and Condenser joint. kept towards condenser.
2. Near tapping no protruding 2. Two separate grid to be brought
obstruction exist. at operating floor for installation
of two absolute pressure
transmitters.
C. W. Inlet / Outlet Temp. Measurement

300 – to have
glass thermometer
TW at 900 angle Detail ‘A’

Detail ‘A’
Note:
1. Four Nos. thermowell to be provided on each
CW Outlet line at a location convenient to
CW Outlet CW Inlet use from ‘0’ meter.
2. One No. thermowell on each CW Inlet line.
3. thermowell approx. Annexure
300 mm depth -V
viii
Fig-8.4.2
8.4.4.2 Test Set Up
i Ensure that condenser water box is full of water by operating

Water box vents.
ii Unit should be in operation at normal full load in steady state
condition.

iii Effort should be made to conduct the test runs close to normal
operating parameters.
iv Ensure that unit is operating under specified cycle condition.
Example, cascading of H.P heater drip to deaerator.
v No make up should be taken during test.
vi High energy drains passing if any to be attended/recorded.
vii As far as possible, the condenser hot well level should be kept
constant.
viii The condenser C.W. outlet valves should be set at 100% open or
as wide as possible maintaining a full water box.
ix Make notes of any abnormal conditions pertaining to the test.
8.4.4.3 Duration of Test and frequency of readings
(See format 8.4.2)
data collection.
rate of DAS.
8.4.4.4 CW Flow Measurement
CW Flow measurement can be determined
i By pitot survey in the CW outlet / inlet duct
ii By Calculation of Condenser Heat Load and thereby CW flow
It is recommended to use of 3 point pitot traverse for determining CW

flow The procedure for measurement for computation of CW flow using
pitot is given in the CT test procedure in section 8.5. However in case
pitot is under procurement, till then condenser heat load method may be
used to arrive at CW flow.
If Condenser Heat load method will be used for CW flow calculation, the
condenser performance test may be done along with GTCHR so that same
data can be used for condenser heat load calculation.
8.4.4.4.1 Determination of Condenser Duty
Condenser Duty = (Heat Added MS + Heat added by SH

Attemperation +Heat Added CRH + Heat added by BFP + Heat
added by RH Attemperation) - 860 (Pgen + Pgen Losses+ Heat
Loss rad.)

Where:
Cond.Duty = kcal/hr
Heat Added MS
= Flow MS * (hMS - hFW), kcal/hr
Flow MS = (Flow Main Steam excluding SH
Attemp), kg/hr
hMS = (Enthalpy of Main Steam), kcal/kg
hFW = (Enthalpy of Feed water), kcal/kg
Heat Added CRH

= Flow CRH* (hHRH - hCRH),kcal/hr
Flow CRH = Flow Cold Reheat Steam, kg/hr
hHRH = (Enthalpy of Hot Reheat Steam),
kcal/kg
hCRH = (Enthalpy of Cold Reheat Steam),
kcal/kg
Heat Added by BFP

= Flow FW*(hBFP Out-hBFPIn) Kcal/hr
Flow FW = Total FW flow kg/hr
hBFP Out = (Enthalpy of FW at BFP Outlet),
kcal/kg
hBFP In = (Enthalpy of FW at BFP Inlet), Kcal/kg
Heat added by RH Attemp
= Flow RH Attemp * (hHRH-hRHATT) Kcal/hr

hRHATT = (Enthalpy of RH Attemp ), Kcal/kg
Flow RH Attemp = Kg/hr
Heat added by SH Attemp
= Flow SH Attemp* (hMS-hSHATT) Kcal/hr

hSHATT = (Enthalpy of SH Attemp ), Kcal/kg
Flow SH Attemp = Kg/hr
Heat Loss rad = 0.1% of Pgen (Radiation Losses) kW
Pgen = (Gross Generator Output), kW
Pgen Losses* = (Mech Losses + Iron Losses +Stator
Current Losses), kW
* Values to be taken from Generator Loss Curve

8.4.4.4.2 Determination of CW Flow:
Cond Duty
CW Flow = ------------------------------ m3/hr
Cp (Tout – Tin) x ρ
Where:
C.W Flow = m3/hr

Cond Duty = kcal/hr
o
Cp = 1 kcal/kg C (Specific heat of water)
ρ = 1000 kg/cubic meter (Density of water)
Tout = oC (Average C.W Outlet temp.)
Tin = oC (Average C.W Inlet temp.)
8.4.4.5 Water Velocity in Condenser Tube
Tube Velocity
C.W Flow Rate x 106

= -----------------------------------------------------------------------
3600 x Tube Area x (No of Tubes/pass – No of Tube
Plugged /pass)
Where:
Tube Velocity = m/sec
C.W Flow Rate = m3/hr
Tube Area = mm2
8.4.4.6 Determination actual Log Mean Temperature Difference

(LMTD):
Tout - Tin
LMTD = -------------------
Tsat – Tin
Ln ----------
Tsat – Tout
Where:
LMTD = oC
Tsat = oC (saturation temperature corresponding to
condenser back pressure)

8.4.4.7 Determination of Expected LMTD :
* Correction for C.W. inlet temperature (ft)
| Saturation Temp Test - LMTD test |¼

ft = | ------------------------------------------------|
| Saturation Temp Design - LMTD design |
* Correction for C.W. flow (fw)
| Tube velocity test | 1/2

fw = | ----------------------- |
| Tube velocity design|
*Correction for condenser heat load (fq)
Cond. duty design

fq = ------------------------
Cond. duty test
*Expected LMTD
o
LMTD expected = LMTD test x ft x fw x fq C
8.4.4.8 Determination of Expected Saturation Temperature:
[Tin – Tout x eZ]

o
Sat. Temp. Expected: = --------------------------- C
[1 - eZ]
Where:
Tin = Design C.W. inlet temp.

Tour = Design C.W. outlet temp.
Tout – Tin
Z = --------------------
Expected LMTD
Expected Back Pressure = Derived from Steam Table

Corresponding to expected Saturation Temperature
8.4.4.9 Determination of Breakup of Condenser Back Pressure

Deviation:
On arriving at the backpressure deviation with respect to expected

backpressure, the following steps shall be adopted for calculating its
break up, i.e., deviation due to C.W. inlet temp, C.W. flow and effect of
air ingress/dirty tubes.

a) From design data develop a graph for a range of loads for

optimum C.W. temperature rise and TTD (Curve-II).
b) From curve-II generate another curve (load Vs BP) for different
CW inlet temperatures likely to occur as per various seasons. This
curve is used to derive expected BP for any load and for any
probable CW inlet temperature (Curve-I).
c) For computing the deviation refer the table given in Format 8.4.4
Sample test report format is given in format 8.4.5
8.4.5 References
ASME Performance Test Code 19.2-1987, Pressure Measurement
ASME Performance Test Code 19.3-1974, Temperature Measurement.

CONDENSER DESIGN DATA
Station: ...................... Unit: ....................
DESCRIPTION UNITS VALUE
Unit Name Plate Rating

Number of Passes Number
Heat Load Considered for Design kcal/hr
(Condenser Duty)
Condenser Flow m3/hr
Condenser Vacuum with CW Inlet mm Hg
Temp.
Tube Length Between Tube Plates meters
Total Number of Tubes Number
OD of Condenser Tubes mm
Thickness of Tubes mm
Tube Material --
Surface Area of tube mm2
Cleanliness Factor %
Water Box Diff. Pressure mwc
0
CW Temp. Rise C
Velocity Through Tubes m/sec
0
TTD at Design CW Flow & Inlet C
Temp.
0
LMTD C
Fromat-8.4.1

TEST READINGS
Station: .................. Unit: ................ Test Date: ...........
S.N. DESCRIPTION UNITS TEST READINGS

0
1. CW Inlet Temp(Left) C
0
2. CW Inlet Temp(Right) C
0
3. CW Outlet Temp(Left-1) C
0
0
0
0
7. CW Outlet Temp(Right-1) C
0
0
0
0
11. Condensate Temp(Left) C
0
12. Condensate Temp(Right) C
0
13. Air/Steam Temp(Left)* C
0
14. Air/Steam Temp(Right)* C
15. Cond B.P (Left) mmHg
16. Cond B.P (Right) mmHg
17. Water Box Diff(Left)* kg/cm2(abs)
18. Water Box Diff(Right)* kg/cm2(abs)
19. Load MW
Note : * These readings are not required for performance calculations but
needed for diagnosis of deviations/condenser performance problems
Format-8.4.2

DAS Readings For Heat Load Calculation
Station: ............... Unit: .....……….... Test Date: .....………….
S.N PARAMETER UNIT Test Data

1 Unit Load MW
2 MS Press bef ESV kg/cm2 (a)
3 MS Temp bef ESV Deg C
4 CRH Press HPT Exh kg/cm2 (a)
5 CRH Temp HPT Exh Deg C
6 HRH Press bef IV kg/cm2 (a)
7 HRH Temp bef IV Deg C
8 FW Press bef Eco kg/cm2 (a)
9 FW Temp bef Eco Deg C
10 FW Flow t/hr
11 SH Attemp. Flow t/hr
12 RH Attemp. Flow t/hr
13 HP Leak off Flow t/hr
14 HPH Extr. Temp Deg C
15 HPH Extr. Press kg/cm2 (a)
16 FW Inlet Temp Deg C
17 FW Outlet Temp Deg C
18 Drain Outlet Temp Deg C
19 Drain Inlet Temp (If applicable) Deg C
20 Drain Inlet Flow (If applicable) t/hr
21 FW Inlet Press (Optional) kg/cm2 (a)
22 FW Outlet Press (Optional) kg/cm2 (a)
23 BFP Inlet Press kg/cm2 (a)
24 BFP Inlet Temp Deg C
25 BFP Outlet Press kg/cm2 (a)
26 BFP Outlet Temp Deg C
Format-8.4.3

Condenser Heat Load Sample Calculation
Parameters Units Data
1 Unit Load MW 200

2 MS Press before ESV kg/cm2 (a) 148.17
3 MS Temp before ESV Deg C 537.42
4 CRH Press HPT Exhaust kg/cm2 (a) 38.645
5 CRH Temp HPT Exhaust Deg C 352.115
6 HRH Press before IV kg/cm2 (a) 36.275
7 HRH Temp before IV Deg C 526.575
8 FW Press before Economizer kg/cm2 (a) 169.77
9 FW Temp before Economizer Deg C 244
10 FW Flow t/hr 703.92
11 SH Attemperation Flow t/hr 0
12 RH Attemperation Flow t/hr 6.64
13 HP Leak off Flow t/hr 0.54
HP Heater Parameters
14 HPH Extraction Temp Deg C 335.2

15 HPH Extraction Press kg/cm2 (a) 42.742
16 FW Inlet Temp Deg C 203.3
17 FW Outlet Temp Deg C 253.4
18 Drain Outlet Temp Deg C 208.1
19 Drain Inlet Temp (If applicable) Deg C 0
20 Drain Inlet Flow (If applicable) t/hr 0
21 FW Inlet Press (Optional) kg/cm2 (a) 0
22 FW Outlet Press (Optional) kg/cm2 (a) 0
BFP Parameters
23 BFP Inlet Press kg/cm2 (a) 7

24 BFP Inlet Temp Deg C 162
25 BFP Outlet Press kg/cm2 (a) 205
26 BFP Outlet Temp Deg C 166
27 Generator Losses MW 8.489

Condenser Parameters
28 Condenser Back Pressure mm Hg 77

29 CW Inlet Temp Deg C 33
30 CW Outlet Temp Deg C 43.45
31 No. of Condenser Tubes No. 24398
32 No. of Condenser Tubes Plugged No. 0
33 Tube OD mm 31.75
34 Tube ID mm 30.3276
35 Tube Length m 14.73
Condenser Duty kcal/hr 283280844

CW Flow T/hr 27108
Tube Velocity m/sec 0.859
LMTD Deg C 6.843
LMTD Expected Deg C 4.596
Saturation Temp Expected Deg C 44.649
Expected Back Pressure mm Hg 70.578
Deviation in Condenser Back Pressure mm Hg 6.422

DETERMINATION OF BREAKUP OF CONDENSER BACK

PRESSURE DEVIATION
NO Description Derivation Unit Unit No

1. Unit - Load MW 200
2. Back pressure Plant mm Hg 120.8
o
3. Corresponding Sat. steam temp. C 55.56
o
4. CW inlet temp. Plant C 34.16
o
5. CW outlet temp. (Mean) Plant C 45.09
o
6. Condensate temp. (Left) Plant C 55
Condensate temp. (Right) Plant 55
o
7. Air Suction temp. (Left) Plant C 48.9
Air Suction temp. (Right) Plant 50.04
8. CW Outlet Valve (Left) Plant % 100
CW Outlet Valve (Right) 100
9. Target back press Curve-I mm Hg 85
o
10. Optimum CW rise Curve-II C 10
o
11. Optimum TTD Curve-II C 2.5
12. Back pressure due to CW inlet (4)+(10) mm Hg 79
temp. +(11)
13. Back pressure due to CW (5) + (11) mm Hg 81
Flow & CW inlet temp.
14. Variation due to CW inlet temp. (12)-(9) mm Hg -6
15. Variation due to CW flow (13)-(12) mm Hg 2
16. Variation due to air/dirty tubes (2)-(13) mm Hg 39.8
17. Total variation (2)- (12) mm Hg 41.8
18. No. of air pumps/ejector in service 1 No. 1
o
19. Air Suction Temp Depression (L) (3)-(7) C 6.66
o
20. Air Suction Temp Depression (R) (3)-(7) C 6.66
o
21. Condensate Sub Cooling (L) (3)-(6) C 0.56
o
22 Condensate Sub Cooling (R) (3)-(6) C 0.56
Remarks
Format-8.4.4

C u rv e-I
V a r ia tio n o f B a c k P r e s s u r e w it h L o a d &
C W T em p era tu re
0.120
0.100
Back Pressure
0.080
0.060
0.040
0.020
0.000
15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105
% o f L o a d

CURVE-II
CW Temp Rise
10.0
9.0
8.0
T 7.0
E
M
P 6.0
E
R 5.0
A TTD
T 4.0
U
R 3.0
E
2.0
1.0 % of Load
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

CONDENSER PERFORMANCE TEST REPORT
STATION Report Date:
S.N Description Unit No→ Unit-1 Unit-2 Unit-3

Date →
1 Load MW
2 Condenser Back pressure mm Hg

o
3 CW inlet temp. C
o
4 CW outlet temp. (Mean) C
o
5 Condensate temp. (L&R) C
o
6 Air Suction temp. (L&R) C
7 Expected Back pressure mm Hg
8 Target Back pressure mm Hg
9 Variation due to CW inlet mm Hg

temperature.
10 Variation due to CW flow mm Hg
11 Variation due to air/dirty mm Hg

tubes
12 Total variation mm Hg
o
13 Air suction Temp. C
Depression
Test Condition
Remarks
Format 8.4.5

CenPEEP Cooling Tower Performance
8.5 COOLING TOWER THERMAL PERFORMANCE TEST

(ID Cooling Tower)
8.5.1 Introduction
Cooling water system plays a vital role in dissipation of waste heat in

power station. More than 60 % of total heat input to the plant is finally
dissipated as waste heat. The waste heat from the power plant is carried
away by circulating water and ultimately gets dissipated in cooling tower.
8.5.2 Objective
The purpose of this test is to describe procedure for testing and

performance evaluation of Cooling Tower.
8.5.3 Salient Terms Used in CT Testing
8.5.3.1 Approach:
Difference between the Cold Water Temperature at CT outlet and Inlet air
Wet Bulb Temperature
8.5.3.2 Range:
Difference between the Hot Water Temperature (inlet to CT) and Cold
Water Temperature (outlet of CT)
8.5.3.3 Tower Capability:
The most reliable means to assess the cooling tower thermal performance
is tower capability. It is defined as the percentage of water that the tower
can cool to the design cold water temperature when the inlet wet-bulb,
cooling range, water flow rate and fan motor power are all at their design
value.
8.5.3.4 Effectiveness:
Effectiveness of Cooling Tower = Range*100 / (Range + Approach)

Range = Hot water Temp-Cold water Temp
Approach= Hot water Temp -Wet bulb Temp
8.5.4 Test procedure
8.5.4.1 Plant specific Data and Characteristic curves
Reference curves provided by manufacturer (wet bulb temperature vs

cold water temperature) for different design ranges and at 90%, 100%
and 110% of circulating water flow are required for evaluation of Tower
capability.
_________________________________________________________
8.5.4.2 Parameters to be measured

i) Wet Bulb Temperature at Tower inlet
ii) Cold Water Temperature at CT outlet
iii) Hot Water Temperature at CT inlet
iv) CW Flow to each Tower
v) Fan Motor Power
8.5.4.3 Test Conditions
The following variations from design condition shall not be exceeded
1 CW Flow rate 90 – 110% of Design
2 Cooling Range 80 – 120% of Design
3 Wet-bulb Temp Design +/- 8.50 C
4 Fan Motor Power 90 – 110% of Design
5 Wind Velocity: Average : 4.5 m/s

One-Minute Duration: 7.0 m/s
8.5.4.4 Duration of test
The test will be started after reaching steady state condition.
8.5.4.5 Frequency Of reading
Test Parameters and Frequency of Test Readings
PARAMETERS MIMINUM READING /

S.No HOUR / STATION
1 Inlet Air Wet Bulb Temperature 6

2 Hot Water Temperature 6
3 Cold Water Temperature 6
4 Circulating Water Flow 1
5 Wind Velocity 4
8.5.4.6 Constancy of Test Condition
Variation In test condition shall be within the following limits

Circulating water flow shall not vary by more than 2 %
Heat load should not vary more than 5 %
_________________________________________________________
8.5.4.7 INSTRUMENTS, LOCATION & METHOD OF MEASUREMENTS
8.5.4.7.1 Wet Bulb Temperature
WBT is measured at the air inlet side on both side of tower. Two locations
are fixed, one on each side of the tower .The location of the
measurement should be within 1.5 m from the air intake to the tower.
Hand held Phychrometers are used for measurement. The thermometers
shall be graduated in increments of not more than 0.1˚C and the
accuracy should be in the range of 0.05˚C.
A minimum of 6 readings/hour should be taken on each location. The

average of all the readings on both the side locations is taken as WBT for
the evaluation of the test result.
8.5.4.7.2 Cold Water Temperature
The recooled water temperature can be measured directly at the point

where the circulating water is discharged from the basin, the average
cold water temperature being determined by simultaneous test readings
taken across the selected sections. The measurement location is selected
such that proper mixing of the cold water is ensured. For getting
representative measurement the cold water temperature, grid
arrangement (see Fig 8.5.1) may be made at measuring locations across
the cold water channel. RTD’s may be installed at 4-5 locations, across
the horizontal plane and temperature readings taken using digital
temperature read out connected to RTD’S.
Grid arrangement for Cold Water Temperature Measurement
1 2 3 4
1/3
2/3
Fig-8.5.1
_________________________________________________________
8.5.4.7.3 Hot Water Temperature
Hot water temperature measurement shall be made in the tower risers or

at the discharge of inlet risers into the flume or distribution system or for
a multi-cell tower in the supply header just upstream of the first riser. If
the source is a mixture of two or more streams of different temperatures,
complete mixing must be ensured at the point of measurement.
Thermometers can be used for measurement of Hot water temperature.

The thermometers may be inserted into the channel where water
distribution network is open or into the thermo wells provided on the duct
as the case may be 2-3 locations may be selected at each locations and
average of all the readings is taken as the hot water temperature for
evaluation
The indicator of the thermometer used for measurement shall be

graduated in increments of not more than 0.1 ˚C
8.5.4.7.4 Circulating Water Flow
Wherever adequate upstream and down stream straight lengths are

available suitable calibrated pitot probes, shall be used for the flow
measurement.
For obtaining swirl free and fully developed flow condition the minimum
upstream and downstream straight lengths at the measuring cross
section shall be 20 pipe diameter and 5 pipe diameter respectively. To
meet the above criteria, it will be necessary to provide the stubs along
with the isolating valves in the underground / above ground portion of
water pipe / ducts carrying hot water to the tower. Typical arrangement
is shown in Fig. 2. Provision shall be made for traversing two diameters,
at right angles to each other.
For the measurement of differential pressure, air over water manometer

connected to the pitot shall be used.
8.5.4.7.5 Flow Measurement using Pitot traverse
Pitot traverse is done in two planes i.e. vertical and horizontal at 90

degrees to each other. The required ports for pitot insertion is to be made
at suitable location in the hot CW duct as described above. For mapping
the dp within the duct the pitot is inserted into the duct in the vertical
plane and dp noted down using a water manometer connected to the
pitot. The no of insertion points for the pitot varies with the size of the
duct. For pipes / ducts less than 500 mm size, 10 insertions per plane is
required and for pipe / ducts above 500mm size, 20 insertions per plane
is required. The locations at which the dp are to be measured is given in
the format 8.5.1. The dp measurement is repeated in the horizontal plane
also and the average dp value is taken for computation of CW flow.
_________________________________________________________
Readings of Pitot Survey

Reading Dia x Location Dp dp 0.5
No
mmwcl
1 0.013
2 0.039
3 0.067
4 0.097
5 0.129
6 0.165
7 0.204
8 0.25
9 0.306
10 0.388
11 0.612
12 0.694
13 0.75
14 0.796
15 0.835
16 0.871
17 0.903
18 0.933
19 0.961
20 0.987
Average
Format-8.5.1
Calculation of Flow Measurement
After dp mapping of CW Duct the flow calculation is done using the
average dp, pitot constant and pipe ID.
8.5.4.7.6 Fan Power

Power consumption for the cooling Tower fans shall be measured at the
MCC incomer for each individual fan.
8.5.4.7.7 Wind Velocity
Wind Velocity shall be measured by a rotating cup type anemometer.
_________________________________________________________
8.5.4.8 Calculation of Tower Performance
Tower Capability in Percentage

= Adjusted Test Flow Rate
Predicted Water Flow Rate
Adjusted Test Flow Rate

= Measured flow x {Design KW of fans}0.333
{Test KW of Fans}
Predicted Water Flow Rate is Calculated from Manufacturer graphs

and Actual test conditions i.e. WBT, Range and Cold water temperature.
Performance Test of Individual Cell of a Cooling Tower
CTI ATC 105 stipulates conducting thermal capability test of a cooling

tower in totality to assess the performance of a cooling tower. Standard
test procedures are not available for assessing the performance of an
individual cell. However the following method can be used to assess the
individual cell performance of a cooling tower.
(a) Instruments, Location & Method of Measurements Wet Bulb

Temperature
WBT is measured at the air inlet side of the cell. The location of
the measurement should be within 1.5 m from the air intake to
the cell. Hand held Psychrometers are used for measurement. The
thermometers shall be graduated in increments of not more than
0.1 oC and the accuracy should be in the range of 0.05 oC.
A minimum of 6 readings / hour should be taken and the average

of all the readings is taken as WBT for the evaluation of the test
results.
(b) Cold Water Temperature
The cold water temperature is to be measured at each cell outlet.

Normally the cold water collecting at the cold water basin get
mixed with water from other cells and makes it difficult for
measurement. To facilitate cold water temperature measurement
of an individual cell a suitable wooden collecting tray (size 1ft x 1ft
x 1 ft) with a long handle is fabricated. An RTD/thermocouple is
fixed inside the tray with its lead long enough to connect to a
digital temperature read out located outside the cell. 15 to 20
locations are selected below the cell to form a grid layout. Cold
water is collected in the tray from each location and temperature
recorded. The average of temperatures from all the locations to be
taken as the cold water temperature from the cell.
_________________________________________________________
(c) Hot Water Temperature
Hot water temperature measurement shall be made at the

individual risers supplying the cell or at the discharge of inlet
risers into the hot water basin.
Thermometers can be used for measurement of Hot water

temperature. The thermometers may be inserted into the channel
where water distribution network is open or into the thermo wells
provided on the inlet riser.
(d) Circulating Water Flow of Individual Cell
Wherever adequate upstream and down stream straight lengths

are available suitable calibrated pitot probes, shall be used for the
flow measurement.
For obtaining swirl free and fully developed flow condition the
minimum upstream and downstream straight lengths at the
measuring cross section shall be 10 pipe diameter and 5 pipe
diameter respectively. Necessary tapping points to be made
available in the individual cell risers for pitot traversing. Provision
shall be made for traversing two diameters, at right angles to each
other.
For the measurement of differential pressure, air over water

manometer connected to the pitot shall be used.
(e) Flow Measurement using Pitot traverse
Pitot traverse is done in two planes at 90 degrees to each other.

The required ports for pitot insertion are to be made at suitable
location in the riser pipe as described above. For mapping the dp
within the riser pipe the pitot is inserted into the pie and dp noted
down using a water manometer connected to the pitot. The no of
insertion points for the pitot varies with the size of the duct. For
pipes / ducts less than 500 mm size, 10 insertions per plane is
required and for pipe / ducts above 500 mm size, 20 insertions
per plane is required. The dp measurement is repeated for the
other plane also and the average dp value is taken for
computation of CW flow.
(f) Fan Power
Power consumption for the individual cell fans shall be measured

at the MCC incomer for each individual fan.
(g) Calculation of Cell performance
The individual cell performance is calculated using the same

formula as given in 8.5.4.8.
_________________________________________________________
8.5.4.9 Steps for determining Predicted water Flow Rate
(a) Manufacturer provides design graphs of cold water temp vs. wet bulb
temp for 90%, 100% & 110% flows and different cooling ranges
90% Flow; Cold Water vs. Wet Bulb
37.0
TEMPERATURE C
36.0
COLD WATER
35.0
34.0
33.0
32.0
31.0
30.0
29.0
28.0
27.0
23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0
Wet Bulb (C)
C-8.8C B-11.0C A- 13.25C
Fig- 8.5.2
100% Flow; Cold Water vs. Wet Bulb
37.0
36.0
TEMPERATURE C
35.0
COLD WATER
34.0
33.0
32.0
31.0
30.0
29.0
28.0
23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0
Wet Bulb (C)
C-8.8C B-11.0C A- 13.25C
Fig-8.5.3
_________________________________________________________
110 % Flow; Cold Water vs. Wet Bulb
37.0
TEMPERATURE C
COLD WATER 36.0
35.0
34.0
33.0
32.0
31.0
30.0
29.0
28.0
23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0
Wet Bulb (C)
C-8.8C B-11.0C A- 13.25C
Fig-8.5.4
(b) Based on the actual test WBT, cold water temp is determined for
different ranges and flows from the above curves
90% Flow; Cold W ater vs . W et B ulb

COLD WATER TEMPERATURE
37.0
36.0
35.0
34.0
33.0
32.0
C
31.0
30.0
29.0
28.0
27.0
23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0
W et B ulb (C)
C-8.8C B -11.0C A - 13.25C
Fig-8.5.5
_________________________________________________________
(c) Graph plotted with cold water temp vs cooling range for 90%, 100%,
110% flows
Cold Water vs. Cooling Range
32.0
TEMPERATURE (C)
31.5
COLD WATER
31.0
30.5
30.0
29.5
29.0
8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0
COOLING RANGE (C)
90% Flow 100% Flow 110% Flow Test Range
Fig-8.5.6
(d) From the above graph, based on actual test cooling range, cold water
temp determined for 90%, 100%, 110% flows
(e) Graph plotted with cold water temp vs. predicted flow
Cold Water vs. Predicted Flow
30.8
COLD WATER TEMPERATURE (C)
30.7
30.6
30.5
30.4
30.3
30.2
30.1
30.0
29.9
29.8
29.7
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115
Predicted Flow (%)
Fig-8.5.6
_________________________________________________________
(f) From the above graph, based on actual test cold-water temp,
predicted flow determined.
8.5.5 References
Cooling Tower Institute Acceptance Test Code for Water- Cooling Towers:
CTI ATC - 105.
Cooling Tower Report
Station: CT: Date:

Parameters Design Test
No of Cells (No)
Water Flow (m3/hr)
Hot Water Temperatue (°C)
Cold Water Temperatue (°C)
Wet Bulb Temperatue (°C)
Fan Power (KW)
Range(°C)
Approach(°C)
Effectiveness(%)
Capability(%)
Format-8.5.1
_________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Mill Performance
8.6 MILL PERFORMANCE TEST
8.6.1 Introduction
The factors affecting pulveriser performance include grindibility of coal,

moisture content of coal, size of input coal, wear condition of grinding
elements and classifier, fineness of pulverized coal, primary air quantity
and inlet temperature. Mill performance is generally said to be good when
it takes the design load and delivers the product at the designated
fineness values with rated current consumption and minimum rejects. On
a day-to-day basis, mill performance is monitored by tracking mill
power consumption, regular PF fineness measurements, mill DPs,
coal spillage etc.
Mill testing is primarily a check of vendor-predicted results or guarantees

and any test data is corrected back to standard specified conditions for
comparison with vendor results. ASME PTC 4.2 provides methods &
instructions for conducting performance tests on Coal Pulverisers.
This procedure provides guidelines for conducting performance checks on

Pulverisers using a Dirty Pitot probe for identification of pulveriser system
deficiencies. The procedure also provides guidelines for both isokinetic
and non-isokinetic collection of pulverized coal sample from mill discharge
pipes for checking the fineness fractions. This methodology is suitable for
sampling from vertical circular pipes only.
In a Dirty airflow test, the temperature, static pressure and DP

across the pipe cross-section are measured to calculate coal / air
mixture velocity and flow in each PF pipe. The measurements of ‘dirty air’
(coal air mixture) are done under defined operating conditions and close
to nominal mill loading to ensure tests’ repeatability.
An essential pre-requisite to balancing of fuel and air to the burners is

calibration of Primary Airflow through the pulverisers. If adequate straight
lengths are available in the ducts, the flows should be checked by a
calibrated pitot traverse.
Also, a balanced ‘clean air flow’ distribution does not necessarily result
in a balanced ‘dirty air’ or ‘coal flow’ distribution amongst the
discharge pipes of a mill. As a practice, we routinely conduct ‘Clean air
flow tests’ on the mills after unit overhauls. The feedback needs to be
supplemented by dirty airflow and coal flow balance measurements.
The relative flow distribution between burner pipes of a mill is assessed

by calculating the deviation of the flow through individual pipe expressed
as a percentage difference relative to the mean flow of all the pipes.
Permissible variations for imbalances in coal / air mixture and coal flows
amongst the four discharge pipes are +/-5% and +/-10% from the
average.
_________________________________________________________
8.6.2 Objective
The objective of this procedure is to establish a standard method for the

following performance tests related to pulveriser system
1) Checking Dirty air balance between coal transport pipes
2) PF sample collection of pulverized coal for fineness fractions
8.6.3 Instruments
Dirty Air Pitot Kit including Dirty Air Pitot, Temperature Readout, Static
Pressure Probe, Inclined Manometer
Rotary Sampler (Specifications attached as Annexure I)
8.6.4 Test Procedure – Checking Dirty air balance using Dirty Pitot
kit
i. Test ports are installed on coal pipes to facilitate clean and dirty
air traversing using pitot tubes and dirty air probes. Optimum
location for these taps should be between five diameters
downstream and ten diameters upstream of the nearest
elbow or change of direction. A minimum of two test ports per coal
pipe, 90 degree apart, is required for testing.
ii. The numbers of sampling ports are determined based on the

available straight lengths of coal pipes, upstream or downstream
of the nearest bends. The guidelines for locating testing cross
sections are described in ASME PTC 4.2.
iii. Traverse points on the pitot tube are marked on an equal area
grid in accordance with ASME Performance test Code 4.2 for
traversing circular ducts or pipes.
iv. Two equal lengths Tygon tubing sections are cut to desired length.
The tubing is then taped or bound together and one tube is
marked on both ends to identify as the ‘high pressure’ line or
‘impact’ line. The second tube is used as the ‘low pressure’ line or
‘static’ line.
v. A 5” to 10” vertically inclined manometer is set up on a level and

stable work area. The tygon tubing is connected to the high and
low side taps on the manometer as indicated below. A digital
manometer is preferred in lieu of the inclined manometer, if
available, as shown herein.
_________________________________________________________
vi. The following data should be recorded for each test. (Table 1)
• Coal pipe designation
• Individual velocity head for each traverse point (2 ports -

24 points)
• Temperature and static pressure for each coal transport

pipe
vii. If using an inclined manometer, ensure the manometer is level

and has been “zeroed”, prior to inserting the pitot tube into the
flow.
viii. Install a dustless connector at the ball valve outlet to ensure coal
containment in coal transport pipe during traverse.
ix. Insert the dirty air probe through the dustless connector. Open the
ball valve fully while inserting the dirty air probe.
x. Place the probe on the first measurement point & allow the
manometer reading to stabilize. Record the data and move to the
_________________________________________________________
next measurement point. Repeat this process for all 12-test points
on the particular port.
xi. Prior to moving to next test port, disconnect the tubing from the
probe and blow the sensing lines. Typical log sheets for recording
data in Control Room and test locations are attached as Table 1
and Table 2.
xii. Measure and record static pressure and temperature reading for
each coal transport pipe using the static pressure probe. Before
inserting the probe in the coal pipe, static pressure sensing line is
connected to one side of the manometer. The tube on the other
end is pinched to prevent blowout of manometer fluid during
insertion of the probe. The thermocouple is attached to a
temperature Readout.
xiii. Calculate velocity in each fuel line and ascertain dirty air balance.
The dirty air balance should be expressed as a deviation from the
mean velocity of all the pulverisers individual coal transport pipes
(a maximum deviation of +/-5% indicates a satisfactory clean air
balance). The following equations are utilized to process dirty air
traverse data.
Bp + Sp
Density (δ) = 460 +70 oF X _13.6 X 0.075 Lbs./ft3
460 + oF 29.92” Hg C
Velocity= 1095(Vh)1/2X K(Vh)1/2=(Vh1)1/2+(Vh2)1/2+(Vh3)1/2+ ...

(δ )1/2 no. of traverse points
% Deviation = Avg. Velocity – Velocity x 100%

Avg. Velocity
Volumetric Flow (Q)= Velocity x Pipe Cross-section Area
Dirty Air Flow (W) = Q x 60 min/hour x Density
Bp = Barometric Pressure (“Hg); Sp = Static Pressure (“WC)

K – Calibration Coefficient of the Pitot
Example :
Mill Out Temp–88C/190.4 F, Bp–28.7 ”Hg, Sp– 1.6 ”WC

Pipe Cross-section Area - 0.14522 m2
_________________________________________________________
Density (d) = 530 X (28.7 +1.6/13.6) X 0.075 Lbs./ft3

650.4 29.92
= 0.05886 Lbs./ft3 * 16.01847 = 0.9429 kg/m3
Say (Vh)1/2 = 1.4576 ”WC

Velocity = 0.93 * 1095 * 1.4576 * 0.00508
(0.05886)1/2
= 31.1 m / s
Dirty Air Flow = 31.1 * 0.14522 * 0.9429 * 3600 / 1000

= 15.33 T/hr
8.6.5 PF sample collection of pulverized coal for fineness fractions
8.6.5.1 Iso kinetic Sampling
After determination of the dirty air velocities in their associated coal

transport pipes, iso kinetic coal samples are extracted. The coal-sampling
probe is marked identical to the dirty air test probe and following steps
are followed for isokinetic sampling.
i. Calculate the sampler orifice differential pressure based on the

dirty air velocity traverse data. The sampler differential i.e. the
differential to be maintained during sampling, is determined by
entering the average square root velocity head observed by the
probe for a single port into the following equation.
a. Sampler ∆ P = 1.573 x (avg. Vh)2 x (probe K factor)2
ii. This formula will yield a sampler differential pressure which will
result in a velocity through the sampler tip that is equal to the
velocity of the coal and air mixture through the coal transport pipe
(i.e. isokinetic sampling).
iii. Connect the tygon tubing to the inclined manometer and the
orifice sensing lines on the sampler (sensing line closest to the
filter canister is the “high” side. Prepare to enter the test port with
the sampling probe and maintain the desired differential pressure
for that port.
iv. Insert the sample probe into the port to the first sampling point.
The desired differential pressure will be monitored and maintained
at all times while the probe is in the sample port. A needle valve
on the sampling apparatus is utilized to maintain the sampler
differential (it is a good idea to establish the approximate sampler
differential just prior to inserting the probe into the port). The
sampler probe will remain in the coal transport pipe for 4 minutes
(2 ports, 12 points per port, 10 seconds per point) for a standard
_________________________________________________________
two port arrangement. The sampling time is very critical and great
care should be taken to ensure the correct sampling time is
obtained for each single point.
v. Upon completion of sampling from all ports on a single fuel pipe,

turn off the aspirator air supply and remove sampler from the coal
transport pipe. Disconnect manometer from apparatus, turn
aspirator air back on and shake sample transport hose and filter
assembly to ensure all coal sampled has been evacuated from the
sampler.
vi. Empty the sample collected in the collection jar into a sample bag
and establish the weight of the sample (in grams). Assign this
weight with a pipe designation, test number and date.
vii. Repeat the same procedure for completing the isokinetic coal
sampling from the remaining coal transport pipes of the same mill.
A new filter needs to be used for testing of each coal pipe.After
completing the testing of all the coal transport pipes of a mill,
calculations can be done as per the following formulae.
Sampler ∆ P = 1.573 x (avg. Vh)2 x (probe K factor)2
Coal Flow = Sample Weight (gms) x 60 min / hr x Pipe area – ft2

453.6 gms / lb. 4 min Sample tip Area ft2
Sample Tip Area = 0.0021 ft2 (Typical)
Air to Fuel ratio = Air Flow per Hour

Coal Flow per Hour
Gross Coal sample can be collected from feeder inlet chutes for
determination of coal characteristics namely size of raw coal, moisture,
HGI for applying corrections to the measured test data. The power
consumed by the mill during the test can be computed by connecting
energy meters, or by recording the mill amperes.
8.6.5.2 Iso kinetic Sampling using Rotary Sampler
The Rotary Pulverized Fuel Sampler is a manual-sampling device,

designed for representative extraction of pulverized coal samples from
mill discharge pipes. The sampling procedure is in accordance with
international standard ISO 9931.
Sampling as per ISO 9931 using a rotary PF sampler is more

representative than the ASME method and is preferred for
measuring coal flow distribution between burner pipes. Under steady flow
conditions, the ISO 9931 method is said to be capable of reproducibility
of +/- 2% (or better) in mass flow. The specifications of Rotary Sampler
are enclosed as Annexure 1.
_________________________________________________________
The sampler as shown here is equipped with four sampling tips through
which the sample is simultaneously extracted. By means of an angular
gear mechanism, the sampler tips are rotated in concentric circles around
the sampler head. A dial with eight equally distributed marks (45o)
indicates the angular position of the sampler tips at every 22.5 o. When
the dial is rotated twice, it gives one full turn of the sampler tips, thus
giving 16 angular positions.
The radial positions of the four sampling tips will ensure sampling from
equal areas of cross-sectional area of the pipe. The use of equal time
sampling, with the sampler set at 16 angular positions results in a
representative sample being extracted from a total of 64 equal-sized
areas of the sampling plane of the pipe.
_________________________________________________________
In addition, the sampler is provided with an outside alignment pin

perpendicular to the sampler tip plane. The alignment of the pin with the
pipe axis ensures a sampling plane perpendicular to the pipe.
So, the multi point sampler extracts one representative sample from 4
sampling tips in 16 different configurations giving a total of 64 sampling
points, evenly distributed over the cross-section of the circular pipe.
The sampler assembly consists of the following parts
1. Dustless Connection
2. Sampling lance with 4 sampling tips of adjustable lengths
3. Cyclone Assembly
4. Sample Collection Bottle
5. Reinforced hose
6. Portable Control Box with Venturi nozzle

Differential Pressure gage
Needle valves
Air filters
Ejector unit
Electronic Timer
Heater 500 W
Temperature Indicator
8.6.5.2.1 Working Principle:
By means of an angular gear four sampler tips are rotated in concentric

circles by which samples are extracted near isokinetically at 64 points in
4 minutes. Coal particles are separated from the extracted sample in a
cyclone and conveying gas is released through a filter.
8.6.5.2.2 Sampling Ports and other requirements
• One sampling point – a welded-on pipe socket is to be installed in

each of the four discharge pipes of the mill, in a straight length of
each PF pipe of the mill.
• The minimum distance from an upstream disturbing component to

a sampling point should be more than 5 times the internal
diameter of the pipe and the minimum distance to a downstream
disturbing component should be equal to the internal diameter of
the pipe.
_________________________________________________________
• The socket axis should have a maximum deviation of +/- 0.35%

from radial direction.
• The socket is permanently fitted with a dustless connection to

ensure dust free insertions and removal of sampler lance during
mill operation.
• The sampling points in all pipes belonging to same pulveriser

should, if possible, be established in similar places and at the
same distances from components, which may create disturbances,
in order to get the same bias in each of the pipes.
• Rotary probe requires 220 V AC power for Heater and Timer. The
heater is used to prevent moisture build up by preheating the
compressed air. The timer sounds an audible beep every 15
seconds for four minutes of sampling time in each pipe.
• Rotary probe requires compressed air at 3-5 ksc for dustless

connections during insertion and retrieval of the sampler and for
the aspirator for sucking out the sample.
8.6.5.2.3 Test Methodology
• The sampler is inserted through a dustless connector into the

pulverized fuel pipe. Before and after the sampling period, the
sampling equipment is kept clean and heated by back blowing of
compressed air.
• A heater preheats the air to prevent moisture build-up. The

thermostat temperature setting is adjusted to same temperature
as the gas temperature in the fuel pipe.
• To start sampling the timer is started and valve is switched from

back blowing to suction. The timer starts beeping and flashing
every 15 seconds. The sampling is done for 15 seconds at each
mark / angular position, 16 in all. To stop sampling a switch from
suction to hot air back blowing is made.
• The sampled pulverized fuel is separated in a high-efficiency

cyclone. The sample gets collected in a bottle connected at the
bottom of the cyclone.
• The sampling gas velocity is kept constant during the sampling

period by maintaining a constant DP in the control box. The
sampling is carried out at a gas flow through the sampler at
approximately 10 % super iso-kinetic velocity i.e. at an average
gas velocity through the sampling tip apertures in the range of 1.1
+/-0.1 times the mean gas velocity in the pulverized fuel pipe.
_________________________________________________________
• Each point is sampled twice to ensure repeatability and the

samples are stored in bottles / polythene bags. The bottles / bags
are marked for later identification. The collected samples are
weighed and analyzed for determination of fineness.
• The precision of sampling with respect to both mass and the

particle size distribution depends on the degree of segregation
also called as roping and swirling in the coal pipes.
• The occurrence of both phenomena is significant immediately

downstream of a change in flow direction, which happens for
example in bends and pulverisers.
• The sampling gas velocity is maintained at the same level as the

gas velocity in the transport pipe all through the sampling period,
to ensure an iso-kinetic sampling. An average velocity
extrapolated from past test data can be used to work out the DP
to be maintained during sampling to have a near iso-kinetic
sample. The coal sampling can also be preceded by an actual dirty
pitot survey to determine the average coal / air mixture velocity in
the pipes.
8.6.6 Non Iso kinetic Sampling
Non iso-kinetic sampling is done using a Cyclone sampler by station

Chemistry department on routine basis for collecting a PF sample from
mill discharge pipes to monitor pulveriser performance. Feedback on PF
fineness levels along with unburnt loss in bottom ash and fly ash is
circulated to concerned groups to initiate corrective action. The following
points relate to non-isokinetic sampling.
• Mill fineness sample collection is always done under stable and

defined conditions. Mills are set for normal operation and no
change over are scheduled.
• Coal lab staff collecting fineness sample is immediately informed

in event of any disturbance in normal operation.
• Cylcone separator pipe is inserted through ball valves and dust

guard provided for dirty pitot sampling for collecting a PF sample
in dust free environment.
• The sample is obtained by traversing the pipe across its entire

diameter with uniform rate of movement for 2 minutes. Samples
in both directions at 90 degrees must be taken for the same
period of time.
• All the coal pipes are sampled for collecting a composite sample
for a pulveriser.
_________________________________________________________
• Mill fineness sample is checked for four typical screens and the
results can be plotted on Rosin - Rammler chart to validate the
data.
• As far as practical, Mill are set for nominal parameters which can
be defined for a station jointly by Operation, Mill maintenance and
Efficiency group. Mill testing during part load operation (say below
80% of rated capacity) is to be avoided, except for the mills that
are already showing degradation.
A typical format for reporting fineness fractions is given here.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mill Mill air Mill output Mill out Mill DP +50 +70 +100 -200
Flow Temp. % retained
T\hr. T\hr. C mmWC
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mill 2A
Mill 2B
Mill 2C
Mill 2D
Mill 2E
Mill 2F
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8.6.7 Coal fineness Analysis
(This analysis is best performed directly after sample extraction

to prevent coagulation of sample due to moisture absorption
especially for samples drawn from the mills handling high
moisture coal)
i. Roll the sample bag to provide a proportionate sample. Remove

50 grams of coal from the sample.
ii. Shake this 50 grams of sample through a series of 50, 100, 140
and 200 mesh Standard screens.
iii. Record the weight of coal residue on each of the four screens and
the bottom catch pan. A scale capable of accuracy to 0.001 grams
is required. Calculate the percentage of sample passing through
each mesh using the following equations.
_________________________________________________________
Weight of Test Sample 50 g 50.0

Weight of Residue on 50 Mesh R1 g ______
Weight of Sample Passing 200 Mesh) R5 g ______
% Passing 50 Mesh (50.00 – R1) X 100 %

50
% Passing 100 Mesh (50.00 – (R1+R2)) X 100%

50
% Passing 140 Mesh (50.0 – (R1 + R2+R3)) X 100%

50
% Passing 200 Mesh (50.00 – (R1+R2+R3+R4)) X 100%

50
% Recovery (50.00 – (R1+R2+R3+R4+R5)) X 100%.

50
8.6.8 REFERENCES
ASME Performance Test Code 4.2 – 1969, Coal Pulverisers
DS/ISO 9931 : Sampling of pulverized coal conveyed by gases in

direct-fired coal system
_________________________________________________________
Annexure I
Rotary Sampler - Specifications
Rotary probe Pulverised coal sampling system including the

following accessories
a) Sampling lance and associated system for sampling, Portable box

with heater, venturi nozzle, pressure gauge, pneumatic valves,
power supply cable as required for iso-kinetic PF sampling as per
ISO 9931
b) Cyclone collector
c) Reinforced compressed air hose as per requirement
d) Sample bottles – 4 nos.
e) Dustless connection – 8 nos
f) O&M manual
Spares for Rotary Sampler
Sampling lance 1No. For fuel pipe Internal dia: 400-700mm

(To be specified)
Sampling tips 4 nos.
Air filters 1 set
Known Vendors
1. M/S M&W Asketeknik ApS, OLDENVEJ 5, DK-3490 KVISTGAARD,

Denmark. (Tel. +45 49 13 91 62; Email m-w@m-w.dk ; Web:
www.m-w.dk
2. M/S GE Energy and Environmental Research Corporation, 1345 N.

Main Street, POBox 153, Orrville, OH 44667, USA (Tel (330) 682-
4007, Fax (330) 684-2110 Email bob.waltz@ps.ge.com
3. PF Sampling Systems, P.O.Box 2098, Alberton 1450, South Africa

Tel (2711) 869-9119, Fax (2711) 907 – 8097,
Signwond@netactive.co
_________________________________________________________
Dirty Air / Fuel Ratio Test

Table-1
Unit Mill DATE:

Start Time Barometric Pres.
End Time Probe 'K' Factor
Corner 1 Corner 2
POINT PORT 1 PORT 2 POINT PORT 1 PORT 2
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
12 12
TEMPERATURE C TEMPERATURE C
STATIC PRESS "w.c. STATIC PRESS "w.c.
Corner 3 Corner 4
POINT PORT 1 PORT 2 POINT PORT 1 PORT 2
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
12 12
TEMPERATURE C TEMPERATURE C
STATIC PRESS "w.c. STATIC PRESS "w.c.
_________________________________________________________
Table 2
Control Room Data - Dirty Pitot Survey - Unit ___
Mill _____ Date __/ __/ _____ Readings taken by __________________
Time (Freq 15 min) → ______hrs ______hrs ______hrs ______hrs ______hrs ______hrs ______hrs
Unit Load MW
PA Flow t/hr
Coal Flow T/hr
Mill Outlet Temp C
Mill DP mmWC
Mill Amps Amp
Hot Air Damper % open
Cold Air Damper % open
PA Header Prsr mmWC
Inlet PA Temp C
Frequency Hz
Time - 20 disc. rev. sec
Note: Please ensure stable conditions for the mill being tested. In case of unavoidable variations, please inform
the test crew at firing floor.
__________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Air Heater Performance
8.7 AH PERFORMANCE TEST
8.7.1 Introduction
This procedure provides a systematic approach for conducting routine Air

Heater performance tests on tubular and rotary regenerative air heaters.
Various performance indices like air heater leakage, gas-side efficiency,
X-ratio etc can be determined using this procedure.
Air heater leakage is defined as the weight of air passing from the
airside to the gas side of the air heater. This index is an indicator of the
condition of the air heater’s seals. As air heater seals wear, air heater
leakage increases. The increase in air heater leakage increases the
station service power requirements of the forced draft and induced draft
fans, increasing unit net heat rate and at times limiting unit capacity.
Air heater gas-side efficiency is defined as the ratio of the

temperature drop, corrected for leakage, to the temperature head,
expressed as a percentage. Gas side efficiency is an indicator of the
internal condition of the air heater. As conditions inside the air heater
worsen (baskets wear, ash pluggage etc), the air heater gas side
efficiency decreases. This is generally accompanied by an increase in exit
gas temperature and a decrease in air heater air outlet temperature.
Air heater X-ratio is the ratio of heat capacity of air and the heat
capacity of flue gas passing through the air heater. X-Ratio depends on
the moisture in coal, air infiltration in the boiler, air & gas mass flow rates
through the air heater and specific heats of air & flue gas.
8.7.2 Objectives
1. To determine Air heater performance indices – Leakage, Gas-side

Efficiency & X-ratio
2. To provide information for performance analysis & identify the

causes of performance degradation, if any
3. To cross-check the readings of online instruments around air

heaters
8.7.3 Parameters for AH Performance Monitoring
S.N Parameters Units

1 Unit Load MW
2 Feed water and / or Main Steam flow T/hr
3 Total Air flow T/hr
4 Coal Flow T/hr
_________________________________________________________
S.N Parameters Units

5 Mills in service Nos.
6 Avg. Flue Gas O2 - AH Inlet %
7 Avg. Flue Gas CO2 - AH Inlet %
8 Avg. Flue Gas O2 - AH Out %
9 Avg. Flue Gas CO2 - AH Out %
10 Avg. Flue Gas Temp - AH In C
11 Avg. Flue Gas Temp - AH Out C
12 Avg. Primary Air to AH Temp In C
13 Avg. Primary Air from AH Temp Out C
14 Avg. Secondary Air to AH Temp In C
15 Avg. Secondary Air from AH Temp Out C
16 Pressure Drop across Flue gas path mmWC
17 Pressure Drop across Primary air path mmWC
18 Pressure Drop across Secondary air path mmWC
19 Total Secondary Air Flow T/hr
20 Total Primary Air Flow T/hr
21 Design Ambient / Ref Air Temp C
22 FD/ID/PA fan current A
8.7.4.1 Test set up - Operating Conditions of Test Runs
Test runs are conducted at an easily repeatable level at defined baseline

conditions at full load with same number of mills in service and same
total air levels as previous tests. The operating conditions for each test
run are as follows.
1. No furnace or air heater soot blowing is done during the test.

2. Unit operation is kept steady for at least 60 minutes prior to the
test.
3. Steam coil Air heaters’ (SCAPH) steam supply is kept isolated and
gas recirculation dampers if any, are tightly shut.
4. No mill change over is done during the test.
5. All air and gas side damper positions should be checked and
recorded.
_________________________________________________________
6. The test is abandoned in case of any oil support during the test
period.
7. Eco hopper de-ashing or Bottom hopper de-ashing is not done
during the test.
8. Regenerative heaters should be in service with normal drip
cascading.
8.7.4.2 Test Duration
The test run duration will be the time required to complete two traverses
for temperature and gas analysis. Two separate test crews should sample
the gas inlet and outlet ducts simultaneously.
8.7.4.3 Measurement Locations
The number and type of instruments required for conducting this test
depend on the unit being tested. The following table lists the
measurement locations.
Measurement Temperature Gas Analysers Pressure
AH Gas Inlet Yes Yes Yes
AH Gas Outlet Yes Yes Yes
AH Air Inlet Yes Yes
AH Air Outlet Yes Yes
8.7.4.3.1 Traverse Locations – Gas side
• The gas inlet traverse plane should be located as close as possible

to the air heater inlet. This is done to ensure that any air ingress
from the intervening duct / expansion joints is not included in air
heater performance assessment.
• The gas outlet traverse plane should be located at a suitable
distance downstream the air heater to allow mixing of the flow to
reduce temperature and 02 stratification. However, it should not be
located downstream of other equipment or access ways that might
contribute to air ingress (e.g. Mechanical collectors, ESPs, ID
fans).
• ASME PTC 19.10 provides guidelines for the number, location and
orientation of ductwork ports. A sketch indicating sampling
locations for 210 MW boiler ducts is shown below.
_________________________________________________________
8.7.4.3.2 Traverse Locations – Airside
The air inlet traverse plane should be located after any air heating coils
and
FG
E x p a n sio n
B e llo w
T e st P o r ts
E c o n o m iz e r
APH
S a m p lin g
L o c a tio n s
APH
FG
as close as possible to the air heater inlet. Since the entering air
temperature is usually uniform, a single probe with 2 or 3 temperature
measurement points is adequate.
• The air outlet traverse plane should be located at a suitable distance

downstream the air heater to allow mixing of the flow to reduce the gas
stratification.
_________________________________________________________
8.7.4.4 Ports and Probes
Typical Test Port and probe sketches are provided below.
Duct Insulation
Flue Gas 100 mm

Duct
50
mm
d/6 +i
1
2
3
4
d/2 +i
5/6 d+i
6 mm dia hole for thermocouple wire tip

circular stiffener plates
• Tubes numbered 1,2 & 3 are carbon steel 3/8” OD tubes and tube
no. 4 is carbon steel 12-15 mm OD
• Tubes numbered 1, 2 & 3 are for gas sampling while tube no. 4 is
for carrying thermocouple wires for temperature measurement.
• Tube no. 4 has 2 no. 6 mm dia hole for thermocouple wire tip
protrusion (made elliptical for ease in wire insertion)
• If d is flue gas duct width at the test cross-section then lengths of

tube 1, 2 & 3/4 from flange is d/6 +i, d/2+i, 5d/6 +i respectively
(i is the thickness of the insulation + flange).
• Tube protrusions beyond the flange are 80 mm for tube 1 and 120
mm for tube 2 & 150 mm for tubes 3 & 4 (approx.).
• The probe flanges match the port flanges.
_________________________________________________________
8.7.5 Data Collection
8.7.5.1 Control Room Data
A separate test log for control room data for parameters in Section 3.0 is
created in unit DAS for data collection at an interval of one minute and
averaged over the test period.
8.7.5.2 Flue Gas Composition & Temperature
A representative value of flue gas composition (O2 / CO2 /CO) is obtained

by grid sampling of the flue gas at multiple points in a plane
perpendicular to the flow at air heater inlet and outlet using a portable
gas analyser. Two complete sets of data are collected for each traverse
plane during each test run to ensure data repeatability.
A typical cross section of the flue gas duct with an 18-point grid is shown
here along with a typical probe. Each dot indicates a sampling point for
measurement of gas composition and temperature.
Flue gas samples are drawn by a vacuum pump from the test grid probes
and sent to a portable gas analyzer through a gas conditioning system.
Typically gas-conditioning system consists of a wash bottle, partially filled
with water for cleaning the gas sample, a condenser to condense the
water vapor out of the gas sample and a desiccant column to remove any
water vapor that got through the condenser.
Similarly, a representative value of temperature is obtained by grid

measurement of flue gas temperatures at multiple points in a plane
perpendicular to the flow at air heater inlet and outlet using multi point
probes.
A single tube probe with a portable analyzer can also be used for
traversing duct cross-section. Marking / etching is done on the sampling
tube at d/6, d/2 & 5d/6, if d is the duct depth. The probe is inserted in
each port & samples are drawn at different depths as per markings.
_________________________________________________________
Temperatures of flue gas are also measured at the same locations using a
similar single tube temperature probe.
8.7.5.3 Air Temperatures
Air temperatures at air heater inlet can be taken from online readings in
the control room. But air temperatures at air heater outlet can be
affected by stratification in the air ducts and need be measured using a
grid of probes.
8.7.5.4 Special Test Instruments
The portable analysers should be calibrated prior to the tests with

calibration gases. Purity grade Nitrogen should be used for ‘Zero’
calibration, while span calibration should be done with standard
calibration gases.
The instrument accuracy requirements are summarized in the following

table.
Measurement Resolution Accuracy

Static Pressure 2 mmWC 2 mmWC
Temperature 0.1 deg C 1.0 deg
Gas Analysers – O2 0.1% +/- 1.0%
- CO2 0.1% +/- 1.0%
- CO 1ppm +/- 2%
Calibration gases Range O2 Around 4%

CO2 14 – 16%
CO 100 to 200 ppm
A thermocouple (such as chromel–alumel) and digital thermometer
8.7.6 Air Heater Performance Indices
8.7.6.1 Air heater leakage is expressed as a percentage of gas flow entering

the air heater. It’s determined by following equation.
AL = (CO2 ge – CO2gl) x 0.9 x 100

CO2 gl
AL = air heater leakage

CO2ge = percent CO2 in gas entering air heater
CO2gl = percent CO2 in gas leaving air heater
_________________________________________________________
Alternatively, the air heater leakage may also be determined from the
following equation:
AL = (O2 gl – O2 ge) x 0.9 x 100

(21 - O2 gl)
AL = air heater leakage

O2ge = percent O 2 in gas entering air heater (2.8 %)
O2gl = percent O 2 in gas leaving air heater (5.7 %)
= 5.7 – 2.8 * 90
(21-5.7)
= 17.1 %
CO2 measurement is preferred due to high absolute values; In case of

any measurement errors, the resultant influence on leakage calculation is
small.
Air heater leakage dilutes the flue gas and lowers the as measured exit
gas temperatures. Gas outlet temperature corrected to no leakage
condition is calculated using the following formula.
Tgnl = AL x Cpa x (Tgl – Tae) + Tgl

100 x Cpg
Tgnl = gas outlet temperature corrected for no leakage

Cpa = the mean specific heat between Tae and Tgl
Tae = temperature of air entering air heater (36.1 C)
Tgl = temp of gas leaving air heater (133.8 C)
Cpg = mean specific heat between Tgl and Tgnl
Tgasnl = 17.1 * (133.8 – 36.1) + 133.8 = 150.5 C

100
8.7.6.2 Air heater gas side efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
temperature drop, corrected for leakage, to the temperature head,
expressed as a percentage. Temperature drop is obtained by subtracting
the corrected gas outlet temperature from the gas inlet temperature.
Temperature head is obtained by subtracting air inlet temperature from
the gas inlet temperature. The corrected gas outlet temperature is
defined as the outlet gas temperature calculated for ‘no air heater
leakage’.
Gas Side Efficiency GSE
= (Temp drop / Temperature head) * 100
GSE = Tge – Tgnl x 100

Tge - Tae
_________________________________________________________
Tae = Temperature of air entering air heater (36.1 C)

Tgnl = gas out temp corrected for no leakage (150.5 C)
GSE = (333.5-150.5) / (333.5-36.1) = 61.5 %
8.7.6.3 Air heater X-ratio is the ratio of heat capacity of air passing through
the air heater to the heat capacity of flue gas passing through the air
heater and is calculated using the following formulae
= Wair out * Cpa

Wgas in * Cpg
= Tgas in - Tgas out (no leakage)

Tair out - Tair in
= (333.5 – 150.5) / (288 –36.1) = 0.73

(AH leakage – 17.1%, Gas In Temp – 333.5 C, Gas Out Temp –
133.8 C , Air In Temp – 36.1 C, Air Out Temp – 288 C )
8.7.6.4 Flue gas temperature drop across air heater
The difference of flue gas temperatures at air heater inlet and outlet
8.7.6.5 Air side temperature rise
The difference of air temperatures at air heater inlet and outlet
8.7.6.6 Gas & Air side pressure drops
The difference of flue gas and air pressures at air heater inlet and outlet
Air & gas side pressure drops change approximately in proportion to the
square of the gas & air weights through the air heaters. If excess air is
greater than expected, the pressure drops will be greater than expected.
Also, any deposits / choking of the basket elements would lead to an
increase in pressure drops.
8.7.6.7 Quantification of Air Ingress from Flue gas ducts
Quantification of Air Ingress from flue gas ducts from air heater outlet to
ID fan outlet cross-section and intervening ESPs can be done by
measurement of oxygen percentage at ESP Inlet and ID fan Outlet.
Increase in oxygen percentage in the flue gas and drop in temperature of
the flue gas provide an indication of the increase in air ingress. Air
ingress from eroded ducts, openings, and expansion joints increases the
flue gas volume and leads to loss of draught margins.
The oxygen in flue gas at ESP inlet and ID fans’ outlet is measured
separately in each duct along with the air heater tests and compared to
the average oxygen in flue gas at air heater outlet. Air ingress
_________________________________________________________
quantification is done with the same formulae as those used for

calculation of AH leakage.
Air ingress = O2out - O2in * 0.9 * 100 = 6.5 - 5.7 * 90

(21- O2out) 21 - 6.5
= 4.96 %
AH Performance test report shall be as per format no 8.7.1
8.7.7 References
ASME PTC 4.3 Air Heaters

ASME PTC 19.10, Flue and Exhaust Gas Analysis
_________________________________________________________
AIR HEATER PERFORMANCE TEST REPORT-200 MW
Station: Unit : Test Date

S.N Results Units Design Last Test Current Test
AH A/B AH-A AH-B
1 Air Heater Leakage %
2 AH Gas Side Efficiency %
3 Air Heater X-Ratio ---
4 EGT-Corr to ref air temp and leakage C
5 AH to ID fan Approx. Duct Leakage %
Temperatures
1 Ambient Air C
2 Primary Air Inlet C
3 Secondary Air Inlet C
4 Primary Air Outlet C
5 Secondary Air Outlet C
6 Flue Gas Inlet C
7 Flue Gas Outlet C
8 EGT - Corr. for AH leakage C
9 EGT - Corr. for ref air inlet temp C
Average Oxygen in Flue Gas
10 AH Inlet %
11 AH Outlet %
12 ID fan Outlet %
DPs across AH
13 Primary Air Side mmwcl
14 Sec Air Side mmwcl
15 Gas Side mmwcl
Test Condition
1 Load MW
2 Coal Flow T/Hr
3 Total Air Flow T/Hr
4 Secondary Air Flow T/Hr
5 Mills In Service No.
6 FD Fan Current A
7 PA fan Current A
8 ID Fan Current A
Remarks
Format no-8.7.1
_________________________________________________________
CenPEEP ___ Air Heater Performance
AIR HEATER PERFORMANCE TEST REPORT – 500 MW

Station : Unit : Test Date :
Sl. Results Units Design Last Current Test Design Last Test Current Test
No. Test
PAPH PAPH-A PAPH-B SAPH SAPH-A SAPH-B
A/B A/B
1. Air Preheater Leakage %
2. APH Gas Side Efficiency %
3. Air Preheater X-Ratio --
4. EGT-Corr to ref air temp. and lkge C
Temperatures
1. Ambient Air C
2. AH Air Inlet C
3. AH Air Outlet C
4. Flue Gas Inlet C
5. Flue Gas Outlet C
6. EGT – Corr. for AH lkge C
7. EGT – Corr. for ref air inlet temp C
Avg. Oxygen in Flue Gas
8. AH Inlet %
9. AH Outlet %
DPs across AH
10 Gas Side mmwcl
11 Air Side mmwcl
Test Condition
1 Load MW
2. Coal Flow T/Hr
3. Total Air Flow T/Hr
4. Secondary Air Flow T/Hr
5. Mills in Service No.
6. FD Fan Current A
7. PA Fan current A
8. ID Fan Current A
Remarks
Format no. 8.7.2

CenPEEP Boiler Efficiency
8.8 BOILER EFFICIENCY TEST

8.8.1 Introduction
This procedure provides a systematic approach for conducting routine
boiler efficiency tests on pulverized coal fired units.
The result of this testing shall enable computation of Gross Boiler

Efficiency. This procedure is based on the abbreviated efficiency test,
offered in the ASME PTC 4 - 1998 and BS 2885 (1974). All the major
boiler efficiency losses are quantified and corrected to standard conditions
for comparison to design and previous test results
The test method employed by this procedure is based on the abbreviated

efficiency test by the loss method. The Loss Method determines the major
heat losses in a boiler as a percentage of total heat input. Boiler
efficiency, Beff, can be expressed as following.
Beff = (1 - L ) X 100 %
HHV + B
Where
L = the summation of the major heat losses
L = Ldg + Luc + Lmf + Lhf + Lco + Lma + Lun
Ldg - heat loss due to dry gas

Luc - heat loss due to combustibles in refuse
Lmf - heat loss due to moisture in the fuel
Lhf - heat loss due to moisture of burning hydrogen
Lco - heat loss due to carbon monoxide
Lma - heat loss due to moisture in air
Lun - heat loss due to radiation and Unaccounted
losses
HHV - Higher heating Value of coal kcal/kg

B - Summation of Heat Credits kcal/kg
Unaccounted losses typically include sensible heat loss with fly ash and
bottom ash, radiation loss through bottom ash hopper, coal mill reject
loss etc. These are not measured in routine efficiency tests and a fixed
value as defined by boiler manufacturer is used for calculations of boiler
efficiency.
Heat Credits typically include credits due to energy supplied by boiler

auxiliaries like fans, pulverisers and boiler circulating pumps. In our
computations, individual heat losses are computed relative to a reference
temperature defined as the temperature of the combustion air entering
the air heaters. This reference air temperature is taken as temperature of
_________________________________________________________
air entering the air heaters or in case of 500 MW units, weighted average
of air temperatures at inlet of Primary and Secondary air heaters. So we
need not take consider credits for fan power in our computations.
But heat credits for pulverisers and boiler circulating pumps need to be
subtracted from test boiler efficiency for comparison to the design. If the
boiler test has been conducted with the same number of mills and boiler
circulating pumps in service as envisaged in design, a fixed value as per
design / acceptance test can be used.
The losses are corrected to standard design conditions for comparison to

design and previous test results. The individual heat loss calculations and
corrections to design conditions are appended as Annexure 1.
Air heater tests should preferably be carries out along with boiler test, as
many field and control room measurements are common to both the
tests.
8.8.2 Objectives
The Objectives of the routine boiler efficiency test are as follows.
1. To determine current operating efficiency of Boiler and calculate

operating & corrected losses
2. To provide information for performance analysis & identify the

causes of performance degradation, if any
8.8.3 Parameters required for Efficiency Computation
Proximate Coal Analysis – ‘As Fired’ Units
Moisture %
Ash %
Volatile Matter %
Fixed Carbon %
Gross Calorific Value kcal/kg
Parameters
Avg. Flue Gas O2 - AH Out %
Avg. Flue Gas CO2 - AH Out %
Avg. Flue Gas CO - AH Out ppm
_________________________________________________________
Proximate Coal Analysis – ‘As Fired’ Units

Avg. Flue Gas Temp - AH In C
Avg. Flue Gas Temp - AH Out C
Avg. Primary Air to AH Temp In C

Avg. Primary Air from AH Temp Out C
Avg. Secondary Air to AH Temp In C

Avg. Secondary Air from AH Temp Out C
Total Secondary Air Flow T/hr

Total Primary Air Flow T/hr
Design Ambient / Ref Air Temp C
Wet Bulb Temp C

Dry bulb Temp C
Barometric Pressure mmHgC
Unburnt C in Bottom Ash %

Unburnt C in Flyash %
% of Flyash to Total Ash %
% of Bottom ash to Total Ash %
8.8.4.1 Test Set up - Operating Conditions of Test Runs
Test runs are conducted at defined optimum baseline settings for each
unit based on station experience. All tests are to be conducted at full load
at the optimum set of operating parameters to the extent possible. The
operating conditions for each test run are as follows.
1. Furnace wall blowers and the air heater soot blowers are operated
prior to the efficiency test.
_________________________________________________________
2. The soot blowing cycle is completed at least an hour before testing

to ensure roughly the same level of furnace cleanliness in all the
tests.
3. No furnace or air heater soot blowing is done during the test.
4. Unit operation is kept steady for atleast 60 minutes prior to the

test.
5. Main Steam pressure and temperature and Reheat Steam

temperature are set as close to design values as possible.
6. Steam coil Air heaters’ (SCAPH) steam supply is kept isolated and
gas re-circulation dampers if any, are tightly shut.
7. Auxiliary PRDS steam flow from the unit being tested is kept
isolated.
8. Continuous Blow-down, Intermittent Blow-down is not operated

during the test.
9. No mill change over is done during the test.
10. The test is abandoned in case of any oil support during the test
period.
11. Bottom ash hopper de-ashing is done prior to the test stabilization
period.
12. Economiser hopper de-ashing or Bottom hopper de-ashing is not

done during the test.
8.8.4.2 Test Duration
Each test would be of two-hour duration, subject to the completion of

measurement and sampling at various locations.
8.8.4.3 Field Measurements / Sampling
The following field measurements / sampling are done simultaneously

during the boiler test.
1) Flue Gas Composition (O2 / CO2 /CO) & Temperature - Air Heater
Outlet
2) Ambient air-conditions using psychrometer
_________________________________________________________
3) ‘As fired’ coal sample from feeder inlet chutes of all running
feeders
4) Flyash Sample for unburnt carbon from ESP hoppers
5) Bottomash Sample for unburnt carbon from ash hoppers / grinders
8.8.4.4 Air Heater Outlet - Flue Gas Composition & Temperature
The test ports in flue gas duct at AH outlet are made as per ASME PTC
19.10 for a grid measurement. The number of measurement points would
vary with duct configuration and size.
FG
Expansion
Bellow
Test Ports
Economizer
APH
Sampling
Locations
APH
FG
The gas outlet traverse plane is located as far downstream from the air
heater as possible, to allow mixing of the flow to reduce temperature and
02 stratification. However, it should not be located downstream of other
equipment or access ways that might contribute to air ingress (e.g.
Mechanical collectors, ESPs, manholes, or ID fans).
Multi-point probes as shown in following sketch are used to form a grid at

Air heater outlet location. In 500 MW units, the flue gas sampling and
temperature measurement should be done in the common flue gas
duct of Primary and Secondary air heater outlet on each side.
_________________________________________________________
Typical Test Port and probe sketches are provided below.
Duct Insulation
100 mm
Flue Gas
Duct
50
mm
d/6 +i
1
2
3
4
d/2 +i
5/6 d+i
6 mm dia hole for thermocouple wire tip

circular stiffener plates
• Tubes numbered 1,2 & 3 are carbon steel 3/8” OD tubes and tube
no. 4 is carbon steel 12-15 mm OD
• Tubes numbered 1, 2 & 3 are for gas sampling while tube no. 4 is
for carrying thermocouple wires for temperature measurement.
• Tube no. 4 has 2 no. 6 mm dia hole for thermocouple wire tip
protrusion (made elliptical for ease in wire insertion)
• If d is flue gas duct width at the test cross-section then lengths of

tube 1, 2 & 3/4 from flange is d/6 +i, d/2+i, 5d/6 +i respectively
(i is the thickness of the insulation + flange).
• Tube protrusions beyond the flange are 80 mm for tube 1 and 120
mm for tube 2 & 150 mm for tubes 3 & 4 (approx.).
• The probe flanges should match the port flanges.
A single tube probe can also be used for traversing duct cross-section if
multi point probes are not available. Marking / etching is done on the
sampling tube at d/6, d/2 & 5d/6, if d is the duct depth. The probe is
inserted in each port & samples are drawn at different depths as per
_________________________________________________________
markings. Temperatures of flue gas are also measured at the same

locations using a similar single tube temperature probe.
A representative value of flue gas composition (O2 / CO2 /CO) is obtained
by grid sampling of the flue gas at multiple points in a plane
perpendicular to the flow at air heater inlet and outlet using a portable
gas analyser. Two complete sets of data are collected for each traverse
plane during each test run to ensure data repeatability.
A typical cross section of the flue gas duct with an 18-point grid is shown
here along with a typical probe. Each dot indicates a sampling point for
measurement of gas composition and temperature.
A B C D E F
Flue gas samples are drawn by a vacuum pump from the test grid probes
and sent to a portable gas analyzer through a gas conditioning system.
Gas-conditioning system consists of a wash bottle, partially filled with
water for cleaning the gas sample, a condenser to condense the water
vapor out of the gas sample and a desiccant column to remove any water
vapor that got through the condenser.
8.8.4.5 Ambient air-conditions using psychrometer
Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb temperature measurement is done using a

calibrated psychrometer near FD fan inlet at the start of the test and at
the end of the test and an average is computed for the test period.
8.8.4.6 ‘As fired’ Coal Sampling
A representative as fired coal sample is essential for evaluation of boiler

efficiency. The coal quality is likely to fluctuate during the test period due
to change in supply and bunkering. It is therefore necessary to take
sufficient sample to ensure a representative as fired coal sample.
_________________________________________________________
Coal sample are to be taken at the inlet to the pulveriser either from
feeder inlet or feeder outlet from a sampling port. Coal sample are to be
taken at an interval of every 15 minutes from each mill in service.
Standard coal sampling scoop should be used, so that top size of as fired
sample can be collected. Samples are to be collected in bags with plastic
liners. Minimum of 20kg gross sample thus collected to be reduced to 1kg
(-212 micron size) analysis sample by repeated crushing and coning &
quartering.
This sample is used for air dried proximate (Moisture, Ash, VM, FC)
analysis and GCV analysis in chemical lab.
TOTAL MOISTURE
For total moisture analysis, a separate moisture sample of coal sample is

collected from each running mill using the scoop. During moisture
sampling initial one scoop should be discarded then two scoops should be
collected from each mill in service and placed in an air tight bag and
sealed to retain moisture. Total moisture of as fired sample is then
determined as per ASTM D2013, as shown in figure below.
_________________________________________________________
TOTAL MOISTURE DETERMINATION
_________________________________________________________
Once total moisture is determined proximate analysis and GCV values are
converted to total moisture basis by using multiplication factor X
X = (100 – Total moisture)

(100 – Air dried moisture)
Results obtained on total moisture basis thus gives proximate and GCV of
as fired coal. These analysis values are subsequently used for further
computation of ultimate analysis and Boiler efficiency loss components.
8.8.4.7 Fly ash Sampling
Fly ash samples for determination of ‘Unburnt carbon in fly ash’ are
collected from hoppers of the ESP fields. Two incremental samples, both
from the hoppers on left side and right side of ESP are collected
separately and sent to labs for analysis.
A convenient method for representative fly ash sampling during the test
involves removing fly ash from the gas stream using a High Volume
sampling probe at economizer outlet on both sides of the boiler. The flue
gas is sucked using an air aspirator and passed through a cylinder
containing filter paper that catches the fly ash in collection canister. One
probe is traversed on either side simultaneously during the test and fly
ash sample is collected separately from left and right side.
8.8.4.8 Bottom Ash Sampling
In case of scrappers incremental bottom ash sample from scrapper

system is collected during the test.
In case of impounded hoppers, ash sample is collected after completion

of the test from the Ash Slurry discharge end using a cup type probe.
Incremental samples are collected from each of the disposal line till the
flushing is complete to form a gross sample.
Parameters required for computing Boiler Efficiency include the following.
a) Average flue gas composition (O2 / CO2 / CO) at AH flue gas out
b) Average flue gas temperature at Air heater inlet and outlet
c) Average Primary / Secondary air temp at air heater inlet
d) Average Total Airflow / Secondary Air Flow
e) Dry / Wet bulb temperatures
_________________________________________________________
f) Ambient pressure bar a
g) Proximate Analysis & GCV of Coal
h) Combustibles in Bottom Ash and Fly ash
Apart from the Field Measurements as per Section 4.3 a separate test log
for control room data is created in unit DAS for data collection at an
interval of five minutes or less and averaged over the test period.
8.8.5 Computation of Results
The following losses are calculated for computation of boiler efficiency. A

typical calculation of the losses is enclosed as Annexure I.
Ldg - heat loss due to dry gas

Luc - heat loss due to combustibles in refuse
Lmf - heat loss due to moisture in the fuel
Lhf - heat loss due to moisture of burning
hydrogen
Lco - heat loss due to carbon monoxide
Lma - heat loss due to moisture in air
All the losses and the boiler efficiency are to be corrected using the
design values of coal and design ambient conditions. The formulae & a
set of typical computations are provided in Annexure I.
A formal report including the test conditions, test results, any unusual
findings and recommendations is prepared for every test. A typical format
is enclosed as Annexure II.
8.8.6 References
BS 2885 – September 1974

ASME PTC 4 – 1998, Fired Steam Generators
ASME PTC 19.10, Flue and Exhaust Gas Analysis
_________________________________________________________
Annexure 1
Boiler Efficiency Test - Typical Efficiency Computation

Inputs
Units Symbol Value
Unit Load MW L 210
Steam Flow T/hr Ffw 615
Wet Bulb Temp C Wb 24
Dry bulb Temp C Db 30
Barometric Pressure mmHgC BP 760
Total Coal Flow T/hr Fin 140
Unburnt C in Bottom Ash % Cba 1.2
Unburnt C in Flysash % Cfa 0.4
Radiation & Unaccounted Loss % Lrad 1.2
% of Flyash to Total Ash % Pfa 80
% of Bottom ash to Total Ash % Pba 20
Proximate - As Fired
Moisture % M 12.2
Ash % A 40
Volatile Matter % VM 22.9
Fixed Carbon % FC 24.9
Gross Calorific Value kcal/kg Gcv 3320
Sulfur % S 0.6
Avg. Flue Gas O2 - APH In (optional) % O2in 3.5

Avg. Flue Gas CO2 - APH In (optional) % CO2in 15.8
Avg. Flue Gas CO - APH In (optional) ppm COin 39
Avg. Flue Gas O2 - APH Out % O2out 5
Avg. Flue Gas CO2 - APH Out % CO2out 14.3
Avg. Flue Gas CO - APH Out ppm COout 50
Avg. Flue Gas Temp - APH In C Tgi 350
Avg. Flue Gas Temp - APH Out C Tgo 135
Primary Air to APH Temp In C Tpai 40
Primary Air from APH Temp Out C Tpao 325
Secondary Air to APH Temp In C Tsai 34
Secondary Air from APH Temp Out C Tsao 325
Total Secondary Air Flow T/hr Fsa 450
Total Primary Air Flow T/hr Fpa 250
Design Ambient / Ref Air Temp C Tref 30
Mills in service No. --- ABCD
FW inlet temperature C --- 240
_________________________________________________________
Sample Computations
Losses - Test Conditions Unit Symbol Value

Ultimate Analysis - As Fired
FREE CARBON ON DRY ASH FREE BASIS =
FC/(1-(1.1*A/100)-M/100) FcDc 56.78
VOLATILE MATTER ON DRY ASH FREE
BASIS = 100-FcDc VmDf 43.22
FIXED CARBON ON DRY ASH FREE BASIS =
FcDc+0.9*(VmDf-14) Cdf 83.08
HYDROGEN ON DRY ASH FREE BASIS =
VmDf*(((7.35/(VmDf+10))-0.013)) Hdf 5.41
NITROGEN ON DRY ASH FREE BASIS = 2.1-
(0.012*VmDf) Ndf 1.58
k = (VM+FC)/(VmDf+FcDc) k 0.48
Carbon = Cdf*k % Ca 39.71
Sulfur % S 0.6
Hydrogen = Hdf*k % H 2.58
Moisture % M 12.2
Nitrogen = Ndf*k % N 0.76
Oxygen = 100-Ca-S-H-M-N-A % O 4.15
Ash % A 40
Gross Calorific Value kcal/kg Gcv 3320
Dry Gas Loss

= Sh*100/(Gcv*4.186) % Ldg 5.04
Carbon in fuel % Ca 39.71

Sulfur in fuel % S 0.6
Carbon in ash / kg of fuel kg/kg coal U 0.0023
Specific heat of gas kg/kg/C Cp 30.6
Unburnt C in ash = Pfa/100*Cfa +
Pba/100*Cba % Cash 0.56
Cin ash / kg of coal = A/100*Cash/(100-
Cash) kg U 0.0023
Total air flow = SA + PA flow T/hr Fta 700

Ratio SA flow to Total Air flow=Fsa/Fta % Rsa 0.64
Ratio PA flow to Total Air flow=Fpa/Fta % Rpa 0.36
_________________________________________________________
Weighted Temp Air In = Tsai*Rsa +

Tpai*Rpa C Trai 36.1
Weighted Temp Air Out = Tsao*Rsa +
Tpao*Rpa C Tao 325

Gross CV kcal/kg Gcv 3320
Weight of dry gas = (Ca+S/2.67-
100*U)/(12*CO2out) kg/kg coal Wd 0.231
Sensible Heat dry gas = Wd*30.6(Tgo-Trai) kJ/kg Sh 700.04
Loss due to Unburnt Carbon

= U*CVc*100/Gcv % Luc 0.55
Carbon in Ash / kg of coal kg/kg coal U 0.002
CV of Carbon kcal/kg CVc 8077.8
Loss due to moisture in fuel

= Sw*M/(Gcv*4.186) % Lmf 2.284
Moisture in Fuel % M 12.2
Weighted Temp Air - APH In C Tai 36.1
Gross CV kcal/kg Gcv 3320.0
Sensible heat of water vapour Sw =
1.88*(Tgo-25)+2442+4.2*(25-Trai) kJ/kg Sw 2602

=9*H*Sw/(Gcv*4.186) % Lhf 4.36
Hydrogen in fuel % H 2.58
Loss due to Carbon monoxide

= COoutp*7*Cvco*(Ca-100*U) /3 /
(CO2out+Cooutp) / Gcv % Lco 0.023
Avg. Flue Gas CO - APH Out % Cooutp 0.005
CV of Carbon Monoxide kcal/kg CVco 2415
Loss due to moisture in air

= Ma*1.88*(Tgo-Trai)*100/(Gcv*4.186) % Lma 0.152
_________________________________________________________

Hydrogen in fuel % H 2.58
Sulfur in fuel % S 0.6
Oxygen in fuel % O 4.148
Moisture in Air kg/kg Mwv 0.017
Ref. air temp C Trai 36.14
Avg. Flue Gas N2 - APH Out = 100 -
(O2out-CO2out-Cooutp) % N2out 80.7
Stoichiometric air = (2.66*(C-
U*100)+7.937*H+0.996*S-O)/23.2 kg/kg coal Sa 5.26
Excess Air = 1+[(O2out-
Cooutp/2)]/[0.2682*N-(O2out-Cooutp)] Ea 1.30
Total Moisture in air = Sa*Ea*Mwv % Ma 0.114
Design Conditions Unit Symbol Value
Proximate - As Fired
Moisture % Md 13
Ash % Ad 40
Volatile Matter % VMd 24
Fixed Carbon % FCd 23
Ultimate Analysis - As Fired

Carbon % Cd 37
Sulfur % Sd 0.3
Hydrogen % Hd 2.3
Moisture % Md 12
Nitrogen % Nd 0.8
Oxygen % Od 7.6
Ash % Ad 40
Gross Calorific Value kcal/kg Gcvd 3300
Ambient Temperature C Tadd 30
Relative Humidity RH 60
Gas Temp Leaving AH - Corr to

Reference air temperature
Ambient Temp - test C Tad 30
Ambient Temp - design C Tadd 30
_________________________________________________________
Ref. Air Temp - test C Trai 36.1

Ref. Air Temp - design = Design Eqv. AH Air
inlet temp C Trad 38.00
Gas Temp entering AH - test C Tgi 350
Gas Temp leaving AH - test C Tgo 135
Gas Temp leaving AH (Corr) C Tgc 136.27
=(Trad*(Tgi-Tgo)+Tgi*(Tgo-Trai)) / (Tgi-
Trai)
Losses - Corrected to Design

Dry Gas Loss
=Shc*100/Gcvd/4.186 % Ldgc 4.679
Carbon in fuel % Cd 37
Sulfur in fuel % Sd 0.3
Specific heat of gas kg/kg/C Cp 30.6
Avg. Flue Gas Temp - APH Out C Tgc 136.27
Ref Air Temp - design C Trad 38.00
Gross CV kcal/kg Gcvd 3300
Weight of dry gas = (Cd+Sd/2.67-
100*U)/(12*CO2out) kg/kg coal Wdc 0.2150
Sensible Heat dry gas = Wdc*30.6(Tgc-
Trad) kJ/kg Shc 646.41
Loss due to Unburnt Carbon - Corrected

= Luc* [(Ad * Gcv) / (A * Gcvd)] +V Lucc 0.551399
V = 0 (where volatile matter of fuel > 17
%)
If the volatile matter < 17 % then
V = .013 * [(Ad * Gcv) / (A * Gcvd)] * Kc V 0.073212
Kc = Exp [0.225 * Cd/Hd] – Exp [0.225
Ca/Ht] Kc 5.59774
Volatile Matter - test % VM 22.93

Volatile Matter – design % VMd 24
Ash –test % A 40
_________________________________________________________
Ash –design % Ad 40
Test Unburnt Carbon Loss Luc 0.55

(Corrected)
= Sw*Md/(Gcvd*4.186) % Lmfc 2.256
Moisture in Fuel - design % Md 12

Avg. Flue Gas Temp - APH Out (corr) C Tgc 136.27
Ref Air temp – design C Trad 38.00
Gross CV – design kcal/kg Gcvd 3300
Sensible heat of water vapour Sw =
1.88*(Tgc-25)+2442+4.2*(25-Trad) kJ/kg Swd 2596.592

=9*Hd*Swd/(Gcvd*4.186) % Lhfc 3.891
Hydrogen in fuel - design % Hd 2.3

= Cooutp*7*Cvco*(Cd-100*U) /3 /
(CO2out+Cooutp) / Gcvd % Lcoc 0.022

Avg. Flue Gas CO – APH Out % Cooutp 0.005
Carbon in fuel – design % Cd 37
CV of Carbon Monoxide kcal/kg CVco 2415
Gross CV – design kcal/kg Gcv 3300

= Mad*1.88*(Tgc-Trad)*100/(Gcvd*4.186) % Lmac 0.106
Carbon in fuel – design % Cd 37

Hydrogen in fuel - design % Hd 2.3
Sulfur in fuel - design % Sd 0.3
Oxygen in fuel – design % Od 7.6
_________________________________________________________
Gross CV - design kcal/kg cvd 3300

Moisture in Air (from Psychrometric Chart) kg/kg Mwvd 0.013
Ref.air temp - design C Trad 38
Avg. Flue Gas Temp - APH Out (Corr) C Tgc 136.27
Avg. Flue Gas N2 - APH Out = 100 -
(O2out-CO2out-Cooutp) % N2out 80.7
Stoichiometric air = (2.66*(Cd-
U*100)+7.937*Hd+0.996*Sd-Od)/23.2 kg/kg coal Sad 4.69
Excess Air = 1+[(O2out-
Cooutp/2)]/[0.2682*N2out-(O2out-
Cooutp)] Ead 1.30
Total Moisture in air = Sad*Ead*Mwvd % Mad 0.0792
_________________________________________________________
CenPEEP __________________________ Boiler Efficiency
Boiler Efficiency Test Report (Annexure II)

1 Unit Load MW 210 4 Coal Flow T/hr 140
2 Steam Flow T/hr 615 5 Mills in service Nos. ABCD
3 Air flow T/hr 700 6 FW inlet temperature C 240
Flue Gas analysis Avg. Air Temperatures
1 AH Inlet O2 L/R (UCB) % 3 8 Design air inlet temp C 30
2 AH Inlet O2 L/R (Local) % 3.2 9 Dry Bulb Temperature C 30
3 AH outlet Avg. O2 % 5 10 Wet Bulb Temperature C 24
4 AH outlet Avg. CO2 % 14.3 11 PAPH Air inlet Temp C 40
5 AH outlet Avg. CO ppm 50 12 SAPH Air inlet Temp C 34
6 PAPH-A/B Gas O/L Temp C 140 13 PAPH Air outlet Temp C 325
7 SAPH-A/B Gas O/L Temp C 130 14 SAPH Air Outlet Temp C 325
Coal - Proximate Analysis Unburned C in ashes
1 Moisture % 12.2 6 Unburnt C in bottom ash % 1.2
2 Ash % 40 7 Unburnt C in fly ash % 0.4
3 Volatile Matter % 22.93
4 Fixed Carbon % 24.87
5 GCV kcal/kg 3320
Current Test Value Last Test
S.N Heat Losses (%) Design Uncorrected Value Corrected Value Value
1 Dry Gas Loss % 4.8 5.04 4.68 5

2 Loss due to Unburnt Carbon % 0.5 0.55 0.55 0.5
3 Loss due to moisture in fuel % 2 2.28 2.26 2.5
4 Loss due to Hydrogen in Fuel % 3.2 4.36 3.89 3
5 Loss due to Carbon monoxide % 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
6 Loss due to moisture in air % 0.11 0.15 0.11 0.11
7 Radiation & unaccounted Loss % 1.2 1.20 1.20 1.2
8 BOILER EFFICIENCY % 88.17 86.40 87.29 87.67
__________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Deaerator Drop Test
8.9 DEAERATOR DROP TEST
8.9.1 Introduction
In a Power Plant system water & steam leakage plays a important role in
efficient operation of a power plant. Normally Unit runs with makeup
valve open condition to maintain system requirement. System leakages
are noticed only when leakages are high and but valve passing remains
unattended till it become uncontrollable.
8.9.2 Objective
The purpose of this test is to estimate system Water & steam Loss and
calculate Heat rate impact due to loss of water & steam.
8.9.3 Test procedure
This method determines the level drop in deaerator when unit is operated
in steady conditions at constant load with feed water heaters in service at
normal cascading.

Condenser and Drum Level should be normal during the test.
i. Unit Load Control on manual mode and Steady

ii. Main Steam and Reheat Steam Temperatures at Current Expected
Value
iii. All Feed water Heaters in Service, Normal Drain cascading,
iv. No Auxiliary Steam supply to Other Units.
v. No Soot Blowing.
vi. No DM make up
vii. The Test Engineer is responsible for ensuring that the unit has
reached steady state before beginning a test data collection
i. Form a data group in the DAS for Data collection during the
test
data collection.
_________________________________________________________

rate of DAS.
8.9.3.3 Dearerator Drop Calculation
Deaerator
y
F
NWL
H
L
Total length : F
Length of disshed end : H
Straight Length : L
Diameter of Tank : D
Dearerator Level in the Start of the Test from NWL : H1
Dearerator Level in the End of the Test from NWL : H2
Density of Fluid : d
Test Duration in Minutes : t
Height of NWL from tank Centre Line : y
Slant height : S
Rate of level drop : Qm
Initial level (h1) : H1+D/2+y
Final Level (h2) : H2+D/2+y
Level Change (dh) : h1-h2
Mean Level (h mean) : (h1+h2)/2-D/2
Equivalent Length (L’) : L+2(2/3)H
Slant height (S) : 2 X ((D/2)2 – hmean2)1/2
Rate of level drop ( Qm) : (L’ x S x dh x d x 60)/(t x1000)
_________________________________________________________
8.9.3.4 Sample Calculation
Station: Unit No: Test Date:

TEST
S.N PARAMETER UNITS VALUE
1 Unit Load MW 500
2 Main Steam Flow t/hr 1544.0
3 Hot well Level in the start of the test mm 11.81
4 Hot well Level in the end of the test mm 11.81
5 Deaerator Level in the start the test from NWL, H1 mm -32.78
6 Deaerator Level in the end of the test from NWL, H2 mm -104.20
7 Time Interval hrs 1.37
8 Make Up reading (Or passing if any) t/hr 0.0
CALCULATIONS:
mm
9 y (Dist between centre line & Normal level) 610.0
mm
10 D (Diameter of D/A) 3600.0
mm
11 h1 ( D/2+y+H1) 2377.2
mm
12 h2 ( D/2+y+H2) 2305.8
mm
13 dh (h1-h2) 71.4
mm
14 h mean (h1+h2-D)/2 541.5
mm
15 Slant Height, S 3433.2
mm
16 L (Dist between centers of two hemi-spheres) 26428.0
17 Make Up (Qm) t/hr 4.28
18 Make Up % 0.28
8.9.3.5 HR Loss Calculation:

For comparing heat rate loss due to DM make up, make up is to be
divided into 50:50 ratio as 50% steam side leakage and 50 % water
leakage of total % of DM water loss.
Heat Value of make up, H (Dev) = 0.5*(E1 - E2) + 0.5* (E3 - E2)
HR (Dev) = [Qm*H(Dev)*1000] / (GG)
Where
DM Loss Rate = Qm tones
MS enthalpy = E1 kcal/kg
Makeup water enthalpy = E2 kcal/kg
Feed water enthalpy = E3 kcal/kg
Gross generation = GG kWh
Heat Rate Deviation = HR(Dev) kcal/kWh
8.9.4 References
BHEL PG Test Procedure
_________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Turbine Driven Boiler Feed Pump
8.10 TURBINE DRIVEN BOILER FEED PUMP
8.10.1 Introduction
This procedure provides a systematic method for measuring pump
performance on a routine basis to determine current performance level.
The important performance indices of boiler feed pump/turbine are pump
capacity, total dynamic head (TDH) at rated speed, and relative
pump/turbine set efficiency.
8.10.2 Objective
The objective of this test to reliably detect the general condition of the
boiler feed pump/turbine and to know the changes in equipment condition
and operating efficiencies. Information is developed to determine if a
problem exists in the turbine, the pump, or both. In addition, pump
performance, relative to one another, is determined.
i. Pump Capacity at Rated Speed is compared to design capacity.
ii. Total Dynamic Head at Rated Speed is compared to design

capacity.
iii. Feed water temperature rise across pump casing is measured and
compared to design and previous test results.
iv. Turbine available energy is determined as functions of measured

steam flow, initial throttle steam conditions, and exhaust pressure.
The turbine available energy should be corrected to rated pump
speed.
v. Pump/Turbine set efficiency is computed by considering the pump

and turbine as a single component and dividing the pump power
output by the turbine available energy. A corrected pump/turbine
set efficiency is calculated by substituting appropriate values for
pump capacity and TDH at rated speed.

Manual Data Collection
i. Pump Speed is measured and recorded at least once every 5

minutes
ii. Boiler Feed Pump turbine first stage pressure is measured and
recorded at least once every 5 minutes.
DAS Data Collection
iii. Boiler Feed Pump 1A Steam Flow
iv. Boiler Feed Pump 1B Steam Flow

_________________________________________________________
Energy & Efficiency Management system Page 8.10-1
v. Boiler Feed Pump Inlet Steam Pressure
vi. Boiler Feed Pump Inlet Steam Temperature
vii. Boiler Feed Pump Exhaust Temperature
viii. Boiler Feed Pump FW Discharge Pressure
ix. Boiler Feed Pump FW Discharge Temperature
x. Boiler Feed Pump FW Suction Pressure
xi. Boiler Feed Pump FW Suction Temperature
xii. Boiler Feed Pump FW Suction Flow
8.10.4 Data Collection
Test Duration —30 minutes.
Data collection should be as per the data collection capability of DAS. But
preferably every 1 minute.
8.10.5 Test set up
i. During the pump test, the following should be isolated
• Main steam supply to the boiler feed pump turbine
• Auxiliary steam supply to the boiler feed pump turbine
• Boiler feed pump minimum flow recirculation line
• Reheat sprays
• Pump warm-up lines
iii. The pump to be tested should be kept in manual with the other
pump on auto to meet the requirement of feed water control.
iv. Steam Conditions—At the turbine stop valves should be at Design

level
• Main Steam Temperature
• Main Steam Pressure
• Reheat Steam Temperature:
v. Feed water Heaters in service.
vi. Steady-State Operation to be achieved before the test.
_________________________________________________________
8.10.6 Calculation & Analysis
8.10.6.1 Pump Efficiency, ηpump

Pump efficiency is the ratio of useful power output to shaft power
whp
η pump = × 100%
bhp
Where, ηpump Pump efficiency, %

whp Pump power output, water horsepower
bhp Pump power input, brake horsepower
8.10.6.2 Pump Power Output (whp)

whp is the product of fluid mass flow and TDH. It can be determined
from measurements of pump capacity, and pressures and temperatures
at the pump suction and discharge. Either an electric motor or a steam
turbine normally provides power input to the pump shaft.
8.10.6.3 Power input (bhpturb)
bhp of a steam turbine is the product of throttle flow and enthalpy-drop

through the steam turbine.
 η cpl  wthr (hthr − hexh )

bhpturb =  
 100  632.45
Where, ηcpl Mechanical coupling efficiency, %
bhpturb Turbine power output, brake horsepower
Wthr Turbine throttle flow, kg/hr
hthr Turbine throttle enthalpy, kcal/kg
hexh Turbine exhaust enthalpy, kcal/kg
Enthalpy Drop, hthr & hexh can be determined from pressure and
temperature measurements.
Reduction in turbine efficiency requires that additional steam be extracted
to provide the same power output. In this case, the performance of the
pump is unchanged, and the capacity and the TDH at rated conditions
should be normal. In addition, a reduction in pump efficiency requires
that additional steam be extracted to raise pump speed to match the
system head requirement. In this case, pump capacity and TDH at rated
conditions will be lower than normal.
When considering pump performance, test results must be corrected to a
standard condition for comparison. This can be done by using following
formulae.
Q1 n
= 1
Q2 n2
_________________________________________________________
2
H1  n1 
= 
H 2  n 2 
3
P1  n1 
= 
P2  n 2 
Where, n1,2 Pump speed, rpm

Q1,2 Pump capacity, m3/hr
H1,2 Pump head, m
P1,2 Pump power input, bhp
Suffix 1: Stands for Test Condition
Suffix 2: Stands for Rated Condition
The following performance indices are determined when measuring
performance of the boiler feed pumps and turbines:
8.10.6.4 Feed water Temperature Rise across Pump Casing
As pump efficiency decreases, additional heat is added to the pumped

fluid, increasing its temperature. (Temperature >1ºF per 5% efficiency
loss)
8.10.6.5 Turbine Available Energy, TAEbfpt
The energy available to the turbine can be calculated by taking into

account steam flow, and initial and exhaust conditions. The turbine
available energy is calculated as
TAEbfpt = Wbfpt (hthr − hexhi )

Where, TAEbfpt Turbine available energy, kcal/hr
Wthr Throttle flow, kg/hr
hthr Throttle enthalpy, kcal/kg
hexhi Ideal exhaust enthalpy, kcal/kg
It assumes an isentropic or 100% efficient turbine. This assumption is

reasonable considering that a relative and not absolute indication of
pump power input is desired, and that the efficiency of a condensing
drive turbine is virtually constant within a range of operating speeds that
varies with turbine power rating.
8.10.6.6 Pump/Turbine Set Efficiency, ηset

Pump/turbine condition may be determined by considering the pump and
turbine as a single component.
_________________________________________________________
whp
η set = × 100%
632.45TAEbfpt
Where, η set Pump/turbine set efficiency, %
whp Pump power output, whp
TAEbfpt Turbine available energy, kcal/hr
This is used to compute a corrected pump/turbine set efficiency by

computing pump power output using corrected capacity and TDH. The
turbine available energy, TAEbfpt, is corrected. A trend of corrected
pump/turbine set efficiency with time is useful for identifying changes in
equipment performance. When considered in combination with pump
performance, corrected TDH and capacity, it can determine if a reduction
in performance has occurred within the turbine or the pump.
8.10.7 Calculation of Results
8.10.7.1 Pump Capacity

The test pump capacity is calculated as shown below.
Ws
Qt = ρs
Where, Qt Pump test capacity, m3/hr

Ws Pump suction flow, kg/hr
ρ s Water density at pump suction, kg/m3
8.10.7.1.1 Pump Capacity at Rated Speed
Pump capacity at rated speed is calculated as shown below.
n 
Q rs = Q t  t 
 nr 
Where, Qrs Pump capacity at rated speed, m3/hr
Qt Pump test capacity, m3/hr
nt Pump test speed, rpm
nr Pump rated speed, rpm
8.10.7.2 Pump Discharge Head

Pump discharge head is calculated as shown below.
Pd V
2
hd = + Zd + d + h f
ρd 2gc
Where, hd Pump discharge head, m H2O

Pd Pump discharge pressure, kg/m2
ρd Water density at pump discharge conditions, kg/m3
Zd Vertical distance between gauge & pump , m
Vd Average water velocity at discharge, m/sec
gc Gravitational acceleration, m/sec2
hf Piping head loss, m H2O
_________________________________________________________
(Piping head loss may be taken negligible if pressure gauge is located in

close proximity to the pump discharge.)
Water velocity at pump discharge is calculated as shown below.
 ρ  Q t 
Vd =  s 
 ρd  900π D d 
2
Where, ρd Water density at pump discharge, kg/m3

ρs Water density at pump suction, kg/m3
π 3.14159
Dd Internal pipe diameter at discharge pressure tap, m
8.10.7.3 Pump Suction Head
Pump suction head is calculated as shown below.
2
Ps Vs
hs = + Zs + − hf
ρs 2gc
Where, hs Pump suction head, m H2O

Ps Pump suction pressure, kg/m2
Zs Vertical distance between gauge and
horizontal centerline of pump discharge
flange, m
Vs Average water velocity at suction, m/sec
gc Gravitational acceleration, m/sec2
hf Piping head loss, m H2O
Water velocity at pump suction is calculated as shown below.

 Q t 
Vs =  2
900 π D s 
Where, Qt Pump test capacity, m3/hr
π 3.14159
Ds Internal pipe diameter at suction pressure tap, m
8.10.7.4 Test Total Dynamic Head
The test total dynamic head is the difference between the discharge and
suction heads and is calculated as shown below.
TDH t = h d − h s
Where, TDHt Test total dynamic head, m H2O
hd Pump discharge head, m H2O
hs Pump suction head, m H2O
_________________________________________________________
8.10.7.4.1 Total Dynamic Head at Rated Speed

The total dynamic head at rated speed is calculated as shown below. The
total dynamic head at rated speed and the capacity at rated speed are
plotted on the design head curve.
2
n 
TCHrs = TDH t  t 
 nr 
Where, TDHrs Total dynamic head at rated speed, m H2O
TDHt Test total dynamic head, m H2O
8.10.7.5 Pump Casing Temperature Rise
The pump casing temperature rise is calculated as shown below.

TR t = Td − Ts
Where, TRt Test pump casing temperature rise, ºC
Td Pump discharge temperature, ºC
Ts Pump suction temperature, ºC
8.10.7. 6 Turbine Available Energy
Turbine available energy is calculated as shown below.

TAE t = Wthr (h thr − h exhi )
Where, TAEt Test turbine available energy, kcal/hr
Wthr Feed pump turbine throttle flow, kg/hr
hthr Feed pump turbine throttle enthalpy, kcal/kg
hexhi Ideal enthalpy at exhaust pressure, kcal/kg
(hexhi =Saturation pressure corresponding to the average of the boiler
feed pump turbine exhaust temperatures)
8.10.7.7 Pump/Turbine Set Efficiency
Step 1: Determine the pump power output.

ρs Qt TDH t
whp=
,
27000
Where, whp Pump power output, whp
TDHt Test total dynamic head, m H2O
_________________________________________________________
Step 2: Calculate the pump/turbine set efficiency.

whp
t =
ηset () ×100%
632.45 TAE
t
t
Where, η set(t) Pump/turbine set test efficiency, %
whp Pump power output, whp
TAEt Test turbine available energy, kcal/hr
8.10.7.7.1 Pump/Turbine Set Efficiency at Rated Speed
Step 1: Determine the pump power output at rated speed.

whp ρs Qrs TDH rs
rs =
27000 ,
Where, whprs Pump power output at rated speed, whp
Qrs Pump capacity at rated speed, m3/hr
TDHrs Total dynamic head at rated speed, m
H2O
Step 2: Calculate the turbine available energy at rated speed.

3
n 
TAE rs = TAE t  t 
 nr 
Where, TAErs Total dynamic head at rated speed, m
H2O
TAEt Test total dynamic head, m H2O
Step 3: Calculate the pump/turbine set efficiency at rated speed.
whp rs
ηset (rs ) = ×100%
632.45TAErs
Where, ηset(rs) Pump/turbine set efficiency at rated
speed, %
whprs Pump power output at rated speed, whp
TAErs Turbine available energy at rated speed,
kcal/hr
_________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Heat Rate Action Plan
9.0 HEATRATE ACTION PLAN
9.1 Preparation of action Plan
The first step in developing a Heat Rate Action Plan is to know where
deviations exist between the current actual performance and the
“Expected” performance. Wherever there are gaps between the actual
and “expected” parameters values, there are heat rate deviations, which
are the potential area for improvement.
The second step is to rank all known areas where heat rate deviations
exist from the largest to the smallest, and calculate the cost of each.
The third step is to determine the “root cause” of each significant heat
rate deviation. Too often, instead of eliminating the root cause of
problems, only symptoms are addressed.
Determining the root cause of heat rate deviations is sometimes a

complicated process. The Logic Trees in section - 16 are one resource
that can be used to investigate deficiencies. Another practice is to
compare data from similar units if a deviation exists on one unit but not
on another. Having good quality data from the performance guarantee
test is also valuable to compare to current conditions. Regardless of the
method(s) that is/are used, it is critical that the root cause be
determined.
The fourth step, taken after the root cause is determined, is to list what
options are possible, calculate the cost and benefits of each, and
determine the best course of action. For example if the efficiency of a
turbine section is down, there are several options available, each option
will cost a different amount, and each option will have different benefits.
Frequently, the plan will include a field titled “Activity Selected.” If an

engineering analysis has been performed, which identified the best
course of action, but the activity is not scheduled, or is uneconomical at
the present time, the activity can still be listed in the plan, but marked
“Not Planned” under “Activity Selected”.
Under each parameter for which heat rate deviations are calculated, each
planned activity that will affect that parameter should be listed. For
example, under “Exit Flue Gas Temperature,” the activities “Replace Air
Heater Seals, and Set to Design Clearances,”
In addition to the description of the activity, a measurable process

indicator should be listed with its current value, the anticipated change or
target value, and the method of verification. For example, for the activity
“Replace Air Heater Seals, and Set to Design Clearances,” the process
indicator might be “Air Heater Leakage.” The current value might be
20% and the target (post replacement) value might be 12%, and this

would be verified by a post outage test. Anticipated heat rate

improvement is to be included.
Each activity must also list a schedule i.e. as a minimum a start date and
a completion date. Each activity should list a single individual who is
“responsible” for ensuring that the activity is carried out, and the results
verified.
Action Plan should include following information for its completeness
• Material requirement
• Procurement status
• Delivery schedule
• Work Contract status
• Expected recovery
• Expected Expenditure
• Expected Completion Schedule
9.2 Calculate Unit , Station HR
Once the plan is developed for each unit, roll-ups can be made to
determine target heat rates for groups of units. For example if a plant is
composed of both 200 and 500MW units, in addition to the target heat
rate for each unit, a target heat rate for the 200 MW units and a target
heat rate for the 500 MW units can be calculated by weighted averaging
the individual heat rates by the projected gross generation for each unit.
A target heat rate can be calculated in a similar fashion for the entire
plant.
If each plant in a region or if all plants in a utility follow the same

process, then a target heat rate for the region or utility can be calculated.
Another advantage of this process, is that it is quick and easy to see the
effect on the unit, plant and system heat rate (and therefore fuel cost
and production cost) of postponing an activity at any plant, or if
additional money is allocated to do additional activities, etc.
9.3 Review the Plan
Preparing and maintaining the plan is only part of the process. It is vital
to hold periodic reviews of the plan. Heat rate improvement plan is to be
discussed at station level. Monthly review of action plan is to be done by
representative of regional head quarter during operation review
meetings; same is to be sent to CC for their observations. At least
quarterly, there should be a formal review of the plan by the plant, region
and once in six month by corporate.

9.4 Annual Targeting
Targets are goals, to be set once for each financial year. It should be
aggressive, but achievable with effort. Targets are used during the year
and at the year-end to see how well the plant team is managing its
resources. Targets are used primarily by the plant staff as a goal to be
strived for, and with diligence, achieved.
Each station is to fix heat rate target for the financial years. This target
document should include action plan for likely annual improvement in
heat rate at the beginning of the year.

CenPEEP __________________________ Heat Rate Action Plan
Heat rate Gaps & Recovery Plan (Punch List)

Annexure-1
Station:
Unit: Date of Report:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

S.N System / Equipment HR Loss Reasons Joint Action Plan for HR Recovery
Recovery * Expected**
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
• Review by CenPEEP / RHQ /Site
• ** Actual to be measured after implementation by station & RHQ

CenPEEP __________________________ Heat Rate Action Plan
Annexure-2
STATUS OF PROCUREMENT/PLACING WORK ORDER TO IMPLEMENT ACTION PLAN
(7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)
S.N Equipment/ Indent Estimat Tender Bid PO/ Delivery Implem- Status Remarks
Component/ No & ed Cost Enquiry/ Evalu- Work Date entation of any
Work Date NIT Date ation Order Expected/ Date CC/RHQ
Expected Date Date Actual Expected/ Approval
/Actual Actual if any
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

CenPEEP Reporting System & Formats
10. REPORTING SYSTEM AND FORMATS
10.1 Introduction
Like other program, key ingredient to the success of any efficiency

improvement activity is continuous and free information flow within the
utility structure. Communication must occur from top down as well as
from the bottom up in the organization. Corporate objective must be
translated into specific goal, which plant personnel can understand and
provide clear guidance for achieving these performance improvement
goals.
EEMG has a responsibility to ensure the information flows from the plant
to region and to corporate management. Performance related data should
be consolidated and reported regularly to higher management in a format
which can be readily interpreted. The following mechanism of
communication can be effective in enhancing information flow.
10.2 Periodic Review Meeting at Station
10.2.1 Daily Review
Heat Rate deviations are to be discussed in daily plant planning meeting

and corrective actions to be planned for controllable parameters for which
shut down is not required. The actions to be recorded in the daily
planning meeting minutes and action taken should be reported &
reviewed in the next day meeting.
Daily Heat Rate deviation report shall put in the intranet. This data shall
be utilized by Corporate Centre & and Regional Office as per their
requirement or as per the format finalized for management review.
However, weekly and monthly heat rate deviations reports are to be sent
to region and corporate for their review.
10.2.2 Monthly Efficiency Meeting
The purpose of monthly meeting is to review the progress towards

achieving the station’s performance related targets and discuss results of
tests carried out during the months. Action plans prepared for the long
term and short-term corrective actions are also reviewed. The meeting
should be chaired by head of the station and attended by operation,
maintenance, planning, technical services staff and other concerned area
executives. Minutes of the meeting should be sent to Regional Office for
further interaction/follow up with CC. POG activities are also to be
discussed in this meeting. The report developed on the basis of monthly
test as per the guideline /requirement along with monthly Test results are
to be sent to Regions & CC.

10.2.3 Periodic Review Meeting at Region
Regional Performance Monitoring Group Shall review the monthly Heat

rate Deviation Reports, Result of tests carried out at the stations and the
HR action plan of stations pertaining to region. After review region will
put up the exception report to regional ED and Concerned group at
corporate center.
Regional ORT coordinator shall ensure that the performance related

information is regularly updated in ORT format. The coordinator shall
discuss the HR recovery action plan / punch list in the ORT.
10.2.4 Periodic Review at Corporate
Corporate OS/ CenPEEP will review the exception reports of all the
regions. Performance gap shall be complied and discussed during ROPR
along with the exceptions of the implementation of action plans for
management information.
10.2.5 Report Formats
Monthly test report formats and format for assessment of efficiency

improvement in overhauling, Pre and Post Overhaul test formats are also
enclosed.

MONTHLY - Efficiency Gap Analysis

STATION: Date of Report:
Boiler Efficiency (%)
U-1 U-2 U-3 U-4 U-5 U-6
Test Date
Design
Expected 1
Test Efficiency
Corrected Efficiency2
Deviation (Expected-Corrected)
Gross Turbine Cycle HR (GTCHR) (kcal/kWh)
U-1 U-2 U-3 U-4 U-5 U-6
Test Date
Design
Test GTCHR
Corrected Test GTCHR3
HR Deviation (Design - Corrected)
Accountable Loss
Unaccountable Loss
Gross Unit HR (kcal/kWh)
U-1 U-2 U-3 U-4 U-5 U-6
Test Date
Design
Expected4
Corrected Test HR5
HR Deviation (Expected-Corrected)
Accountable Loss
Unaccountable Loss
1. Boiler efficiency considering expected un burnt loss (%), to be arrived based on

best achieved figure and corresponding expected Dry Flue gas Loss after applying
necessary changes based on expected un burnt loss to Design Boiler Efficiency.
2. Tested Boiler efficiency Corrected to Design Coal and Design A/H air inlet
temperature
3. Test GTCHR Corrected for design CW inlet temperature
4. Expected Unit Heat rate = Design GTCHR*100/Expected Boiler Efficiency.
5. Corrected Test Unit Heat rate = Corrected Test GTCHR*100/
Corrected Test Boiler Efficiency.

CenPEEP _______________________ Reporting System & Formats
Monthly - Efficiency Gap Analysis

HR - GAP AREA: BOILER
Dry Flue Gas Loss

Design Stage-I Design Stage-II
U -1 U-2 U-3 U-4 U-5 U-6
Test Date
Last Overhaul Date
Flue gas temp at AH Inlet(deg.C)
Flue gas temp at AH outlet (Uncorrected)
(deg.C)
Flue gas temp at AH (Corrected) 6 Outlet
(deg.C)
AH - A or SAPH - A/B Leakage (%)
AH - B or PAPH - A/B Leakage (%)
Dry Flue Gas Loss (%) Expected7

Dry Flue Gas Loss (%) Corrected8
Loss in HR (kcal/kWh)
6 Corrected to Design Air Heater air inlet temperature
7 Expected Dry Flue gas Loss after applying necessary changes based on expected unburnt loss to Design Blr. Effy.
8 Test Dry Flue Gas Loss - Corrected to design coal & design air temperature at AH inlet (%)

Station: Date of Report

Unburnt Carbon Loss
Design U -1 U-2 U-3 Design U-4 U-5 U-6

Test Date
Unburnt Carbon in Fly Ash (%)
Unburnt Carbon in Bottom Ash (%)
Loss due to Unburnt Carbon - Expected (%)
Loss due to Unburnt Carbon - Corrected9 (%)
Deviation (%)
Strategy /Action plan for recovery
RH Spray

Test Date
Test RH Spray (T/hr)


Condenser
Stage-I Design Stage-II

Design
U -1 U-2 U-3 U-4 U-5 U-6
Test Date
Condenser Back Pressure (mm Hga)

CW inlet temperature (deg.C)
Loss due to Tube Fouling / Air ingress
(kcal/kWh)
Loss due To CW Flow / Heat Load
(kcal/kWh)
Loss Due To CW Inlet Temp (kcal/kWh)


Cooling Tower
Test Date
Cold water temp (deg.C)
Range (Hot - cold water temp)
Approach (Cold water temp - WBT)

CT Capability (%)
Expected cold water temp (deg.C)
Loss in HR10 (kcal/kWh)
10. Loss in Heat Rate based on diff in temperature i.e. (Expected Cold Water Temp - Test Cold Water Temp)


HP / IP Turbine Efficiency
Test Date
Last O/H date of HPT
HPT Efficiency at VWO (%)
Test Date
Last O/H date of IPT
IPT Efficiency (%)


Miscellaneous* (Other Major Accountable Losses)

Test Date
MS Temperature (deg.C)
MS-Loss in HR (kcal/kWh)
HRH Temperature (deg.C)
HRH-Loss in HR (kcal/kWh)
Feed Water Temp.(deg.C)
HPH TTD (deg.C)
HPH DCA (deg.C)
HPH-Loss in HR (kcal/kWh)
* More process Parameters can be added by station depending upon operating condition

Dry Flue Gas Loss Status & Completion Schedule

S.N Reasons/Actions U-1 U-2 U-3 U-4
1 Inlet Flue Gas to A/H higher Than Design (Value of actual Temp/Design)
a) Extensive cleaning of furnace / water walls / convective surfaces during
Outage (Done last / Next Schedule)
b) Soot Blowing Availability/Effectiveness1
2 Poor Air Heater performance (Gas Side Efficiency Actual Vs Design)
2
a) Cleaning of Air Heater Baskets during OH
b) Air Heater Basket Replacement Schedule
a) Air Heater Basket Replacement (Last date of Replacement)
3
c) Air Heater Soot Blowing Availability/Effectiveness
A/H Leakage ( Actula Vs Design Value )
a) AH seals setting/replacement
3 High Boiler Casing Air In Leakage (Value of O2 based on HVT Survey)
4
a) HVT Survey for Leakage Assessment and excess oxygen in furnace
5
b) Attend Leakage Points
6
b) Boiler pressurization test during outage to ensure sealing
4 High AH / Flue gas ducts leakage; reduced ID Fan margin / boiler operation at
reduced O2
a) O2 available at full load
7
b) Expansion Bellow Leakage
8
c) Duct Leakage / Repair
9
5 Reduction of Temperating air
% of Tempering air used to maintain mill outlet temperature
10
6 Proper Setting / Adjustment of Gas Bypass Damper; where applicable
7 Measurement of Oxygen and flue gas Exit Gas Temperature
11
a) Availability of Sufficient no of on line O2 Probe at eco outlet

b) Whether DFG calculation is based on On line measurement or Off line grid

measurement
c) Measurement of on line F.G Temp.at A/H inlet and A/H outlet common ducts
- whether online measurement validated against grid measurement
8 Burner tilt operation Auto/Manual

9 % of MCR Loading at Full load operation
1 Indicate status of Soot blowing effectiveness,Availability & Optimisation along with action & Schedule
2 Indicate Methodology used for basket cleaning during next O/H
4 Station to give status of HVT availability & assesment of leakage based on this.
5 Area of leakage to be given with schedule of completion.
6 Test pressure to be indicated.
7 Mention no of leaking expansion bellow with actions.
8 Mention length of duct repair required with actions.
9 Also Indicate a) Indicate whether mill outlet temperature is less than rated b)
coal moisture is higher than design ?.
10 Indicate whether operation of damper is rescticted due to ID margin ?.
11 No of O2 probe required for 500 mw & 200 mw units are 4&2 respecively.

UNBURNT CARBON LOSS Status & Completion Schedule

1 Mill Operation at High Primary air Flow
a) Calibration of Primary air Flow 1
2 Mill Outlet Temperature Less Than Design (Value)
a) Cleaning/Replacement of A/H Baskets

b) % of Tempering Air being used2
3 Mill Fineness problem (Fineness Range)
3
a) Increased Mill Loading (% loading of Mill than reated mill capacity)
b) Mill Internal Problem

4 Boiler Operation Problem
a) Boiler Operation, not at optimum Regime 4
a) Reduced Availability of O2 in furnace due to air ingress in furnace (O2 value at
furnace outlet using Zircova probe)
b) Reduced O2 operation due to reduced ID Fan draft (O2 at economiser Outlet)
5
5 HVS Sampling for Fly ash Unburnt
1 Indicate schedule of Calibration

2 whether temperatiom air is high due to damper problems?
3 Indicate ,If Mill loading is high, more no of mills are kept in service?
4 Unit Optimum regime has been established after O/H or not. If not then indicate the schedule.
5 HVS is used for verification of fly ash unburnt or not, if not indicate action of the same

R/H Spray Status & Completion Schedule

S.No Reasons/Actions U-1 U-2 U-3 U-4
1 % of Boiler MCR at Full Load 1
2 Water Wall Heat absorbation Level (S/H Spray Design Vs Actual Spray)
a) Water wall cleaning during outage 2
b) Water wall Soot blowing Availability/Effectiveness 3
3 S/H Section Heat Obsorption
a) Cleaning of S/H Section during outage 2
b) LRSB operation 4
4 Boiler Operation
a) Boiler Operation at Optimum Regime 5
b) Left - right temp difference; one side requiring spray 6
c) Burner tilt operation Auto/Manual 6
d) Proper setting of Gas Bypass Damper 6
5 RH spray because of metal temperature excursion
a) Metal Temperature Monitoring 7
b) Material Upgradation/Replacement 8
6 Spray Valve/ Nozzles Problem
a) Repair / Replacement of passing Spray Control Valve
b) Replacement of Broken Spray Nozzle
1 Whether Boiler load is high due to turbine Problem
2 Methodology used for boiler cleaning.
4 Availability / Operation of LRSB
5 Unit Optimum regime has been established after O/H or not. If not then indicate the schedule.
6 If R/H spray is due to this reason indicate action planwith schedule to overcome this.
7 If non availability of Metal temperatue information is causing high spray then indicate plan for proper temperature
monitoring system.
8 If Metal temperatue limitations is causing high spray then indicate plan for upgradation /replacement of R/H Tubes.

CONDENSER COMPLETION SCHEDULE

1 High CW inlet Temperature (Actual Vs Design)
a) If shortfall in cooling water temperature is due to CT
problem Action Plan to be given in next Sheet
b) Increased Heat Load
a) Low Turbine Efficiency
b) High Energy Drain V/V Passing (Details to be given in
respective sheet)
c) Problem of Cascaded Drain
2 Air In Leakage(Actual Depression in temperature)
a) Detection of Source of air Ingress 1
b) Attending Air Ingress Points (Schedule)
c) Date from which more than one vacuum Pump / Ejector
is in service
c) Recification of Vacuum Pump / Ejector Problem
3 Tube Dirtiness
a) On Line Tube Cleaning System availability 2
b) Effective cleaning during O/H
c) Part Load Cleaning 3
d) Tube Thick ness Survey
4 Low Circulating water Flow
a) Healtinness of Travelling water Screen
b) Availability of CW Pump
c) CW Duct Silting
d) Poor CW Pump Performance 4
1 Date of dection of leakage point with Online Detection System Or Off line detection system
2 COLTS is available or not , if not indicate programme of Installation and if installed, whether it is kept in service ?.What is the
effectiveness of COLTS
3 Cleaning Based on opportunity
4 Pump Flow measured or not , indicate flow measurement plan.

COOLING TOWER COMPLETION SCHEDULE

1 Cleaning of Basin
2 Cleaning of Fills
3 Replacement of Fills
4 Unequal Flow Distribution
a) Nozzles Cleaning
b) Replacement of Damaged Nozzles
c) Structural Damage to Upper Basin
5 Repair/Replacement of Drift Eleminator
6 Decreased Fan Efficiency
a) Excessive Draft
d) Blade Pitch incorrect
c) Gear Box Problem
7 Inadequate Chemical Regime
Control of Chemical Parameter
8 Inadequate cell
HPT EFFICIENCY COMPLETION SCHEDULE

S.N Reasons / Actions U-1 U-2 U-3 U-4
Detoriation in HP Efficiency
1 Accurate Measurement of Efficiency with Off line
Instrument
2 Replacement of Nozzle Box
3 Repair/Replacement of Turbine Rotor
4 Repair/Replacement of Diaphram
5 Replacement of Gland Seals
6 Replacement of Inter Stage Seals
7 Repair/Replacement of Strip Seals
8 Cleaning of Turbine Internals
9 Checking Of Stainer
10 Inter Cylinder Seals Replacement
11 Steam Path audit

IPT EFFICIENCY COMPLETION SCHEDULE

1 Accurate Measurement of Efficiency with Off line
Instrument
2 Repair/Replacement of Turbine Rotor
3 Repair/Replacement of Diaphram
4 Replacement of Gland Seals
5 Replacement of Inter Stage Seals
6 Repair/Replacement of Strip Seals
7 Cleaning of Turbine Internals
8 Checking of Strainer
9 Inter Cylinder Seals Replacement

High Energy Drain Valves Passing

S.N Unit Valve Tag No Down Stream temp(deg.C)*
Description
U-1
U-2
U-3
U-4
U-5

CenPEEP ____________________ Reporting System & Formats
PRE & POST OH PERFORMANCE COMPARISION
STATION: UNIT: TEST DATE:
Boiler Efficiency (%) Pre OH Post OH Improvement

Design
1
Expected
Test Efficiency
Corrected Efficiency2
Deviation (Expected-Corrected)
Gross Turbine Cycle Heat rate
Pre OH Post OH Improvement
(kcal/kWh)
Design
Test GTCHR
Corrected Test GTCHR3
HR Deviation (Design - Corrected)
Accountable Loss
Unaccountable Loss
Gross Unit HR (kcal/kWh Pre OH Post OH Improvement
Design
Expected4
Corrected Test HR5
HR Deviation (Expected-Corrected)
Accountable Loss
Unaccountable Loss

PRE & POST OH Boiler Efficiency
STATION: UNIT: Date of test:

Parameters Design Pre OH Post OH
Unit Load
Steam Flow
Total Secondary Air flow
Total Primary Air Flow
Coal Flow
Mills in service
FW inlet temperature
PAPH Air inlet Temp
SAPH Air inlet Temp
PAPH Air outlet Temp
SAPH Air Outlet Temp
AH Inlet O2 L/R (UCB)
AH Inlet O2 L/R (Local)
AH outlet Avg. O2
AH outlet Avg. CO2
AH outlet Avg. CO
PAPH-A/B Gas O/L Temp
SAPH-A/B Gas O/L Temp
Dry Bulb Temperature
Wet Bulb Temperature
Un burnt C in bottom ash
Un burnt C in fly ash
Proximate Analysis
Moisture
Ash
Volatile Matter
Fixed Carbon
GCV
Heat Losses (%) Design Pre OH Post OH

Test Corrected Test Corrected
Dry Gas Loss
Loss due to Un burnt Carbon
Radiation & unaccounted Loss
BOILER EFFICIENCY

PRE & POST OH AIR HEATER PERFORMANCE TEST
Station: Unit : Date of Test:

S.N Results Units Design PRE OH Post OH
AH A/B AH-A AH-B
1 Ambient Air C
2 Load MW
3 Coal Flow T/Hr
4 Total Air Flow T/Hr
5 Secondary Air Flow T/Hr
6 Mills In Service No.
7 FD Fan Current A
8 PA fan Current A
9 ID Fan Current A
10 Primary Air Inlet C
11 Secondary Air Inlet C
12 Primary Air Outlet C
13 Secondary Air Outlet C
14 Flue Gas Inlet C
15 Flue Gas Outlet C
16 EGT - Corr. for AH leakage C
17 EGT - Corr. for ref air inlet temp C
Average Oxygen in Flue Gas
10 AH Inlet %
11 AH Outlet %
12 ID fan Outlet %
DPs across AH
13 Primary Air Side mmwcl
14 Sec Air Side mmwcl
15 Gas Side mmwcl
AH Performance
1 Air Heater Leakage %
2 AH Gas Side Efficiency %
3 Air Heater X-Ratio ---
EGT-Corr to ref air temp and
4 lkge C
AH to ID fan Approx. Duct
5 Leakage %

PRE & POST OH Gross Turbine Cycle Heat Rate
Station: Unit: Date of Test:

S.N PARAMETER UNIT Design Pre OH Post OH
1 Unit Load MW
2 First Stage Pressure kg/cm2(a)
3 MS Pressure Before ESV kg/cm2(a)
0
5 HRH Press at IP Turbine Inlet kg/cm2(a)
0
6 HRH Temp at IP Turbine Inlet C
7 HP Turbine Exhaust Pressure kg/cm2(a)
0
8 HP Turbine Exhaust Temperature C
0
9 FW Temp at Eco Inlet C
10 Feed Flow t/hr
11 S/H Attemperation Flow t/hr
12 R/H Attemperation Flow t/hr
0
14 Condenser back Pressure mm Hga
14 Test GTCHR kcal/kWh
15 Corrected Test GTCHR kcal/kWh
(Corrected for Design CW inlet
temperature)
16 Design GTCGR kcal/kWh

PRE & POST OH CONDENSER PERFORMANCE
Station: Unit: Date of test:

S.N PARAMETER UNIT Design Pre OH Post OH
1 Load MW
2 Condenser Back pressure mm Hga
0
3 CW inlet temp. C
0
4 CW outlet temp. (Mean) C
0
5 Condensate temp. (L&R) C
0
6 Air Suction temp. (L&R) C
7 Expected Back pressure mm Hg

9 Variation due to CW inlet temp. mm Hg
10 Variation due to CW flow mm Hg
11 Variation due to air/dirty tubes mm Hg
12 Total variation mm Hg
o
13 Air suction Temp. Depression C

CenPEEP _____________________________________________ Reporting System & Formats
PRE & POST OH HP Heater Performance
Station Unit Date of test:
S.N PARAMETER UNIT Design HPH6A HPH6B Design HPH5A HPH5B

Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH
1 LOAD MW
0
2 FW INLET TEMP C
0
3 FW OUTLET TEMP C
0
4 DRAIN TEMP C
5 SHELL PRESS. kg/cm2(a)
6 FW FLOW t/hr
7 EXTRACTION STEAM kg/cm2(a)
PRESS
0
8 EXTRACTION STEAM C
TEMP
0
9 TTD (Sat Temp – C
FW out Temp)
0
10 DCA(Drip Temp – C
FW in Temp)
0
11 FW TEMPERATURE C
RISE

Cooling Tower Performance
Station: CT No: Date of Test:
Parameters Design Pre OH Post OH

No of Cells (No)
Water Flow (m3/hr)
Hot Water Temperatue (°C)
Cold Water Temperatue (°C)
Wet Bulb Temperatue (°C)
Fan Power (KW)
Range(°C)
Approach(°C)
Effectiveness(%)
Expected cold water temp
Capability(%)
HP / IP Turbine Performance
Unit No: Date of Test:
Design Pre OH Post OH

Parameters
HPT Efficiency at VWO (%)
IPT Efficiency (%)
D/A Drop Test
Unit No: Date of Test:
Design Pre OH Post OH

Parameters
System water Loss (%)
HR Loss (kcal/kWh)

CenPEEP EEMG Structure and Responsibility
11.0 EEMG STRUCTURE AND RESPONSIBILITY
The activities related to performance improvement & monitoring shall be

looked after by “Centre of Excellence for Efficiency” (CEE) group
within Corporate CenPEEP. The structure & responsibilities of
performance related activities at Station, Region and Corporate Centre
shall be as given below.
11.1 EEMG Setup – Station
Station should have three separate groups for the existing functions
being executed by EEMG. The groups are“ Performance Monitoring
Group” (PMG), “Center for Energy Efficient Technology & Energy
Management” (CEETEM) and MIS & commercial (as shown in the
structure). The in charge of EEMG shall report to head of O&M.
Splitting the present responsibilities assigned to the EEMG into three

groups will help in effectively executing the various activities related to
performance improvement under PMG. It will also allow having proper
interface between PMG and CEETEM in carrying out various activities and
in avoiding duplication of work.
EEMG Structure at Station
Station Head
O&M Head
SMSG at Region
(For MIS)
EEMG PMG at Region
MIS & PMG CEETEM

Commercial
_________________________________________________________
11.1.1 EEMG Responsibilities – PMG at Station
Following are the activities proposed to be carried out:
• Parameter monitoring, trending and analysis

• On-line & Off-line performance test of Systems & Equipments (like
Boiler, Air Heater Turbine, Mills, and Condenser ,Cooling Tower
etc.)
• Daily / Monthly heat rate deviation reports and follow up of
corrective actions
• Pre overhaul system survey (Valve passing, Duct leakage, air
ingress etc.)
• Coordination for POG’s (HR, Condenser, Mills etc.)
• Effect of modifications / mode of operation
• Use of Math modeling for diagnosis and analysis
• Critical instrument performance, defect list and replacement
• Calibration of On-line / Off-line performance test instruments
• Implementation of efficiency related work.
• Involvement in efficiency related proposals
• Auxiliary Power Consumption Monitoring and measures/action plan
for reduction
• Monitoring of unit stat up activities & related preparations.
• Monitoring and reduction of specific oil and make up consumption
• Other issues related to Plant performance.
• Pre / Post Overhaul performance test
• Work related to HR improvement w.r.t targets.
11.1.1.1 EEMG Responsibilities – During Overhaul
• Implementation of Punch list action plan.

• Implementation of performance test recommendation. Trip
committee recommendations, OS / CenPEEP / Knowledge team
recommendations.
• Regular O/H jobs related to restoration of equipment performance
to include the following, where ever applicable
• Boiler Cleaning/Water washing
• Inspection of HP heaters for parting plane leakages
• High Energy drain valves replacement
_________________________________________________________
• Cooling Tower inspection / repair

• Penthouse cleaning and inspection
• Boiler Air tightness test before & after repair
• Flue gas Duct inspection & getting it repaired
• Seal Trough Area
• Condenser Tubes inspection for cleanliness after tube
cleaning. The amount and type of debris removed and type
of scaling and its chemical testing co-ordination.
• Condenser Flood test during OH for leakages in the
condenser and associated pipings by filling the condenser
up to its neck.
• SADC / Air Registers checking after repair.
• APH inspection: APHs are to be inspected during Unit
Overhaul and the condition of baskets, sector plate and
seals are to be noted.
• Condition of Mill discharge orifices: Mill discharge orifices
are to be checked / replaced.
• Condition of Heat transfer surfaces in Boiler.
• Boiler heat transfer surfaces are to be inspected for
cleanliness before and after cleaning. Pattern and type of
slagging /fouling in different zones of the boiler are to be
noted.
• Other important O/H events:
• BFP/CEPs/CW O/H, Fan O/H type of damage found,
details of repair, etc
• Major air ingress points on Boiler side
• Major Steam/Water leakages
• Major Condenser air ingress points
• LRSB related work.
• OLTC defects
11.1.2 Responsibilities – MIS at Station
• ORT, RMCM, ROPR, MCM coordination

• Coordination with Corporate Centre, OS, Region, CEA, REB etc.
• Trip analysis
• Oil , Coal Accounting & Survey
• MIS Reports related to plant performance
_________________________________________________________
11.2 Setup at Region
At each region the PMG function along with shall be with Regional
CenPEEP and MIS function shall be with Station Monitoring & Support
Group (SMSG). Regional PMG group (as shown in the structure) shall
meet the objective of having effective coordination with the Stations in
providing technical support.
For regions where Regional CenPEEP is yet to be formed, responsibilities

of Regional PMG shall be taken care by “Performance Management
System Group” (PMSG)
Structure at Region
ED (Region)
Head of OS
Regional
CenPEEP
&
Station Performance PMG
Monitoring Management
and Support Systems
Group Group
(SMSG) (PMSG)
MIS
related
to EEMG
11.2.1 Responsibilities – PMG at Region
Following are the activities proposed to be carried out for all the Stations
in the region:
• Support for off - line Performance tests such as Boiler Performance

Optimization, Gross Turbine Cycle Heat Rate etc (as per the need
of station).
• Performance monitoring, trending and analysis
_________________________________________________________
• Plant performance audit

• Review of Heat rate deviation reports
• Follow up of action plans
• Monthly exception report on EEMG to CC
• Training to EEMG Executives
• Follow up and interactions with POGs.
• Software support to station
• Other Issues related to plant performance
• Association with CEETEM activities like energy audit for thermal
insulation.
11.2.2 Responsibilities – MIS at Region
Area covered under station MIS responsibilities will be taken care by

Regional SMSG.
11.3 Setup at Corporate Center
At corporate the PMB function shall be looked after by “Centre of

Excellence for Efficiency” (CEE) group within CenPEEP and the function
of MIS to be continued with corporate OS (as shown in the structure).
The Boiler and Turbine group at Corporate CenPEEP shall provide
necessary support in carrying out the performance improvement and
monitoring activities.
Structure at Corporate
D (O)
Regional
OS
Operation CenPEEP Knowledge

Services team
for EEMG
Technical
Support & Boiler Turbine CEE M&D
MIS related
to EEMG
_________________________________________________________
11.3.1 Responsibilities –CEE at Corporate CenPEEP
• To ensure uniform practice for performance improvement across

NTPC plants
• Developing standardized testing and reporting procedures
• Providing Guidelines for Computation of Performance of
Equipments & Systems
• Providing software support
• Providing Standard Reporting Formats
• Technical support to Regions and stations
• Data bank at CenPEEP of equipments / system of NTPC Stations
• Monthly test data review of the stations & providing feedback.
• Performance monitoring, trending and analysis of critical problems
• Review of implementation of action plan
• Training to executives
• Follow up and interaction with POGs
• Issues to be taken up with Engineering (Like test instruments, test
ports etc.)
• New techniques and systems
• Plant performance audit
• Review of Pre-Post OH test data of station and providing feedback.
11.3.2 Responsibilities – Technical Support & MIS related to EEMG
• Coordination for PG testing of identified packages

• Review of HR deviation reports
• Fixing Performance Targets for NTPC Stations
• Follow up of action plan
• Ensuring inclusion of Efficiency related activities in overhauling
plan/Engineering declaration.
• Technical Support
• Other issues related MIS
_________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Tools
12.0 TOOLS
12.1 Introduction
This section discusses the “tools” that should be readily available with
Performance Monitoring Group (PMG), who are responsible for monitoring
the thermal performance of a unit. Many of the necessary tools have
already been discussed in detail in other sections of this manual, such as
detailed test procedures for major equipment, generic heat rate fault
trees, calculation procedures for determining the impacts of various
parameters on unit performance, etc. This section discusses additional
tools that should be at the disposal of the “performance engineer.” Some
of this information is contained in “Technical Diaries or Plant Detail
Books” that are developed for a particular project, but for detailed
analysis of thermal performance, additional data must be available.
12.2 Comprehensive Thermal Kit
One of the most valuable sources of information on the turbine cycle is

the “thermal kit.” The turbo-generator supplier usually supplies it. It is a
collection of curves primarily, with some data that describes the
operating characteristics of the turbo-generator.
12.2.1 Heat Rate/Load Correction Curves
The turbine supplier usually provides a group of curves that describes the
impact on the turbine cycle heat rate and gross load, caused by changes
in various “external parameters” or boundary conditions, such as main
steam temperature and pressure, hot reheat steam temperature at the
intercept valves, pressure drop through the reheater, and condenser
pressure. Occasionally, other curves will be provided for attemperation
flows, feedwater heater TTDs and DCAs, etc. Sometimes, for a
parameter, multiple curves will be given, with each curve for a specified
steam flow, or for a specified control valve opening.
12.2.2 Generator Loss Curves
Another curve (or family of curves) that is given is the generator loss
curves. These curves represent the amount of energy loss in the
generator. The turbine produces a certain torque on the shaft, and the
generator converts 98-99% of that energy to electrical energy. The other
1-2% is “generator losses”, which includes both mechanical and electrical
losses. The amount of loss is given in different formats
Sometimes the fixed losses are included in the curve, and sometimes it is
tabulated.
Since the losses also vary with the hydrogen pressure, sometimes a
family of curves is given for various hydrogen pressures, sometimes an
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CenPEEP Tools
additional curve is given with a correction factor as a function of the

hydrogen pressure.
12.2.3 Exhaust Loss Curves
When the steam passes through the last row of rotating blades in the LP
turbine, it has a very high velocity (kinetic energy). As it turns down and
slows, this kinetic energy is converted to an increase in enthalpy. The
enthalpy of the steam leaving the last row of blades is called the
Expansion Line End Point (ELEP). The enthalpy of the steam that is
condensed in the condenser is the Used Energy End Point (UEEP). The
difference between these two is the exhaust loss. (It also includes losses
due to friction, and for very low velocities a rotational loss.)
These curves are usually plotted one of the two ways. First, as a single
curve as a function of the velocity of the steam (the velocity must be
calculated using the mass flow, and the specific volume of the steam and
the annular area). The second type of plot is of a family of curves versus
exhaust flow, with each curve for a different condenser pressure.
12.2.4 Mollier Diagram Showing Turbine Expansion Lines
Another drawing that should be included in the thermal kit is a large

Mollier diagram (enthalpy versus entropy plot) showing the anticipated
turbine expansion lines for the entire turbine (HP and IP-LP). There
should be multiple curves for several main steam flows. (Note that the
end of each curve is the ELEP, not the UEEP.)
12.2.5 Turbine Packing Leakoff Curves or Constants
To determine the flow from turbine gland leakages and from valve stem
leakages. For each gland or valve stem leakage, a “packing constant” is
usually given, again where the leakage flow is calculated by multiplying
the constant by the square root of the pressure divided by the specific
volume Q = C * √(p/v). Occasionally, instead of specifying packing
constants, these flows will be given as a curve as a function of the
pressure ahead of the leakage.
12.2.6 Plant Technical Information
In addition to the technical information provided in the thermal kit by the

turbo-generator provider, there are other specifications and technical
data that should be collected, made readily available, and kept current
for equipment that is either replaced or refurbished. Preferably, the
items listed below, along with the information from the thermal kit,
should be collected into a single notebook.
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CenPEEP Tools
12.2.7 Heat Balance Diagrams
Usually, several heat balance diagrams are provided for a range of steam
flows and condenser pressures. Occasionally, some additional heat
balance diagrams are also provided to some special conditions, such as
the HP heater out of service, or over pressure. Additionally, if a
thermodynamic model is built for the plant, additional diagrams will be
generated. All these should be kept together.
12.2.8 Flow Diagrams/Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams

(P&ID)
The performance engineer should have a full set of flow or P&ID drawings
showing all steam, water, air and flue gas streams. These drawings
should include pipe sizes, locations of station instruments and test points.
One set should be marked up showing which valves/traps/etc. are in each

cycle isolation checklist.
Another set of drawings should be marked up showing potential sources

for condenser air in leakage. These potential in leakage locations would
be marked one of two ways: locations that are always under vacuum, and
locations that are under vacuum only at reduced load.
12.2.9 Pump and Fan Curves
In order to evaluate the performance of large pumps and fans, the curves
of head, power and efficiency versus flow should be provided, along with
supplemental data such as the speed(s) for which the curve(s) were
drawn, the temperature, pressure and density for the fluid, impeller size,
etc. It is preferable to have curves based on tests, but that is not always
possible, especially for large pumps. The pumps and fans for which
curves should be available include:
Pumps Fans
Boiler Feed water Forced Draft
Boiler Feed water Booster Primary Air
Condensate Extraction Induced Draft
CW pump
Some boiler feedwater pumps have a balancing drum leakoff that

includes an orifice for measuring the leakoff flow. If the pumps have this
design, there should be a curve provided showing the relationship
between the differential pressure and the flow rate.
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CenPEEP Tools
12.2.10 Primary Flow Elements (Nozzle/Orifice) Specification

Sheets
In order to properly convert the differential pressure across a nozzle or

orifice to a flow rate the following characteristics are required:
• Pipe internal diameter (ID) at nozzle (cold condition)

• Pipe material (and, therefore, coefficient of thermal expansion)
• Flow element type (ISA nozzle, long radius nozzle, standard orifice
plate, square edge orifice, etc.)
• Flow element (Nozzle or Orifice) ID/Dia ratio.
• Flow element material (and therefore coefficient of thermal
expansion)
• Type of pressure taps (for orifices) such as corner, flange or D &
D/2 taps
This information should be collected and tabulated in one location for all
flow elements such as:
• Total feedwater flow

• Feed water flow through individual pumps
• Condensate flow
• Attemperation flows
• Makeup flows
• Main steam flow
• Reheat steam flow
• IP turbine cooling steam flow
12.2.11 Specification Sheets and Drawings on Heat Exchangers
Each heat exchanger in the plant (especially condensers, feedwater

heaters, external drain coolers, gland steam condensers) should have a
detailed specification sheet, with the following information:
• Tube material(s)
• Tube actual and effective tube length
• Tube ID and wall thickness
• Number of passes
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CenPEEP Tools
• Heat transfer rate(s) (for feed water heaters a rate should be

specified for each zone, desuperheating, condensing and drain
cooling)
• Effective surface area(s)
• Design conditions (temperature, pressure and flow rates) of each
stream in and out
• Design Performance (TTDs, DCA, temperature rises, LMTDs, etc.)
• Pressure drop on the water side ands in each zone on the shell
side
Drawings showing the “tube map” should be provided, as well as
sectional drawings showing the locations of baffles, shrouds, vents, sight
glasses and normal water level marks.
12.2.12 Water Leg Measurements
Most local pressure gauges and pressure transmitters do not read the
true pressure of the steam/water. Instead, they read slightly higher or
lower depending on the location of the transmitter with respect to the
process pipe line, For normal operation, the difference usually is not
significant, but for high accuracy measurements, it can be. In order to be
able to correct for these “water legs,” a table should be maintained that
lists either:
• the elevation of the pipe taps (and the floor elevation), or

• the distance from the pipe tap to the floor, or
• the distances from the pipe to the local gauge/transmitter and the
elevation of the local pressure gauge.
At some plants, the gauges/transmitter are calibrated to take into

account the water leg. Whether the calibration includes the water leg or
not should be identified, so that test measurements, which almost always
must be corrected for water legs, can be compared to the station
readings.
12.2.13 Boiler and Air Pre Heater Guaranteed Performance Sheets
The performance engineer should have detailed “predicted” performance

sheets on the boiler/air pre heater. This would include data such as air
and gas, temperatures and pressures, entering and leaving the air pre
heater, flue gas and steam/water, temperatures and pressures in and out
of each section of the boiler (economizer, waterwall, secondary
superheater, reheater, and primary superheater), excess air requirement,
proximate and ultimate analysis, grindability, ash analysis, reducing and
oxidizing ash fusion temperatures of the coal, boiler efficiency loss
calculations, number of mills in service, air temperature entering mills,
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CenPEEP Tools
coal-air temperature leaving mills, mill fineness, material, surface area

and tube spacing details of each section, etc.
12.2.14 Control System Logic Diagrams/Controller Set Points
A set of drawings should be maintained and available for the performance

engineer showing the logic diagrams and set points for the unit controls.
This data is especially critical as more equipment is being controlled by
complex logic.
12.2.15 Performance Guarantee and Other Tests Reports
The previous information has all been “design” data. While it is useful, it
does not represent the actual initial condition and operating
characteristics of the unit. That is why it is imperative that the
performance guarantee tests should do much more than just settle
contractual issues. It is the best opportunity to collect high quality data
on the unit, to which future operating data and performance will be
compared.
Also, any time a test is run on the unit, a test report with not only a
summary of the results and recommendations, but also containing all
data, should be issued and kept. In addition, a computer database can
be made for storing and trending the results of “routine” performance
tests, such as turbine efficiency, condenser performance, auxiliary power
usage, air heater leakage, pulverizer fineness, etc.
12.2.16 Historical Operating Statistics
In addition to high quality test data and results, it is advantageous to

retain operating data from the station instruments.
12.2.17 Data of Initial Operation: Record of all Control Room, DAS,

etc.
A valuable resource for future years is to record data from every station
instrument, at various loads, immediately after the unit achieves steady
operation. This includes all points on the DAS (if applicable), as well as
local gauges.
One use of such data is when there are any very slow, gradual changes in
the performance of the unit, that may not be noticed. However, when
current data is compared to the data when the unit was new, any gradual
changes in performance will become apparent.
12.2.18 Retention of Key Indicators
With the advent of low cost computers and storage media, it is cost
effective to collect and retain large amount of operating data. A detailed
data storage strategy should be developed. For example some critical
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CenPEEP Tools
DAS data might be kept complete (every value from every scan) for 6
months, then reduced to hourly average/maximum/minimum, and these
three hourly values retained for 2 years, then only daily averages
retained after that. Other data might be reduced to daily averages each
day, and those might be retained for a few months only.
The primary process indicators (see Section 3.1) should be considered

along with the requirements of other departments, and an appropriate
data storage plan can be developed.
12.2.19 Historical Load Patterns
If important indicators are stored, then many types of analyses are

possible. One such type is the generation of a load pattern. This shows
how much time a unit (or group of similar units) spends in various load
ranges. This information is required for determining the economic
benefits for many potential heat rate improvement projects. For some
projects, the benefits may only occur when the unit is operating in some
narrow load range, or the benefit may vary with the load.
12.2.20 Maintenance Data
Along with operating data, maintenance data is very useful to the

performance engineer.
12.2.21 Boiler Inspection Reports
Each time the boiler is inspected (wall thickness readings taken, tube
samples cut out, etc.) the reports on what was found, recommendations,
etc., should be published and made available to the performance
engineer.
12.2.22 Air Pre Heater Inspection Reports
The performance engineer should have access to the as-found and as-left
seal clearances of the air heater, for comparison to the results of leakage
tests.
12.2.23 History of Cycle Isolation Problems
With the large number of valves that can contribute to cycle isolation
problems, having a database of which valves have caused problems in
the past is useful to help determine where to look first, or which valves
should be monitored continuously (because they frequently leak) and
which may only require periodic monitoring. Also, if the database
includes the type of valve, then there may be some correlation between
the valve type (or manufacturer) and frequency of leaks.
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CenPEEP Tools
12.2.24 Heat Exchanger Tube Pluggage History
The performance engineer should have a record of the number and

location of tubes plugged in all heat exchangers.
12.3 Thermodynamic Model of the Plant/Modeling Software
Every station PMG group should develop computer programs for

performing heat balance calculations. These programs will give accurate
results in a matter of seconds after validation. Some of the uses include:
• Generating heat rate correction factors for various parameters

such as attemperation flows, makeup flow, auxiliary steam usage,
final feedwater heater temperature, etc.
• Confirming the accuracy of heat rate correction factors provided
by vendors, (i.e. main steam temperature and pressure, hot
reheat temperature, reheater pressure drop, condenser pressure,
etc.).
• Analyzing test data (correcting results to some contract or design
boundary conditions, estimating LP turbine performance, etc.).
• Determining the impacts of abnormal operating conditions, such
as feedwater heaters out of service, leaking high energy drains,
running two vacuum pumps/steam ejectors instead of one, etc.
• Determining the impacts of equipment degradation, such as poor
turbine efficiency, subcooling in the condenser hotwell, high
feedwater heater TTDs or DCAs, etc.
• Determining the impacts of potential equipment modifications,
such as retubing feedwater heaters or condensers with a different
material, adding or removing surface in the superheater or
reheater, changing the source of the superheater spray water
from BFP outlet to final feedwater, etc.
• Determining the impacts of potential equipment modifications
such as changing from full pressure to variable pressure, changing
set points on controls, etc.
_________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Unaccountable Loss
13.0 UNACCOUNTABLE LOSS
13.1 Introduction
It is the losses which are generally not measured with the available
system or equipments.However some of the losses may be measured
with special tests but efforts involved in assessment is much more than
the actual benefits derived. “Unaccountable” heat rate loss is defined as
the deference between the corrected test heat rate based on test and the
sum of the expected heat rate and all “accountable” heat rate deviations.
It has been experienced that passing of high energy drains and drains
which are normally kept open contribute significantly to the
unaccountable losses in the unit. However the quantification of
unaccountable losses due to passing of drains/drip is difficult.
In order to operate unit efficiently, the operators must have reliable and
accurate information of the unit. Small errors in sensors can result in
large “unaccountable” heat rate deviations. For example, if the unit is
“expected” to operate at 538°C main steam temperature at the turbine
stop valves, but the instrumentation is indicating 3°C higher than the
actual temperature, the unit will operate with the steam temperature 3°C
low thus resulting in a heat rate deviation of around 2.5kcal/kWh. For
high temperature thermocouples, 3°C drift is not unusual. Even if just a
few key instruments are in error, the unit could have a large heat rate
deviation. As per ASME –PTC 6 table 5.2, total inaccuracy on account of
instruments (using test grade high accuracy instruments) is 0.474%.
When online instruments is used for heat rate testing the inaccuracy on
account of instruments can be taken as 1%.
A very rough rule-of-thumb is that the heat rate deviation for

unaccountable should be less than 25 kcal/kWh.
However problems that contributes to this area are, of three types

1. First is actual losses that are not able to be measured, such as
a. Low pressure turbine efficiency
b. Cycle isolation
c. Radiation losses
d. Low pressure feed water heater performance, etc.
e. Gland seal flow of turbine
2. The second types of problems are errors/measurement accuracy.
All errors end up in the unaccountable heat rate deviation group.
Examples of such errors are
a. Instrument errors for measuring parameters such as
1. Main steam temperature
2. Condenser pressure
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3. Economizer outlet O2
4. Feed Flow
5. Steam Flow
6. MW, etc
3. Other types of problems include calculation procedure errors, i.e.
the calculated heat rate deviation of a 2% point change in HP
turbine efficiency could be different from the true heat rate
deviation. Similar may be the case for heat rate deviations
calculated on the basis of thumb rule or with the help of
manufacturer’s curves, which may have some in built margins.
13.2 Calculation of Unaccountable Loss:
The unaccountable heat rate deviation, is the difference between the total
deviation (Corrected Unit Heat rate - Expected Unit Heat Rate) minus the
sum of the accountable Heat rate deviations
HRDUnAcc = (UHRTest Corrected - UHRExp) - ΣHRDAccountable

Accountable Unit Heat Rate Deviation may be due to following
reasons
i. Main steam Press before ESV

ii. Main steam Temp before ESV
iii. Hot Reheat Temp before IV
iv. Superheat Attemperation
v. Reheat Attemperation
vi. Condenser Back Pressure
vii. HPH Performance
viii. HP Turbine Efficiency
ix. IP Turbine Efficiency
x. Dry Flue Gas loss
xi. Wet Flue Gas loss
xii. Unburnt loss
xiii. Unit Load
xiv. Total Accountable HR Deviation (HRDAccountable)
xv. Expected Unit Heat rate (UHRExp)
xvi. Test Heat rate (UHRTest Corrected)
xvi Unaccountable HR Dev (HRDUnAcc)
=(UHRTest Corrected -UHRExp)- ΣHRDAccountable
_________________________________________________________
13.2.1 Sample Calculations:
Expected Unit Heat rate (UHRExp) : 2471 kcal/kWh
Test Corrected Heat rate (UHRTest Corrected) : 2654 kcal/kWh
Accountable HR Deviation(HRDAcc) : 156 kcal/kWh
Unaccountable HR Dev (HRDUnAcc)
= (UHRTest Corrected - UHRExp) - ΣHRDAccountable
= (2654kcal/kWh - 2471 kcal/kWh) - (156 kcal/kWh)
= 183.0kcal/kWh - 156.0kcal/kWh
= 27.0kcal/kWh
13.3 Unaccounted Losses & its reduction
13.3.1 Instrument Accuracy
• Parameter uncertainty
o Uncertainty level of parameters used for Boiler & Turbine

HR calculation to be accessed
o Impact on HR due to parameter uncertainty to be

quantified
• Improving accuracy of Instruments
o Plan to be prepared for replacing the instruments with

better accuracy instruments in a phased manner
• Redundant / Duplicate measurement
o Provide duplicate measurement points for pressure &

temperature measurements.
o PG test points to be revived, if required and same may be

used for testing.
o Measurement location and representative sampling error

need to be corrected.
• FW flow validation
o For assessment of deterioration of Primary Sensor element,

FW flow element condition assessment to be done during
the shutdown for the units which has run for longer period.
_________________________________________________________
o Flow Validations can also be done with ultrasonic flow

meter.
• Accuracy of Generator Energy Meter, CT & PT
o Meters, CT, PT may be upgraded to 0.2 class accuracy
• Calibration of instruments
o There should be a regular calibration of measurement

devices & sensors.
o Calibration records for the instruments should be

maintained as permanent records.
• Representative sampling
o Grid sampling to be used for of O2 measurement
o Unburnt sampling through HVS
o Multiple Coal sampling to be done from each feeder during

tests
13.3.2 High Energy Drains
• Listing of all high energy drains with specific valve Nos.
• Routine checking of temperatures down stream of valve by laser

gun measurement.
• Provision for on-line temperature measurement for indication to

be available at Control room.
• Prioritizing the valves and action plan for replacing the valves with
better quality valves in a phased manner
13.3.3 HPH Performance
o Analysis of TTD & DCA and arriving at optimum heater level
o HPH Vent line loss evaluation.
o Action plan for checking of vent line orifice condition and

replacement as per need.
13.3.4 System Modifications
o Effect of Site specific System modifications carried out if any

on HR to be analyzed
_________________________________________________________
13.3.5 Test Conditions
o Test to be carried out as per EEMG guidelines.
o D/A level drop to be monitored during the test
o Equivalent DM make-up to be calculated and HR loss on this

account to be accounted for.
13.3.6 Gland Steam Cooler
o Steam flow Assessment for Sealing Steam flow to Gland

Steam Cooler by heat balance of Gland Steam Cooler
o Instruments required for the same to be provided if required
13.3.7 Insulation
o Heat loss due to poor insulation to be assessed and

quantified.
13.3.8 LP Turbine Efficiency
o Deterioration can be assessed with the help of Math model

software.
o Opening & Closing Steam path audit of LP turbine.
o Restoration of LPT efficiency.
13.3.9 LP Heater Performance
o Deterioration can be assessed with Heater TTD calculation based

on test.
13.3.10 TD BFP Performance
o Deterioration can be assessed with quantification of extra steam

consumption of BFP.
_________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Heat Rate Improvement Activities
14.0 Heat Rate Improvement Activities
14.1 Introduction
There are many areas where heat rate improvements are possible at
many plants. Most of these improvements require little effort and
expense.
These areas are typical opportunities for improving efficiency, reducing

maintenance, and obtaining other additional benefits. Not all plants have
problems in each of these areas, but in many plants, these problems are
commonly encountered.
Some of these problems show up as “unaccountable” heat rate

deviations, which are not readily apparent; therefore, they often go
unnoticed, such as valve passing. Other potential improvement areas are
overlooked because the true “expected” performance level is not defined
such as condenser performance or boiler outlet O2.
14.2 Improved Condenser Cleanliness
In almost all plants, there are opportunities for increased thermal

efficiency by increasing the cleanliness of the condenser. Even on units
that have a closed loop condenser circulating water system, with treated
water, over time, deposits (organic, inorganic, or both) will form on the
internal diameter of the condenser tubes. The deposit or “fouling” does
not have to be very thick, it may not even be apparent to the eye, for it
to “insulate” the tubes. The additional resistance to heat transfer causes
the condenser pressure to increase. This increase in condenser pressure
increases the heat rate and some times decreases unit load.
14.2.1 Proper Decision for Cleaning:
Since poor condenser cleanliness is one of the major causes of high

condenser pressure, the cleanliness of the tubes should be measured
periodically. This normally requires a condenser test or, on some units,
cleanliness may be calculated continuously via readings from station
instruments. Either way, with periodic tests or continuous
measurements, an estimate of the “fouling rate” of the condenser can be
established, and the proper decision on when and how often to clean the
condenser can be made.
14.2.2 Opportunity Cleaning:
Many plants clean their condensers only once a year, during annual
outages. For almost all units, this is insufficient, and results in higher
production costs. A cost versus benefit analysis should be done,
comparing the cost of cleaning a condenser to the potential heat rate
improvement to find the optimum cleaning cycle that minimizes the
operating cost.

14.2.3 Cleaning during summer:
It is not unusual for units in the 200 to 500 MW range to require multiple
cleanings each year. Since fouling has a greater impact in the summer
(because for a given change in condenser pressure, the change in heat
rate is larger at higher condenser pressure, which occurs in the summer)
more cleanings will be required at the start and during summer, than in
winter.
With inexpensive equipment, plant personnel (or a service provider)

should be able to clean 5000 tubes in a water box in one 8 hour shift.
This makes on-line cleaning of one water box, during the night when
demand is reduced, very practical and cost effective.
14.2.4 Condenser on Line Tube Cleaning System:
In a power plant the biggest heat rate deviation is due to fouling on the
water side of the condenser tubes. This fouling can be removed manually,
but it requires either an outage or load reduction in the unit. With an on-
line cleaning system, the tubes can be kept very clean without any loss of
generation. Another important benefit, in addition to reduced fuel cost, is
additional load is also generated. Where a condenser tube cleaning
system is to be installed, the inlet water box must be supplied with
debris-free water. Additional attention is required to be given to the
design of the debris removal system where on-line tube cleaning systems
are to be installed.
14.2.5 Condenser Tube Thinning Survey
Regular condenser tube eddy current measurement is required for

assessing tube thinning of condenser as unit operation with leakage in
condenser tube has a long term impact on boiler health.
14.3 Condenser Air In-leakage
A common problem at many plants is high condenser air-in leakage. This

can be detrimental not only to heat rate, but also to the water chemistry
and therefore the reliability of the unit. (High dissolved oxygen in the
condensate / feed water is a major contributor to boiler tube leaks. If
hydrazine is fed in the unit to remove the oxygen, large amount of
ammonia can be formed, attacking the condenser tubes.)
The thermal performance can be adversely affected due to “air

blanketing” the condenser tubes, effectively reducing the heat transfer
surface area. If the air in the condenser covers some of the tubes, the
steam cannot get to the tube surface to be condensed
14.3.1 Air removal Problem
If there is insufficient air removal capacity (air ejectors or vacuum

pumps), the condenser pressure will rise until the capacity of the removal

equipment is equal to the in leakage. Vacuum pumps and steam jet air
ejectors have a head versus volumetric flow curve like any other pump.
The “head” is the difference between the condenser pressure and the
ambient pressure. As the condenser pressure drops, (condenser vacuum
rises) the head rises, and the capacity of the vacuum pump/SJAE
decreases.
If the steam/air mixture being drawn off the air removal equipment is not
sub cooled (the usual rule of thumb is it should be sub cooled at least 4-5
°C), then the removal equipment will be handling mostly steam.
14.3.2 Condenser Flood Test
Locating the source(s) of air in leakage is difficult. If the unit is off-line,

condensers can be hydrostatically tested by filling the steam side with
water. Then the unit is walked down looking for locations where water is
leaking out.
14.3.3 Steam Pressurization
During condenser flood test leakages can be detected up to condenser

neck level. For detecting air in leakage point above neck level steam
pressurization is carried out. Steam leaks through the leaking points.
During steam pressurization pressure control are very vital to avoid
diaphragm ruapture.
14.3.4 Tracer gas Method
If the unit is on-line, a tracer gas is used, normally Helium and sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6) are used for this purpose. A sensor that is capable of
detecting small quantities of the tracer gas is placed at the exhaust of the
air removal equipment. Then small amounts of the tracer gas are sprayed
at potential leaks (LP turbine shaft seals, LPT horizontal joint, turbine to
condenser joint, hot well sight glasses, condensate extraction pump
seals, etc.). If the sensor detects the gas, there is a leak at that point.
Each plant should have this equipment available so that whenever the
condenser air in leakage increases, a search for the source can be
initiated.
14.3.5 Condenser Measurements
Because the condenser is usually one of the locations of large heat rate
deviations, it deserves additional instrumentation to monitor its
performance in addition to the high accuracy pressure transmitter
mentioned above.
Another important indication is the level of water in the outlet waterbox.

If the waterbox is not maintained full, the effective surface is reduced,
leading to high condenser back pressure. Sight glasses and float switch
alarms are easy to provide.

Some critical pressure measurements, which affect condenser

performance, and should be monitored are the pressure drop through
each waterbox, the pressure drop across the traveling water screens, and
the pressure drop across the coarse bar screens in front of the CCW
pumps.
Another critical condenser performance related measurement that is often

ignored is the quantity of air in leakage. As a minimum there should be a
rotameter at the air removal equipment for this purpose. In recent years,
several companies have offered anemometers for continuously
monitoring the amount of air in leakage.
14.4 Improved Cycle Isolation
A common problem found at many plants is improper cycle isolation.

This includes those steam and water leaks that can be seen, but more
importantly, it includes those “internal” leaks that do not cause increased
makeup. These should be closed and sealed, but frequently are
inadvertently left open or leak through.
14.4.1 On line Drain Passing monitoring
There are two category of drain valve passing
• High energy drains (mostly startup drains) that leak through to

the condenser are usually overlooked because these leaks are not
visible, and do not cause a derating unless they get very bad.
• Drains that includes both boiler (i.e., super heater header drains,
reheat header drains, etc.) and turbine cycle drains (i.e., stop
valve above and below seat drains, turbine loop line drains, steam
traps on extraction piping, etc.) cause large heat losses.
Both of these categories of cycle isolation problems are extremely

detrimental to the thermal performance of a unit.
14.4.2 Drain temperature measurement:
There are techniques for measuring the temperature on the pipe at two
locations, and with an estimate of the pipe’s insulation, calculating the
flow rate.
For top priority area such as main steam, hot reheat steam, secondary
superheat inlet headers, etc., it is recommended that a permanent,
“continuous” temperature monitoring system be installed. Normally
thermocouples are tack welded to the OD of the pipe. The thermocouple
extension wire is run to the control room where the temperature can be
displayed to the DAS.

14.4.3 Acoustic Measurement:
Other methods include some analysis of the acoustic signal that can be
measured upstream and downstream of the valve, and personnel with a
lot of experience with locating leaks can usually give an estimate of the
size of the leak.
14.4.4 Valve Replacement
Frequently passing valves are to be replaced with new valve. There

should be a system of replacement of drain valve after regular interval.
14.5 Milling System
14.5.1 Primary Air Flows Balancing
In order to have proper combustion, a certain ratio of primary air to fuel

should be maintained at each burner. If this ratio is not maintained,
slagging, excessive NOx and CO formation, uneven convection pass metal
temperatures, coal settling in pipes, an increase in unburned carbon in
ash, creation of reducing atmospheres, and other detrimental impacts can
occur.
The first step toward obtaining this proper and equal air-fuel ratio at each
burner is to balance the “clean” air flows in each coal pipe. This should
be done for each pulverizer after any major pulverizer work is performed
or if coal pipes or burner maintenance is performed. At the same time ,
the mill primary air flow calibration can be checked by comparing the sum
of the air flow through each pipe to the indicated primary air flow.
If the air flows are not within ± 2% of the average, the orifices in the coal
pipes need to be inspected.
14.5.2 Dirty air Test
Normally, if the air flows are balanced when there is no coal flow, and the
mill’s fineness is good, the “dirty” air flow will also be balanced. Dirty air
flow is the flow rate of the air, when it is also carrying pulverized coal.
This can be measured with a special type of pitot tube that is designed to
measure the air flow with out plugging quickly.
After running a dirty air test, the average velocity in each coal pipe can
be measured, and an iso-kinetic coal sample collected from the pipe, and
the flow rate of the coal can be determined. With this procedure, the air
flow, coal flow, and air to fuel ratio can all be determined. Just as
maintaining an accurate indication of primary air flow is critical for good
combustion and efficiency, so is maintaining proper air and equal
distribution of air and coal in each pipe. Therefore these tests should also
be a routine activity

14.5.3 Improved Coal Fineness
Proper fineness is essential for good combustion, as well as preventing

slagging and delayed combustion, etc. it is important to consider both
the amount passing (or retained) on the 200 mesh and the 50 mesh
screens.
Before analyzing the results of a fineness test, the sample should be

checked to ensure that the sample was collected properly (that the
sample is not biased). To do this, at least three sieves (50, 100, and 200
mesh) and preferably four sieves (50, 70, 100, 200 or 50, 100, 140, and
200) should be used and the % passing each sieve determined. These
results can also be plotted on a “Rosin and Rammler” diagram. If the
three or four points do not fall in a straight line, the sample may be
biased. Isokinetic sampling may be required to obtain a representative
sample. Also, sample to be collected for each pipes of a mill.
Some mills may have good 200 mesh fineness but have 1-2% remaining
on a 50 mesh screen. Most of this very coarse coal will not burn, and will
end up in the bottom ash. It also frequently causes slagging problems
around the burners.
Other mills may have good 50 mesh fineness, but poor 200 mesh
fineness. This will frequently contribute to high combustibles in the fly
ash.
With high ash and abrasive coal the fineness may be reduced slightly to
extend the life of pulverizer grinding components and pipe materials.
Where slagging and/or high combustibles in ash is a problem, the
fineness may be held at a high level. Some rough “rules of thumb” are
that the amount of coal passing through the 200 mesh screen should be
in the range of 70-75%. The amount of coal retained on a 50 mesh
screen should be no more than 0.1 to 0.5%
In addition to the problems listed above, poor fineness causes problems

with coal distribution to the burners. If the coal is not properly ground,
the distribution to the burners may not be even, resulting an air-fuel
imbalances at one or more burners.
A secondary problem resulting from poor fineness is often additional

excess air is supplied to the boiler to attempt to compensate for the poor
fineness. This may partially compensate for the fineness, but it comes at
the price of higher dry gas loss and higher auxiliary power usage.
14.5.4 Mill Outlet Temperature
Another area where the boiler efficiency can be increased is by increasing

the mill outlet temperature. There are two indirect improvements. First,
the pulverization of the coal is accomplished more efficiently at higher
temperatures. Second, the coal is less likely to stick together at higher
temperatures. A direct improvement results from reducing the quantity of

tempering air that bypasses the air heater, thereby increasing boiler
efficiency. Plants should have capability to efficiently handle a wide range
of fuels, including a wide range of moisture and volatile contents.
14.6. Optimised Furnace O2 Operation
The two largest losses in a power plant are from the heat rejected in the
condenser, and the heat that goes out the stack. Typically five percent or
more of the energy that is put into the boiler is lost out the stack. This
loss has two parts, the temperature of the gas, and the quantity of gas.
The flow rate is primarily set by the O2 level at the economizer outlet/air
heater inlet.
The “required” O2 level varies from unit to unit, and at any unit the
“required” O2 level varies with time due to changes in the fuel supplied,
boiler load, tightness of the furnace and casing, and other factors.
A generic thumb rule is that 3% O2 should be available at the furnace

exit, however, some units can run with less than 3%, and some units
require more than 3%. In order for a plant to determine the O2 level it
needs, a series of optimization tests can be run varying various
parameters.
14.6.1 O2 Measurements:
It should be ensured that the on-line O2 monitors are representative of

the average O2 level in the duct. This may require multiple sensors, or
ensuring that the location of the on-line sensor gives representative
values at various conditions. Another instrument that can aid in reducing
O2 is a CO monitor. A third method to help provide assurances that O2 is
not being lowered too much is to perform HVT traverses, measuring the
furnace outlet O2.
Monitoring the O2 level at the furnace exit should not be considered as an

alternative to the O2 measurement at the air heater inlet. Because the
flue gas at the furnace exit can be stratified, readings can be misleading
at this location. For this reason, monitoring the furnace exit O2 should be
a supplement to the air heater inlet measurement.
However there are two problems with measurements at the AH. First,
because all boilers are balanced draft, air in leakage in the convection
pass makes O2 readings at the AH unreliable as an indication of
conditions in the furnace. Second, if the furnace is operating properly,
there should be little or no CO entering the convection pass, but due to
the elevated temperatures at that point, CO that is present there can
“burnout” to CO2 and not be seen at the air preheater.
14.7 Attemperation Valves Passing
One leading cause of reduced efficiency is leaking attemperator valves,

especially reheat attemperation valves. Reheat attemperation is

sometimes required to maintain proper steam temperatures. However, a

leaking attemperator valve causes efficiency losses both from the water
that bypasses the high pressure heaters and HP turbine, and also by
reducing the reheat steam temperature. These valves see very severe
service, and are prone to leak.
One solution is to install air operated block valves that work with the
control system. The block valves are used to provide tight shutoff,
leaving the control valves to regulate flow ,when it is needed. When
attemperation is needed, first the block valve opens fully, and then the
control valve is allowed to open as required. After the control valve goes
shut, the block valve is shut automatically. Two additional options that
should be considered are the use of multi-stage or drag valves to better
handle the large pressure drop, or supplying the attemperator with water
from an intermediate stage of the boiler feed water pump, so the
pressure drop across the valve is not as high.
14.8 Instrument Calibration
Accuracy & locations of key instrumentation are very important for

accurate assessment of the efficiency gap area. These “key instruments”
fall into two categories. The first category includes instruments that are
used to control the unit, and also have large impacts on heat rate. Such
as:
1. Main steam temperature and pressure
2. Hot reheat steam temperature
3. Eco outlet O2
4. Flue gas exit temperature
5. Mill outlet temperatures
6. Primary air flow rates
7. Water box differential, etc.
The second category includes instruments that measure conditions that

are not directly controlled by the operator, but these instruments are
used to monitor the actual performance of the unit. Instruments in this
category include:
1. Final feed water temperature
2. Spray flows
3. Makeup flow
4. Condenser pressure, etc.

Individual thermocouples frequently deviate 2°C from the “standard” at

high temperatures. Also, over time, and with temperature cycles,
thermocouples will drift. This alone can cause significant errors in the
indicated temperature.
These losses can be avoided by:
• Installation of better accuracy instrumentation in critical locations
• Installation of multiple sensors at critical locations.
• Calibration program.
The frequency of “key instrument calibrations” will depend on its

criticality. Once the key instrument calibration program is set up, and
running, it should be monitored periodically. If sensors are showing
negligible changes, perhaps the time between calibrations can be
extended. If some sensors showing a drift at every check then a different
type of sensor should be used at that location?
By setting up a proper calibration program, heat rate losses due to these

instrument inaccuracies should be minimized.
14.9 Boiler Cleanliness:
Boiler Cleanliness is very important for better heat transfer. Temperature

and pressure sensors on the water/steam side and temperature sensors
on the convection pass gas side of the boiler can be used to determine
the cleanliness of different sections of the boiler. This information can
then be used to determine which section(s) of the boiler should be
cleaned (with soot blowers). The efficiency is improved in two ways.
First, by only using the soot blowers that are necessary, when they are
necessary, the usage of steam and/or air is minimized. Second, by
maintaining high cleanliness and therefore heat transfer rates in all
sections, the flue gas exit gas temperature is minimized. An additional
benefit of this system, is that by reducing the amount of soot blowing,
soot blower erosion is reduced, thus reducing maintenance.
LRSB
Availability and optimized operation of wall blowers and long retractable

soot blowers is very important for keeping surface area clean. A boiler
furnace is designed to absorb a specific percentage of the total heat
released in the furnace. The remaining heat not absorbed in the furnace
enters the convection pass and is eventually observed in super heater,
reheater, economizer, and air heater sections. Slag accumulation in
furnace walls reduce the heat absorption in the furnace and result in
more heat being passed into convection passes. And, with presence of
slag accumulation / fouling in the convection area heat transfer further
reduces resulting in the high economizer & Airheater exit temperature. It

has been observed in some of the units that with selected LRSB operation
economizer outlet temperature reduces by almost 30 deg.C.
Water Cannons/Hydro Jets
Introduced in 1988, water cannon technology has displaced conventional

wall blowers or water lances as the best available technology for furnace
cleaning performance.
It provides “intelligent” real-time cleaning of furnaces, using water

cleaning hardware and control system that utilizes sensors and software.
The latest generation of water cannon technology is able to outperform

any other furnace cleaning method available today. Using the principle of
cross-furnace cleaning where a robotically controlled water jet is
transmitted across the firebox to the opposite or adjacent walls, it
efficiently and cost-effectively can clean up to 90% of the furnace water
walls. Only four units are needed for most standard boiler geometries.
14.10 Flue Gas Analysis
For performance testing, the gases that are measured are carbon dioxide
(CO2), oxygen (O2), and carbon monoxide (CO). Accurate, reliable, and
fast gas analyzers are necessary to analyze for these gases. For many
years, the use of an Orsat was the standard, and Orsats are still used
today for checking single point measurements. However, when running a
test, an Orsat is not sufficient to perform the number of analyses
necessary in a reasonable amount of time. More accurate analyzers that
use a paramagnetic sensor for O2, and infrared sensors for CO2 and CO
are better choices.
14.11 High Exit Gas Temperature
High exit gas temperature usually results from high excess air, overfiring,
boiler casing leakage, air heater fouling, convection pass fouling, or
excessive furnace water wall fouling. The effects of these conditions on
boiler efficiency are described below:
14.11.1 High Excess Air
It increases the quantity of gases leaving the boiler. In addition, the exit
gas temperature increases because the water and steam flows are
unchanged and they do not cool the increase flue gas flow as much. In
this case, the gas temperature entering the air heater is high as well. The
increased gas flow and temperature increase the dry gas loss.
Maintaining excess air at design during the test eliminates this affect.
14.11.2 Over firing
Due to low feed water temperature, more firing in furnace is required

which causes boiler efficiency to drop off because of the high exit gas

temperature. Over firing results in a mismatch between flue gas and

steam and water flows, resulting in less cooling of the flue gas and higher
dry gas loss. In this case, the gas temperature entering the air heater is
also high. Other losses are affected negligibly by over firing. Maintaining
adequate final feed water temperature eliminates over firing.
14.11.3 AH Basket Cleaning
AH fouling results in increase in the exit gas temperature while the

temperature of the gas entering the air heater usually remains
unchanged. High exit gas temperature along with low air-outlet
temperature indicates air heater fouling or material loss due to corrosion.
If air heater fouling occurs, the pressure drops across the air heater are
expected to increase. Conversely, if material loss occurs, air heater
pressure drops are expected to decrease. In either case, a reduction in
gas-side efficiency would be expected and the X-ratio should remain
relatively unchanged. AH basket cleaning during OH plays a vital role in
efficiency improvement of the AH.
14.11.4 Air Heater Leakage
AH leakage refers to air leakages through the radial and circumferential

seals into the flue gas path and is a function of the pressure differential
between the air and flue gas ducts. This leakage increases with worn air
heater seals. An increase in air-heater leakage results in increased forced
draft (FD) and induced (ID) fan power, as well as increased steam coil air
preheating. AH seal replacement/setting is required to be done in each
OH.AH sector plates replacement/repair may be done on condition based.
14.11.5 Furnace Fouling
Excessive Furnace Water Wall Fouling results in higher furnace exit gas
temperatures and high flue gas temperatures throughout the boiler. It
usually accompanies high spray flows. Convection pass Fouling of the
super heater and re heater sections of the boiler result in less cooling of
flue gas and higher gas temperatures throughout the boiler. High gas
temperature entering the air heater results in high exit-gas temperature.
Furnace wall blowing & LRSB operation should be healthy for online
cleaning. Furnace extensive cleaning during annual overhaul is very
important. Now a days HP jet cleaning is being preferred for good
cleaning surface.
14.11.6 Boiler Casing Leakage
On a balanced draft steam generators, boiler casing leakage can affect

the heat transfer patterns by increasing the quantity of flue gas flow.
Although sometimes resulting in localized cooling, the normal result of
boiler casing leakage is increased exit gas temperature. This is because in
the air heater, the heat capacity of the gas side is increased while the air-
side get reduced, (X-ratio decreases). High exit gas temperature,

accompanied by high air outlet temperature is an indication of boiler

casing leakage
14.12. HP/IP/LP Efficiency
Typical reductions in efficiency as shown in Table
Typical HP IP LP
Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency
Losses Losses Losses Losses
Solid Particle 0 - 2% 0 - 2% 0 - 0.5%
Erosion
Blade Deposits 0 - 10% 0 - 5% 0 - 3%
Mechanical 0 - 3% 0 - 2% 0 - 1%
Damage
Worn Seals 2 - 12% 1 - 4% 0 - 1%
For a given turbine design, condition of Blade/Vane surface, profile and

various type of seals determines the operating efficiency level of the
cylinders. But the non-availability of spare Diaphragms and modules
causes a constraint on the efficiency recovery due to Tip seals wear
(Diaphragm type) and seal fin wear, replacement of which is difficult at
site and sending to Works involves the tremendous loss on account of
higher downtime. Wherever possible, concept of modular replacement
during planned overhaul is useful.
14.12.1 Steam Path Audits
A very valuable tool to the performance engineer is a steam path audit of

the turbine’s steam path. These audits are performed when the turbine is
first opened, before any other work is done. It involves measuring seal
clearances, surface roughness, amount of erosion, mechanical damage,
etc. This information is then fed into a computer program that estimates
the heat rate and load penalty of each non-design seal clearance as well
as any other defects. From this information, it is possible to minimize the
cost of the turbine overhaul by only performing the work that is
economical.
14.13 HP Heater Performance
14.1.3.1 Temperature Rise
Low temperature rise is generally an indication of a heater problem.

Although it could be the result of low main and reheat steam
temperatures or blockage of the extraction steam flow; i.e., NRV not fully
open. Poor heat transfer can be the result of any combination of
conditions, such as poor shell-side venting, fouled tubes, steam-side

baffle failure, feed water bypassing the pass partition plate, or a high
condensate level.
A temperature rise higher than design can be an indication of other unit

equipment problems; i.e., low HP turbine efficiency. A high temperature
rise can also occur if the inlet water temperature is colder than normal. In
both cases, additional steam extracted by the heater can cause such
undesirable consequences as tube vibration and failure at the steam inlet
section. TTD is an indicator of heater performance.
14.13.2 Venting
Non-condensable gases in the extraction steam must be continuously

vented from the heater shell to prevent blanketing of tubes. Such
blanketing or binding prevents the tubes from contacting the extraction
steam and reduces heat transfer. It is important that the vent be opened
enough to prevent this accumulation, while not opened so far that heat is
wasted. The vent lines of most heaters have orifices so that the correct
amount of steam is vented by simply opening the vent valve wide open.
Start-up vents should be closed during normal operation.
14.13.3 Heater Condensate Level
A potential problem for efficient feed water heater operation is the control
of the condensate level within the heater. If the level is too low, there is a
possibility that extraction steam “blows through” the heater without fully
condensing. This can result in erosion of the drain cooler section because
of the flashing steam and result in tube failures. The tubes in this section
must be covered to properly sub cool the condensate. In this case, the
DCA will be very high.
If the level is too high, the condensate covers the tubes that normally
condense steam. This is inefficient because much more heat is given up
by steam that is condensing as opposed to sub cooling (heat transfer is
approximately 2-3 times more effective in the condensing section than in
the drain cooler section). A high heater level can also cause an
operational problem since it may result in turbine water induction. In this
case, TTD will increase with high condensate level, whereas DCA will be
slightly decreased or unaffected.
14.13.4 Steam Supply Conditions
Low temperature extraction steam results in less energy available to the

feed water heater, causing a decrease in temperature rise and increased
TTD. Throttle and reheat temperatures affect extraction temperatures.
High extraction temperatures caused by high throttle and reheat
temperatures or from poor turbine section efficiency also result in
changed heater performance.

Low shell pressure can be caused by a restriction in the extraction line, too
much steam consumption, or a turbine problem. Turbine stage pressure is
a function of flow to the following stage. If additional steam is consumed
by the heater, less steam flows to the stages following the heater
extraction, and the shell pressure decreases. In this case, the feedwater
temperature rise increases and TTD will likely decrease. The pressure drop
from the turbine flange to the heater shell should be consistent from test
to test. A sudden increase or decrease is cause for concern. If the
pressure drop increases, the extraction line should be checked for a
restriction, possibly a sticking NRV or isolation valve not being fully open.
In this case, the feedwater temperature rise decreases, while the TTD
increases. There may be a problem in the turbine if the shell pressure is
low, the pressure drop is normal, but the feedwater temperature rise is
low and TTD is high. Mechanical damage upstream of the extraction point
may cause closure of the steam path and lower pressures downstream.
Blade deposits have similar effects.
14.14 CT Cold Water Temperature High
If the tested tower capability is normal, there is a good chance that the
high cold-water temperature is the result of high heat loading on the
cooling tower due to reduced turbine cycle efficiency. Additional heat
loading can come from increased auxiliary cooling requirements due to
reduced efficiency of balance of plant equipment such as compressors.
If the high cold-water temperature is associated with a reduced cooling

tower capability, the condition of the water distribution system and
cooling tower fill should be checked. The water should be distributed
evenly over the fill. If the fill is displaced, plugged, or fouled, it will not
adequately break up the water for effective contact with the air, resulting
in reduced performance. In addition, it may restrict the air flow if
excessively fouled, resulting in an increase in the L/G ratio and
consequent increase in cold water temperature. This can be corroborated
by checking the fan power requirements.
14.14.1 Increased Fan Power Requirements
one potential cause of increased fan power is plugged or fouled fill. The
condition of the fan motor, the gear reducer, fan shaft bearings, and any
other associated drive components should be checked. If the fan has
variable pitch blades, verify that they are set to the proper angle.
14.14.2 Increased Cooling Water Makeup Requirements
High cooling water makeup requirements can result from high

evaporation rates, excessive drift, high cooling tower blow down rates, or
system leaks. The evaporation rate from the tower will vary with the
season, being lower in the colder months when there is more sensible
heat transfer from the water to the air.

The condition of drift eliminators at the tower air discharge should be

inspected for general condition and for clogging.
Cooling tower blow down is necessary to prevent the buildup of dissolved

solids to too high a concentration as water is evaporated. The blow down
should be just sufficient to maintain the cycles of concentration of
dissolved solids at the proper level. If excessive blow down is required,
the cooling tower water treatment program should be reviewed.
14.15 Variable Speed Drives for Major Auxiliaries
Large equipment such as forced draft fans, primary air fans, induced draft
fans, motor driven boiler feed water pumps, and condensate pumps
require substantial amounts of auxiliary power. At reduced loads there
are large losses associated with either guide vanes, dampers,
recirculation valves or hydraulic couplings that are used for control.
These losses are often present at full load, as the auxiliary equipment is
usually slightly “oversized.” To eliminate these losses, equipment, should
be controlled with frequency control variable speed drives. There are
three additional advantages to the use of variable speed drives. First is
the “soft start” capability, where the motor is not subjected to large
starting currents. Second is the elimination of the maintenance and
control problems associated with vanes and dampers. Third, with India’s
power system frequency fluctuations, the fans and pumps can be
controlled well with variable speed drives because the speed of the
pump/fan is independent of the system frequency.
14.16 Infrared Thermography and Ultrasonic Acoustics
Infrared thermography and Ultrasonic acoustics can efficiently identify

leaks in many areas. Both provide accurate detection of fluid leaks that
commonly occur at a power plant. When combined, the effectiveness of
these leak detection methods increases dramatically. Confirming a
suspected leak detected with one technology by repeating the detection
with a separate technology is always a best practice.
14.16.1 Infrared Thermography (IR) and Ultrasonic Acoustics can be

used to detect leaks on the following equipment/systems :
Boiler Casing
Infrared is very effective when used to identify boiler and ductwork

casing leaks. Boiler casing leaks increase auxiliary power use by
increasing load on fans and pulverizers. Reducing casing leaks improves
combustion and reduces excess air.
Leaking Process Valves
Identifying leaking valves is probably the most effective use of

thermography to reduce heat rate losses and operational problems.
Temperature is key to identifying leaking valves. A small temperature

rise can indicate a leak through. Valves and lines going to the condenser,
boiler blow down, miscellaneous drain tank, reclaim tank, drip receiver,
and priming for pumps under vacuum should be checked. All boiler,
turbine, stop valve, valve chest, etc., drain lines need to be checked for
leak through. It is to be ensured that valve is totally closed before
inspecting.
Steam Traps
IR can identify leaking bypass lines and improper operation. Comparison

between like equipment that is operating the same often confirms
problems. Use Ultrasonic Acoustics to confirm problems.
Condensers
Condenser air in-leakage can be identified with IR by changes in

temperature before and after flanges, valves (packing), welds, safeties,
etc. Detection can be difficult and surface conditions always need to be
compensated for. Checking a condenser tube sheet for leaks while the
unit is on can pinpoint the tube to plug. Remember to confirm the leak
with another method such as Ultrasonic Acoustics or plastic. A large
temperature difference between the air and tubes help in identifying the
leak.
Using IR for air in-leakage requires a small temperature span since the
leakage cools the downstream piping only by a few degrees.
Using ultrasonics or other methods to confirm any leak is highly

recommended
Heaters
Heaters can also be checked with IR to identify heat rate loss. Shell
safety valves, vents, drains, and pumps are items to check during a
survey. Both high pressure and low pressure heaters should be scanned.
Vacuum pumps, LP drain pumps, and other types should be checked.
Shell safety valves are a common leak point. Once they begin to leak
they normally do not re-seat themselves.
Safety Valves
All safety valves should be scanned ,especially those that do not vent to
atmosphere. Those that vent to reclaim or miscellaneous drain tanks are
often overlooked. High energy piping safeties are usually reset during
outages and vent to atmosphere.

CenPEEP Math Modeling of Power Plant
15.0 MATH MODELLING OF POWER PLANT
15.1 Introduction
The utilities worldwide strive to operate their power stations at best

achievable / design efficiency level. It is also a hard fact that with
passage of time, degradation sets in various equipments and as a result
plant’s efficiency deteriorates. We require correct assessment of
degradation, their impact on unit efficiency (and in turn cost) and
generation of appropriate corrective action for restoration of efficiency.
Normally, some key operating parameters and some performance indices
are required to monitor performance and assess degradation. Many a
times, these parameters are not adequate to correctly assess the extent
of degradation, analyze the reason of degradation and develop suitable
corrective action plan for restoration of the performance. Modeling of
equipments and their integrated system through known mathematical
representation of the processes and simulation of different equipment
conditions / operating conditions help in analyzing the problem in a better
way and reach to correct solution. The methodology of equipment and
system modeling and analysis of the shortfall in efficiency of individual
component and their impact on the heat rate has become very popular in
the utilities. This has also led to development of many commercial
modeling software which is being used by utilities across the world for
simulation of their plant process and analysis of performance shortfall.
15.2 What is modeling?
Modeling is a mathematical representation of various processes like heat

and mass transfer, fluid dynamics etc taking place in equipment. The
physics of the processes are sometimes accurately known and hence can
be accurately represented by the mathematical formulation of the
process. Broadly, for equipment modeling, there are some input
parameters and governing equations representing the process related to
the equipment performance and output parameters. These governing
equations basically correlates the input / output parameters. Mass and
energy balance across the equipments are also used for the equipment
modeling. Many a times, the physics of the processes are not known
accurately, however, there are empirical correlations that capture the
processes broadly. In this case, these empirical relations are used for
description of the underlying processes. Combustion of coal is one such
phenomena. Modeling is used for equipment design, what if analysis i.e.
identifying impact of controllable parameters on equipment behavior /
output parameters and simulation purposes.
Typically, any industrial applications involve uses of several equipments

which are linked / integrated. Modeling of such a system involves
modeling of individual equipment as well as their linkages. As can be
seen, modeling of equipments and system would involve a lot of
computations and simple manual calculations (using calculator) may not

be enough. The computing power of latest computers has been proven

very useful for modeling and analysis. Obviously, modeling involves
writing large computer codes using a programming language and then
running the same. Many customized and user friendly software has been
developed for modeling and analysis for different kind of industrial
applications.
15.3 Power Plant Applications
A thermal power plant is a very complex system comprising of several

major and minor equipments arranged in an orderly fashion to produce
power. The efficiency of such a complex system depends upon key
controllable and uncontrollable operational parameters (boiler excess
oxygen, coal quality, MS temp / pressure, condenser vacuum, ambient
conditions like air and cooling water temp etc) and individual equipments
conditions. Analysis of power plant efficiency requires understanding and
accurate assessment of impact of controllable parameters on individual
equipment performance and cycle performance and also impact of
degradation of performance of one equipment on other and entire
system. This analysis is fairly complex and requires simulation of plant
processes in an integrated manner. Use of advance simulation tools /
modeling software facilitate simulation of power plant processes under
different operating conditions and help assess the impacts of controllable
parameters and degradation.
The performance indices / parameter of the equipments are the results of

variation in operating parameters as well as component degradation. For
accurate analysis; we need to know the impact of each ie component
degradation as well as variation in operating parameters. This can easily
be achieved through usage of a validated model. For example, let us
consider a very simple case of Air Heater whose performance is typically
judged by AH gas side thermal efficiency and AH FG exit temperature. AH
thermal efficiency deterioration could be on account of fouled / damaged
element as well as less flow of air through the air heater. An air heater
model duly validated can easily be used to segregate the deviation in
efficiency on account of flow variation and on account of AH degradation.
Additionally, simulation of various operating conditions of the air heater
can also be done.
15.4 Methodology
A typical modeling methodology would involve modeling individual

components like HP / IP / LP turbines, condensers, heaters, pumps, boiler
etc and their integration through appropriate mass and energy balance
corresponding to the actual schematic of the plant. As brought out
earlier, writing computer codes for above is highly specialized job and can
not be done by power plant personnel engaged in O&M activities.
Companies engaged in modeling activities / OEM has developed user
friendly software for power plant modeling. There are standard modules

for modeling of each component. The mathematical formulations

characterizing the processes are inbuilt in the module and as a user; we
need to define some of the design parameters readily available with user.
The relevant modules as per the actual scheme in the plant is selected
and desired information (design / operating parameters, ambient
conditions) required for the modeling is filled in. The model is validated
using some of the design parameters as suggested by the software
developer.
15.5 Performance prediction under off design conditions:
Units are occasionally run at off design parameters like MS/RH temp,
pressure, RH sprays, condenser vacuum etc. The impact of these off
design parameters are predicted by curves provided by OEM. There are
commercial considerations as well in the development of these curves
and may not necessarily reflect the actual deviation in the heat rate.
Alternately, the turbine cycle can be modeled and validated using
commercial software. The aforementioned heat rate correction curves can
be developed using the validated models and these would be more
reflective of the unit than the curve provided by OEM. A model of turbine
cycle and heat rate correction curve developed is shown below:

1 646M
1 7 0 .1 P 5 3 5 .0 C 1 616M 1 616M 1 610M 1 635M 1 635M 1 473M 1 473M 5 3 7 .0 C
10 1 6 5 .0 P 3 0 8 1 0 .7 H 4 0 4 8 .2 5 P 3 8 07 3 2 .2 H 6 0 4 8 .2 P 4 9 07 3 3 .4 H 5 0 7 3 3 .4 H 5 3 7 .0 C 4 3 .4 P A
8 1 0 .7 H 2 0 8 1 0 .7 H 7 3 2 .2 H 7 3 3 .4 H 9 0 8 4 2 .3 H 1 0 08 4 2 .3 H
3 4 7 .3 C 4 3 .4 P
5 3 7 .0 C 31M 6M 0M 1 62M
S
B
5M 1M 0M 2M 0M
8 1 0 .7 H 8 1 0 .7 H 8 1 0 .7 HE 7 3 2 .2 H 7 3 2 .2L H
33 0 34 0 35 0 36 0 37 0
533.9 MW
26M 4M 1M 4M 2M 1 646M
B
K
1 9 7 5 k J/k Wh
C
4 1 0 .4 C
7 7 1 .0 H
4 8 .2 3P 9 0
F
8M
1 370M 1 209M 1 206M 3 0 0 .3 C 1 1 6 6 M 1 079M 1 040M 1 040M 1 041M
7 3 0 .4 H
A 1 2 02 0 .8 7 P 1 3 0 8 .0 7 P 7 0 7 3 0 .1 H 18 0 2 0 0 2 .9 1 P 2 1 0 1 .4 9 P 2 2 0 0 .3 0 P 2 3 0 0 .1 0 P 2 5 0 0 .1 P
7 9 0 .7 H 7 3 0 .1 H 8 .1 P 6 8 2 .2 H 6 5 5 .5 H 5 9 8 .4 H 5 7 0 .6 H 5 7 0 .8 H
1 214M
747 . 8H 260
4 6 .1 C
1 04M 1 61M 3M 48M 87M 39M
0M
0M
1M
8 0 7 3 0 .1IH N
460
G
D
11 15M
3M
571 . 4H 470 572 . 1H

140
1M
46 . 1C
0 . 1P
6M
H
8 .1 P
730 . 1H
86M
74M
K 44 0 4 5 07 4 7 .8 H
S 7 4 7 .8 H
11 19M
3 3 4 .9 C 4 M
46 . 1C
0 . 1P
H 2 .5 P 60 000 M
4 1 .9 C 0 .1 0 P 2 .5 P
48 0 27 0
190
4 1 .9 H 24 0 3 2 .1 H
6 0 0 0 0 M4 6 .1 H 3 2 .0 C
74M
730 . 1H
299 . 2C
L
7 . 6P
1 2 9 4 M4 6 .1 C
0M
8 .1 P
41 0
420
E
7 4 2 .6 H
3 2 4 .6 C
330 . 9C
745 . 8H
0M
8 . 1P
1 6 0 0 .1 PG 7 .2 6 P I
58 0.8H
17 0
d p =1 9 .0
2 2 5 .9 P 1 6 5 .71C6 7 .2 H 4 6 .5 C
0 . 1 TD 0 . 2 TD 1 7 3 .9 H 16 46M 3 . 0 TD 3 . 0 TD 2 . 8 TD 4 8 .9 C 1 9 .1 P
51 . 7C
51 . 6H 510
49. 3H 4 7 .1 H
0 . 3P
1 75M
1 9 .1 P 2 8 0
2 5 7 .01C1 0 2 1 0 .71C5 0 1 2 7 .13C2 0 1 0 6 .03C1 0 6 5 .1 3C 0 0 290 53 0 4 6 .9 H
51. 5H 1 0 0 .1 H
2 1 6 .0 C 1 7 4 .3 C 1 1 1 .1 C 7 0 .3 C 6 7 .9 C 5 1 .5 C
4 5 .7 P 1 9 .8 P 8 .1 P
2 .8 P 1 .4 P 0 .3 P

Heatrate Deviation Correction Curves - MS Temp
OEM PEPSE
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
HR Deviation in %
0.2
0.0
-20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
MS Temp Deviation in Deg C
Heatrate Deviation Correction Curves - RH Spray
OEM PEPSE
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
HR Deviation in %
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
RH Spray in % MS Flow

15.6 Boiler Applications
Boiler is operated many a times in off design conditions like different coal,
different steam flow, excess Oxygen level different than design level, lot
of tempering air entering in the boiler etc. The performance prediction of
boiler with these variations from design conditions using conventional /
thumb rule approach is extremely difficult. At the best, an OEM (Original
Equipment Manufacturer) provides some correction in couple of operating
parameters for a variation on parameter like excess oxygen etc. A
mathematical model of the boiler duly validated can very easily predict
the performance / operating behavior of the boiler under these variations
of operating conditions within reasonable accuracy level. This also helps
in assessing whether the difference in performance is on account of
different operating conditions (inputs) or degradation in boiler
components.
Also, sometimes, we find that a boiler is not giving desired performance

like MS / RH temperature or requiring a lot of RH spray to maintain the
temp. Sometimes, we face a situation where in we find that although the
desired temp is not achieved still we have to give sprays to control the
temperature. Analysis of these problems requires modeling of boiler and
analysis of heat transfer across each component. The proposed solution
(may be some changes in heat transfer surfaces) is simulated through
the model and the impact of changes in heat transfer surfaces can be
seen and further analyzed. OEM does this kind of simulation analysis;
however it is desirable that the modeling capabilities are available with
utilities as well so that the OEM proposals can be independently
evaluated.
OEMs have developed their own boiler modeling software for design and
analysis of boiler and they may or may not share the software with
utilities. However, there are other companies which have developed boiler
modeling software and these are commercially available. It may be noted
that developing a boiler modeling software is possible. However it is time
and resource consuming.
15.7 Approach / Strategy
There is a merit in using modeling technique for performance analysis as

it facilitates more accurate analysis and better understanding of the
processes. Typically, following are some of the steps for use of modeling
as performance analysis tool:
• Procurement of a commercial modeling software

• Training and practice session on the modeling software
• Modeling of an individual component like condenser, HP Heater etc
as a stand alone component in performance and design mode
(Performance mode: equipment’s performance data and input /

output parameters are required; Design mode: apart from input

parameters, design information like no of tubes, tube length, tube
diameter, material, tube pluggage details etc would be required)
• Assessing the impact of operating parameters on performance of
individual component
• Modeling of turbine cycle in performance mode using heat balance
diagram provided by the manufacturer and other design
information / rated operating parameters
• Validation of turbine cycle model using design data
• Sensitivity analysis of the turbine cycle model with respect to
critical operating parameters like MS pressure & temp, RH spray,
RH temp and pressure, vacuum, CW temp etc
• Analysis of the current performance level using current operating
parameters with the validated model
• Modeling of boiler in performance mode using design / rated
parameters and other design information
• Modeling of boiler in simplified design mode / design mode
• Validation of the boiler model using design boiler parameters
• Sensitivity analysis of boiler performance with respect to coal
quality, excess oxygen etc
• Use of validated boiler model for performance analysis
15.8 CenPEEP Initiative
Knowing these capabilities of modeling software, CenPEEP introduced the

modeling technique in NTPC in 1998 with the help of USAID support.
Modeling Software (PEPSE) was provided to NTPC stations. A
comprehensive training on modeling of turbine cycle and boiler had also
been provided to Efficiency Engineers of all NTPC stations in 1999. With
increased focus on efficiency and performance restoration to design level,
a strong need for software up-gradation and training has been felt.
Accordingly, CenPEEP has upgraded the original software provided to the
station with the latest version and provided training on the software to
EEMG Engineers of NTPC stations. CenPEEP also organized a 4 days boiler
modeling sessions for modeling of different boilers. Already, some
stations have developed turbine cycle models and generated heat rate
correction curves for different parameters. It is desirable to build upon
the existing knowledge of performance analysis through modeling and
related practices followed by utilities across the world.
Use of turbine cycle models for accurate assessment of deviations in heat

rate and unit capacity has also been demonstrated by M/S General
Physics Corporation, USA through USAID India in one unit of NTPC
Unchahar. The demonstration also established degradation in major

equipments and their contributions in heat rate and capacity deviations

with high degree of confidence. The typical methodology consists of:
• Modeling of turbine cycle under VWO condition using modeling

software
• Checking / calibration of major primary instruments
• Performance tests under VWO condition and at rated load / part
load and collection of sufficient process parameters
• Reconciliation of test data with steam / FW flow, throttle pressure,
condenser vacuum and MW generated with HBD data / model
predicted data
• Calculations of key performance indicators (KPIs) and their
comparison with design KPIs
• Determination of HR & capacity deviations of individual
equipments
This approach also brings out inaccuracies associated with measurement

of critical parameters.
15.9 Conclusion
Considering the capabilities and usefulness of modeling for plant

performance analysis, it is desirable to develop modeling capabilities
using some commercially available software. It would help in doing some
of the following tasks:
• Impact assessment of controllable parameters on plant efficiency
• Generation of heat rate correction curves for different operating
parameters, if the same has not been provided by the
manufacturer
• Validation of heat rate correction curves for different operating
parameters provided by OEM
• Calculation of plant and turbine cycle heat rate
• Assessment of vendor claims about the performance of
equipments and plants
• Impact assessment of equipment degradation on plant
performance
It is imperative to adopt modeling as a tool in a structured manner for
simulation of the plant processes to predict performance under various
operating conditions and accurate performance analysis. The requisite
familiarization, training and practices have been provided to selected
engineers for build up of further knowledge and capability in this
direction.

CenPEEP Fault Trees
APPENDIX E HEAT RATE LOGIC TREE

HEAT RATE
LOSSES
y PERFORMANCE FACTOR
BOILER TURBINE CYCLE COOLING WATER TURBINE

LOSSES LOSSES CYCLE LOSSES LOSSES
A B C D
y CONDENSER y HP/IP/LP
y FEEDWATER TEMPERATURE
y BOILER EFFICIENCY BACKPRESSURE EFFICIENCIES
DIFFERENCE
y EXIT GAS TEMPERATURE y CIRCULATING WATER INLET y STEAM FLOW
y AIR HEATER TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE y GENERATOR
DIFFERENCE OUTPUT'
y EXCESS AIR y W/ P/v
ELECTRICAL STEAM AUXILIARY FUEL HANDLING

HEAT LOSSES CYCLE ISOLATION
AUXILIARY LOSSES LOSSES LOSSES
E F I G H
y STATION LOAD y BOILER FEEDPUMP EFFICIENCY y SYSTEM WALKDOWN y SYSTEM WALKDOWN y SYSTEM WALKDOWN
y VACUUM PUMP FLOW y FUEL INVENTORY CHECKS y PYROMETER y HIGH PIPE WALL
TEMPERATURES
DOWNSTREAM OF ISOLATION
VALVES
y STEAM TRAP CHECKS
FIGURE E-1. HEAT RATE LOGIC TREE - MAIN DIAGRAM
________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Fault Trees
BOILER LOSSES A
y BOILER EFFICIENCY
y EXIT GAS TEMPERATURE
y AIR HEATER TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
y EXCESS AIR
MOISTURE INCOMPLETE CARBON LOSS RADIATION HEAT STACK GAS

DRY GAS LOSSES LOSSES
LOSSES COMBUSTION LOSSES
y CHANGE IN STACK GAS

y DECREASED O 2 2A TEMPERATURE
X y INCREASED EXIT
y INCREASED C O y INCREASED O 2 GAS TEMPERATURE
y INCREASED CARBON IN
ASH
EXCESSIVE SOOT CHANGE IN BURNER TIPS INCORRECT INCORRECT GAS FOULED HEAT
AMBIENT CHANGE IN COAL BYPASS DAMPER TRANSFER
BLOWING PLUGGED FUEL-TO-AIR
CONDITIONS QUALITY SETTING SURFACES
RATIO
y DECREASED EXIT GAS TEMP y CHANGE IN RELATIVE y COAL COMPOSITION y BYPASS DAMPER POSITION
y INCREASED MAIN STEAM TEMP HUMIDITY ANALYSIS
y INCREASED SUPERHEATER SPRAY
FLOW
y INCREASED CONDENSATE MAKE-UP
INCREASE IN COAL CHANGE IN COAL INCREASED MILL CHANGE IN MILL

CHANGE IN COAL IMPROPER BURNER EXCESSIVE
TUBE LEAKS SURFACE QUALITY TAILINGS FINENESS
QUALITY DAMPER SETTING FOULING
MOISTURE
y INCREASED MAKEUP FLOW y DECREASED MILL OUTLET y INCREASED H 2 y CHANGE IN COAL y DECREASE IN PRIMARY AIR y SIEVE TEST y DECREASED O 2 1
TEMPERATURE y INCREASE IN INTERNAL CARBON CONTENT FLOW y INCREASED WIND BOX
y DECREASED STACK
y INCREASED MILL MOISTURE PRESSURE
TEMPERATURE
CURRENT DRAW y INCREASED STACK GAS y INCREASED STACK GAS
y PRECIPITATOR EFFICIENCY
y INCREASED PRIMARY AIR TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
y PRECIPITATOR CURRENT
TEMPERATURE y INCREASED FURNACE
DRAW
y DECREASED STACK GAS PRESSURE DROP
y STACK OPACITY
TEMPERATURE y EXCESS 0 2 (NORMAL)
CLASSIFIER VANES LOSS OF ROLLER RING OR ROLLER CLASSIFIER VANE

IMPROPERLY TENSION WEAR WEAR
ADJUSTED
y CLASSIFIER VANE
POSITION
BOILER WATER
WALLS SUPERHEATER AIR PREHEATER REHEATER ECONOMIZER
y INCREASED MAIN STEAM y DECREASED MAIN STEAM y LOW EXIT AIR y DECREASED ECONOMIZER
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE y DECREASED HOT REHEAT OUTLET TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE
y INCREASED SUPERHEATER y DECREASED SUPERHEATER TEMPERATURE y INCREASED MAIN STEAM
y NORMAL INLET AIR AND
SPRAY FLOW SPRAY FLOW y DECREASED REHEAT SPRAY FLOW TEMPERATURE
GAS TEMPERATURES
y INCREASE IN AIR HEATER y INCREASED SUPERHEATER
DELTA-P (PLUGGAGE) SPRAY FLOW
y DECREASE IN AIR HEATER
DELTA-P (EROSION)
FIGURE E-2. HEAT RATE LOGIC TREE - BOILER LOSSES
________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Fault Trees
DRY GAS LOSSES 2A
y CHANGE IN STACK GAS

TEMPERATURE
y INCREASED O2
IMPROPER INCORRECT
BOILER CASING AIR BURNER DAMPER AIR PREHEATER
IN-LEAKAGE LEAKAGE FUEL-TO-AIR RATIO
SETTINGS
y DECREASED WIND BOX y HIGH O2 AT THE BOILER EXIT

y DECREASED STACK GAS
PRESSURE y HIGH EXCESS AIR
y DECREASED FURNACE EXIT TEMPERATURE
y INCREASED BOILER EXIT INCREASED O2 AT AIR MEASUREMENT
TEMPERATURE y
GAS TEMPERATURE
y HIGH O 2 AT THE BOILER EXIT HEATER EXIT
y NORMAL EXCESS AIR y DECREASED CO2 AT AIR
MEASUREMENT HEATER EXIT
y INCREASED BOILER EXIT y NORMAL O2 AT THE BOILER
TEMPERATURE EXIT
y INCREASED DESUPERHEAT
SPRAY FLOW
FIGURE E-3. HEAT RATE LOGIC TREE - DRY GAS
________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Fault Trees
TURBINE CYCLE
B
LOSSES
y INCREASE IN TTD
y INCREASE IN DCA
y DECREASED FEEDWATER
TEMPERATURE RISE
NONCONDENSIBLE TUBE LEAKS TUBES FOULED

TUBES PLUGGED
GASES IN SHELL SIDE INTERNALLY
y CHANGE IN FEEDWATER
y INCREASED TUBE
y DECREASED FEEDWATER HEATER LEVEL
y INCREASED TUBE BUNDLE BUNDLE PRESSURE DROP
OUTLET TEMPERATURE y DECREASED FEEDWATER
PRESSURE DROP y DECREASED EXTRACTION
y DECREASED EXTRACTION OUTLET TEMPERATURE
y DECREASED EXTRACTION PRESSURE DROP
PRESSURE DROP y CYCLING OF EMERGENCY DRAIN
PRESSURE DROP y GRADUAL CHANGE IN
VALVES
y STEP CHANGE IN FEEDWATER FEEDWATER OUTLET
OUTLET TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
FEEDWATER HEATER FEEDWATER HEATER FEEDWATER HEATER

EXCESSIVE VENTING FEEDWATER HEATER
HIGH LEVEL OUT OF SERVICE BAFFLE OR BYPASS
OR STEAM LEAKS LOW LEVEL
VALVE LEAKS
y INCREASED DRAIN
y INCREASED EXTRACTION y DECREASED FEEDWATER OUTLET y DECREASED y DECREASED FEEDWATER
COOLER OUTLET
PRESSURE DROP TEMPERATURE ECONOMIZER INLET OUTLET TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE
y DECREASED FEEDWATER y HIGH FEEDWATER HEATER LEVEL TEMPERATURE y DECREASED TUBE
y LOW FEEDWATER
OUTLET TEMPERATURE y DECREASED DRAIN COOLER OUTLET BUNDLE PRESSURE
HEATER LEVEL
TEMPERATURE DROP
y INCREASED DRAIN COOLER OUTLET
PRESSURE
FIGURE E-4. HEAT RATE LOGIC TREE - TURBINE CYCLE LOSSES
________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Fault Trees
COOLING WATER
C
CYCLE LOSSES
y CONDENSER BACKPRESSURE
y CIRCULATING WATER INLET TEMPERATURE
INCREASED HEAT
CHANGE IN AMBIENT LOW CIRCULATING
AIR IN-LEAKAGE TUBE CLEANLINESS LOAD ON
CONDITIONS WATER FLOW
CONDENSER
y HIGH TEMPERATURE y INCREASED y CIRCULATING WATER

DIFFERENTIAL 11
y CHANGE IN CONDENSER TTD OUTLET
CIRCULATING WATER BETWEEN EXHAUST y TUBE BUNDLE TEMPERATURE
INLET TEMPERATURE AND CONDENSATE PRESSURE DROP y DECREASE IN TURBINE
y CIRCULATING WATER
y WET BULB y INCREASED VACUUM EFFICIENCY
PUMP DISCHARGE
TEMPERATURE PUMP FLOW RATE y CYCLE ISOLATION
PRESSURE
PROBLEMS
y TUBE BUNDLE
PRESSURE DROP
y CIRCULATING WATER
COOLING TOWER PUMP CURRENT
LOSSES DRAW
y WET BULB TEMPERATURE

y COOLING TOWER RANGE
y COOLING TOWER APPROACH
DEGRADATION OF CHANGE IN AMBIENT UNEQUAL FLOW IMPROPER FILL INADEQUATE FAN INADEQUATE DECREASED FAN
INADEQUATE CELLS RECIRCULATION
FILL MATERIAL CONDITIONS DISTRIBUTION MATERIAL CAPACITY CHEMICAL CONTROL EFFICIENCY
y WIND DIRECTION y WET BULB y FAN CURRENT DRAW y WATER ANALYSIS

y LAPSE RATE TEMPERATURE
A4
SPRAY VALVES STRUCTURAL

SPRAY VALVES FILL MATERIAL
IMPROPERLY DAMAGE TO UPPER
BLOCKS PLUGGED
ADJUSTED BASIN
FIGURE E-5. HEAT RATE LOGIC TREE - COOLING WATER CYCLE LOSSES
________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Fault Trees
TURBINE LOSSES D
y DECREASE IN HP/ IP /LP

STAGE EFFICIENCY
MECHANICAL LEAKAGE PAST EXCESS REHEATER FLOW AREA INADEQUATE HEAT

FOULED HEAT EXCESS GAS BYPASS FLOW AREA BYPASS
DAMAGE CLOSED GOVERNOR SPRAY DECREASE TRANSFER SURFACE
TRANSFER SURFACES
VALVES
y DECREASE IN RATIO OF STAGE y LOW MAIN STEAM TEMP. y DECREASED MAIN STEAM
y SUDDEN CHANGE y PRESSURE IN STEAM DOWNSTREAM TO UPSTREAM
2 y LOW REHEAT TEMP. TEMP.
IN STAGE INLET PIPE GREATER PRESSURES y HIGH EXIT GAS TEMP y DECREASED HOT REHEAT
EFFICIENCIES THAN FIRST STAGE y GRADUAL DECREASE IN STAGE
y LOW FEEDWATER TEMP. AT TEMP.
PRESSURE y LOW REHEAT TEMPERATURE EFFICIENCY ECONOMIZER EXIT y INCREASED EXIT GAS TEMP.
y REHEAT SPRAY FLOW y GRADUAL DECREASE IN
y REHEAT SPRAY CONTROL y W/
P/V
VALVE POSITION
TURBINE LOSSES TURBINE LOSSES LEAKING REHEAT

IP-2 END PACKING IP-1 END PACKING DUMMY SEAL HP - IP2 DUMMY SEAL HP-IP1
BYPASS VALVE
y DECREASE IN LP POWER y DECREASE IN REHEAT y DECREASE IN HP EFFICIENCY y DECREASE IN REHEAT y REHEATER PRESSURE DROP
OUTPUT TURBINE EFFICIENCY y DECREASE IN REHEAT FLOW PRESSURE DROP y CHANGE IN REHEAT
y DECREASE IN IP-2 y DECREASE IN REHEAT y DECREASE IN REHEAT TURBINE EFFICIENCY
SECTION EFFICIENCY IP PRESSURE DROP TURBINE EFFICIENCY y INCREASED EXIT GAS TEMP.
y DECREASE IN REHEAT FLOW
HIGH SUPERHEATER FLOW AREA

SPRAY FLOW 2
INCREASE
y INCREASE IN RATIO OR STAGE

y SUPERHEATER DOWNSTREAM TO UPSTREAM
SPRAY FLOW PRESSURE
IMPROPER SPRAY LEAKING SPRAY SOLID PARTICLE

SPILL STRIP OR EROSION OF TURBINE BLADE MECHANICAL
CONTROL ISOLATION VALVE EROSION OF NOZZLE 5
PACKING LEAKAGE STAGE BLADES DAMAGE
BLOCKS
y LOW MAIN STEAM y SPRAY VALVE POSITION y INCREASE IN RATION OF

TEMPERATURE y SUDDEN DECREASE IN STAGE FIRST STAGE TO THROTTLE
EFFICIENCY PRESSURE
5 y SUDDEN DECREASE IN
y NO CHANGE IN P/V
y INCREASE IN PRESSURES STAGE EFFICIENCY
y INCREASED DOWNSTREAM DOWNSTREAM OF FIRST y GRADUAL DECREASE IN STAGE y SUDDEN DECREASE IN
EXTRACTION TEMPERATURES STAGE EFFICIENCY y W/
P/V P/V
y GRADUAL DECREASE IN W /
INCREASE IN DOWNSTERAM
PRESSURES
OPERATING
THERMAL STRESS RUBBING VIBRATION EXFOLIATION CYCLING
PRACTICES 3
CONDENSER POOR WATER

LEAKAGE CHEMISTRY
y CONDENSER HOTWELL LEVEL y WATER QUALITY

y WATER QUALITY
FIGURE E-6. HEAT RATE LOGIC TREE - TURBINE LOSSES
________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Fault Trees
LOSS DUE TO
E
ELECTRICAL
AUXILIARIES
CONTINUOUS
PRECIPITATOR RUNNING OF
PUMP EFFICIENCY MILL PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE NONCONTINUOUS
LOADS
EMITTER ASH EXCESSIVE RAPPING CLASSIFIER SETTING

IMPELLER WEAR SHAFT RUB COAL QUALITY
DEPOSITS INCORRECT
y PUMP DISCHARGE FLOW y VIBRATION MONITORING y HIGH VOLTAGE y MILL FINENESS y COAL MOISTURE
y PUMP CURRENT DRAW y COAL GRINDABILITY
CHANGE IN FLOW CHANGE IN COAL MILL SKID LOW PRIMARY AIR

PATH RESISTANCE QUALITY FLOW
y PRESSURE DROP y HIGH ASH CHANGE IN FAN y MILL TEMPERATURE

EFFICIENCY y MILL TAILINGS
y INCREASED CURRENT DRAW
CHANGE IN COOLING CHANGE IN FD FAN

TOWER FAN CHANGE IN ID FAN CHANGE IN PA FAN
E EFFICIENCY
EFFICIENCY EFFICIENCY EFFICIENCY
BLADE PITCH INCREASED FLOW CHANGE IN AMBIENT OUTLET DAMPER EXCESSIVE AIR
EXCESSIVE DRIFT EXCESSIVE AIR SHAFT RUB
INCORRECT PATH RESISTANCE AIR CONDITIONS SETTINGS LEAKAGE
IN-LEAKAGE
INCORRECT
MAKEUP y INCREASED y WET BULB TEMPERATURE y VIBRATION MONITORING
y y O2MEASUREMENTS y DAMPER POSITION
y RELATIVE HUMIDITY
INLET DAMPER
SHAFT RUB SETTINGS SHAFT RUB BLADE EROSION SHAFT RUB
INCORRECT
VIBRATION MONITORING y DAMPER POSITION y VIBRATION MONITORING y VIBRATION MONITORING

y
CHANGE IN FLOW
EXCESSIVE AIR PATH RESISTANCE
HEATER LEAKAGE
y FURNACE PRESSURE DROP
y AIRHEATER PRESSURE DROP
O2 MEASUREMENTS y PRECIPITATOR PRESSURE DROP
y
FIGURE E-7. HEAT RATE LOGIC TREE - ELECTRICAL AUXILIARY LOSSES
________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Fault Trees
LOSSES DUE TO
STEAM AUXILIARIES F
EXCESSIVE SOOT EXCESSIVE STEAM

DECREASE IN BFPT
BLOWING FLOW THROUGH
EFFICIENCY
VACUUM PUMPS
y INCREASED MAKE-UP FLOW y INCREASED HIGH PRESSURE y VACUUM PUMP FLOW

y DECREASED EXIT GAS STEAM SUPPLY FLOW
TEMPERATURE
BFP EXTRACTION
INCREASE IN
RECIRCULATION LINE EXCESSIVE SHAFT LOW INLET STEAM INCREASE IN REHEAT HIGH EXHAUST BACK DAMAGED TURBINE LINE CHECK VALVES
SUPERHEATER
OPEN LEAKAGE TEMPERATURE SPRAY FLOW PRESSURE BLADES OR NOZZLES STUCK OR PARTIALLY
SPRAY FLOW
OPEN
y LOW REHEAT TEMPERATURE

y HIGH CONDENSER y DECREASED TURBINE y DECREASE IN BFP INLET
FUEL HANDLING PRESSURE EFFICIENCY PRESSURE
LOSSES I y INCREASE IN EXTRATION LINE
PRESSURE DROP
SPILLAGE FROM THE MEASUREMENT

COAL SAMPLING COAL PILE EROSION COAL PILE FIRE
BELTS INACCURACIES
WIND EROSION WATER EROSION
HEAT LOSSES
G
HEAT LOSS FROM

HEAT LOSS THROUGH INSULATION MISSING INSULATION MISSING INSULATION MISSING DEAREATOR OR
INSULATION MISSING INSULATION MISSING
CYCLE ISOLATION FROM CONDENSATE FROM BOILER FROM FLUE OR AIR FEEDWATER
FROM STEAM LINES FROM TURBINE
RETURN LINES CASING DUCT HEATERS
FIGURE E-8. HEAT RATE LOGIC TREE - STEAM AUXILIARY, FUEL HANDLING, AND HEAT LOSSES
________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Fault Trees
CYCLE ISOLATION H
RECOVERABLE NON-RECOVERABLE
LOSSES LOSSES
3 y INCREASED MAKE-UP
LEAKAGE THROUGH
LEAKAGE FROM DEAERATOR LEAKAGE THROUGH
HEATER TO HEATER LEAKS TO THE CONSTANT FEEDWATER HEATER BOILER FEED PUMP LEAKAGE THROUGH
LEAKS TO THE
THROUGH BYPASS CONDENSER PRESSURE STEAM BYPASS LINES SEAL INJECTION BYPASS LINES
DEARATOR
LINE SUPPLY LINE
y INCREASED BFP OUTLET
TEMPERATURE
LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH

EROSION OF LEAKS TO THE HIGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH
LEAKAGE OF LEAKS DIRECTLY TO FEEDWATER HEATER EXHAUST HOOO
HEATER VENT PRESSURE MANIFOLD FEEDWATER HEATER BOILER START-UP
HEATER VENT THE CONDENSER #2 BYPASS LINES SPRAY CONTROL
ORIFICE #1 BYPASS LINES BYPASS LINE
VALVE BYPASS
A1 B1
LEAKAGE THROUGH
BFP 1 GLAND STEAM LEAKAGE THROUGH
LEAKAGE TO THE #1 LEAKS TO THE #2 I.P. DESUPERHEATER SPILLOVER CONTROL
BFP A MINIMUM BFP B MINIMUM FEEDWATER HEATER FEEDWATER HEATER
I.P. MANIFOLD MANIFOLD CONTROL VALVE VALVE BYPASS
FLOW FLOW #3 BYPASS LINES #5 LINES
BYPASS
C1 D1
LEAKAGE THROUGH
LEAKAGE TO THE LEAKAGE TO THE LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH
GLAND STEAM HP
LOW PRESSURE TURBINE DRAIN FEEDWATER HEATER SPILLOVER CONTROL
SUPPLY CONTROL
MANIFOLD MANIFOLD #6 BYPASS LINES VALVE BYPASS
VALVE BYPASS
E1 F1
LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH

HOTWELL MAKEUP CONSTANT CONDENSATE RECIRC
CONTROL VALVE PRESSURE STEAM CONTROL VALVE
BYPASS CONTROL VALVE BYPASS
BYPASS

GLAND STEAM CONDENSATE GL STM CONDENSER
CONDENSATE CONTROL VALVE CONDENSATE DRAIN
BYPASS BYPASS TRAP BYPASS
FIGURE E-9. CYCLE ISOLATION
________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Fault Trees
NON-RECOVERABLE
3 LOSSES
LEAKAGE THTROUGH
LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH
VALVE PACKING LEAKAGE THROUGH GLAND STEAM
CONDENSER VACUUM 2" DRAIN LINE FROM 2" DRAIN LINE FROM 2" DRAIN LINE FROM HOT REHEAT SAFETY COLD REHEAT
LEAKS CONDENSER DRAINS HEADER SAFETY
BREAKER #1 HEATER HEATERS 5 & 6 HEATERS 2 & 3 VALVE SAFETY VALVES
VALVES

LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH
PENDANT SUPERHTR SOOTBLOWER STEAM
HOTWELL LEVEL HOTWELL MAKEUP FEEDWATER HEATER MAIN STEAM LINE MAIN STEAM LINE MAIN STEAM LINE SH SPRAY CONTROL
SPRAY CONTROL SUPPLY SAFETY
CONTROL DRAIN DRAIN ATMOSPHERIC VENTS DRAIN LEFT SIDE DRAIN RIGHT SIDE DRAIN HEADER VENTS
HEADER VENTS VALVE

LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH EXCESSIVE FLOW LEAKAGE THROUGH
LEAKAGE THROUGH DEAERATOR HIGH SOOTBLOWER STEAM MAIN STEAM POWER
BOILER DRUM SAFETY DEAERATOR DEAERATOR WATER THROUGH DEAERATOR SAFETY
ECONOMIZER VENT LEVEL CONTROL SUPPLY SAFETY CONTROL RELIEF
VALVES EMERGENCY DRAIN GAUGE DRAIN DEAERATOR VENTS VALVES
VALVE VALVE VALVE

LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THORUGH
CONSTANT BOILER DRAIN VENT CONDENSATE TO
MAIN STEAM SAFETY PIPING LEAKS FLANGE LEAKS REHEATER OUTLET BFB A DISCHARGE BFB B DISCHARGE
PRESSURE STEAM LEAKS BOILER STARTUP
VALVE VENT LINE DRAIN LINE DRAIN
SAFETY VALVE RELIEF VALVE
LEAKAGEH THROUGH LEAKAGEH THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH
FEEDWATER HEATER FEEDWATER HEATER FEEDWATER HEATER FEEDWATER HEATER FEEDWATER HEATER LEAKAGE TO BOILER LEAKAGE THROUGH
BFP A SEAL DRAIN BFP B SEAL DRAIN
#1 VENTS AND #2 VENTS AND #3 VENTS AND #5 VENTS AND #6 VENTS AND BLOWDOWN TANK STEAM TRAP DRAINS
LINE DRAIN LINE DRAIN
DRAINS DRAINS DRAINS DRAINS DRAINS
H1 H1 H1 H1 H1 G1 H1 H1 H1
LEAKAGE THROUGH
LEAKAGE THROUGH
EMERGENCY DRAIN LEAKAGE THROUGH
CONDENSATE,
LINE DRAINS AND COLD REHEAT DRAIN
DRAINS
VENTS
FIGURE E-9 (continued). CYCLE ISOLATION
________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Fault Trees
LEAKS DIRECTLY TO
THE CONDENSER A1
LEAKAGE OR LEAKAGE OR LEAKAGE OR

EXCESSIVE FLOW LEAKAGE THROUGH CYCLING OF HEATER CYCLING OF HEATER CYCLING OF HEATER
THROUGH HEATER #1 THE CONDENSATE #1 EMERGENCY #2 EMERGENCY #3 EMERGENCY
VENT ORIFICE RECIRCULATION LINE DRAIN DRAIN DRAIN
LEAKAGE OR LEAKAGE OR
EXCESSIVE FLOW EXCESSIVE FLOW LEAKAGE THROUGH
CYCLING OF HEATER CYCLING OF HEATER
THROUGH HEATER #2 THROUGH HEATER #3 BFP A GLAND STEAM
#5 EMERGENCY #6 EMERGENCY
VENT ORIFICE VENT ORIFICE SUPPLY DRAIN TRAP
DRAIN DRAIN

LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH
BFP A GLAND STEAM BFP B GLAND STEAM
BFP B GLAND STEAM BFP A DRAIN FLOAT BFP B DRAIN FLOAT BFP A AND B
LEAK-OFF DRAIN LEAK-OFF DRAIN
SUPPLY DRAIN TRAP VALVE VALVE EMERGENCY DUMP
TRAP TRAP
LEAKS TO THE HIGH

PRESSURE MANIFOLD B1
LEAKS THROUGH LEAKS THROUGH

STEAM INLET PIPE STEAM INLET PIPE LEAK THROUGH
DRAIN LINE ON RIGHT DRAIN LINE ON LEFT IMPULSE CHAMBER
SIDE SIDE DRAIN LINE
FIGURE E-9 (continued). CYCLE ISOLATION
________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Fault Trees
LEAKAGE
TO LOW PRESSURE
E1
MANIFOLD
EXCESSIVE FLOW EXCESSIVE FLOW LEAKING STEAM TRAP LEAKAGE THROUGH

THROUGH H.P. GLAND THROUGH L.P. GLAND IN #2 EXTRACTION EXTRACTION LINE #2
SEAL STEAM DRAIN SEAL STEAM DRAIN LINE ISOLATION ISO VALVE STEAM
ORIFICE ORIFICE VALVE DRAIN TRAP BYPASS VALVE
LEAKING STEAM TRAP

LEAKING STEAM TRAP LEAKING STEAM TRAP LEAKING STEAM TRAP
IN #3 EXTRACTION
IN #1 EXTRACTION IN #2 EXTRACTION IN #3 EXTRACTION
LINE ISOLATION
LINE DRAIN LINE DRAIN LINE DRAIN
VALVE DRAIN
LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE TO

EXTRACTION LINE #1 EXTRACTION LINE #2 EXTRACTION LINE #3 EXTRACTION LINE #3 TURBINE DRAIN
STEAM TRAP STEAM TRAP STEAM TRAP ISO VALVE STEAM F1
MANIFOLD
BYPASS VALVE BYPASS VALVE BYPASS VALVE TRAP BYPASS VALVE

HOT REHEAT INLET HOT REHEAT INLET OUTER CYLINDER OUTER CYLINDER
PIPE LEFT SIDE DRAIN PIPE RIGHT SIDE DOWN NON-ORIFICE DRAIN ORIFICE DRAIN
LEAKAGE THROUGH
FEEDWATER HEATER H1
VENTS AND DRAIN

LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEVEL CONTROL SHELL RELIEF CHANNEL
START-UP
SLAP DRAIN CHANNEL VENT DRAIN VALVE RELIEF VALVE
SHELL VENT
FIGURE E-9 (CONTINUED). CYCLE ISOLATION
________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Fault Trees
LEAKAGE
TO BOILER
BLOWDOWN TANK G1

LEFT SIDE RIGHT SIDE LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH PRIMARY CONVECTION
SUPERHEATER LEFT SIDE WALL
DIVISION WALL INLET DIVISION WALL INLET STEAM DRAIN RIGHT SIDE WALL SUPERHEATER
OUTLET HOT REHEAT DRAIN
HEADER DRAIN HEADER DRAIN WATER GAUGE DRAIN HOT REHEAT DRAIN HEADER DRAIN
HEADER DRAIN
LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH EXCESSIVE

RIGHT SIDE LOWER LEFT SIDE LOWER ECONOMIZER INLET STEAM DRUM
RIGHT LOWER REAR LEFT LOWER REAR
PARTITION DRAIN PARTITION DRAIN HEADER DRAIN BLOWDOWN
W.W. HEADER DRAIN W. W. HEADER DRAIN

RIGHT LOWER FRONT LEFT LOWER FRONT RIGHT LOWER LEFT LOWER
W. W. HEADER DRAIN W.W. HEADER DRAIN SIDE WALL DRAIN SIDE WALL DRAIN
________________________________________________________________________________
CenPEEP Fault Trees
LEAKAGE TO
LP. #1
MANIFOLD C1
LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH
BFP 6A H.P. STEAM BFP 6B H.P. STEAM BFP 6A LP STEAM BFP 6B LP STEAM COLD REHEAT DRAIN
SUPPLY DRAIN SUPPLY DRAIN SUPPLY DRAIN SUPPLY DRAIN
STEAM TRAP LEAK IN STEAM TRAP LEAK IN EXCESSIVE FLOW EXCESSIVE FLOW LEAKAGE THROUGH
DEAERATOR DEAERATOR THROUGH H.P. SEAL THROUGH L.P. SEAL BFP 6A
EXTRACTION LINE ISOLATION LINE STEAM SUPPLY STEAM SUPPLY L.P. STEAM TRAP
DRAIN DRAIN ORIFICE ORIFICE BYPASS VALVE
LEAKAGE THROUGH
LEAKAGE THROUGH STEAM TRAP LEAK IN DEAERATOR EXTR. STEAM TRAP LEAK IN LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH LEAKAGE THROUGH
LINE #6 EXTRACTION LINE STEAM TRAP LEAK DEAERATOR #5 EXTRACTION LINE #6 EXTRACTION LINE COLD REHEAT DRAIN
BFP 6B #5 EXTRACTION LINE
STEAM TRAP ISOLATION VALVE IN COLD REHEAT ISO VALVE STEAM STEAM TRAP STEAM TRAP LINE STEAM TRAP
LP, STEAM TRAP ISOLATION VALVE
BYPASS VALVE DRAIN BYPASS VALVE TRAP BYPASS VALVE BYPASS VALVE BYPASS VALVE BYPASS VALVE
BYPASS VALVE DRAIN
LEAKAGE TO
LP. #2 D1
MANIFOLD

LEAKAGE THROUGH HOT REHEAT
HOT REHEAT HOT REHEAT
BOILER DRAINS RIGHT SIDE DRAIN
MAIN DRAIN LINE LEFT SIDE DRAIN

LEAKAGE THROUGH
REHEAT REHEAT
REHEAT OUTLET
INLET HEADER INLET HEADER
HEADER DRAIN
RIGHT SIDE DRAIN LEFT SIDE DRAIN
________________________________________________________________________________

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ENERGY & EFFICIENCY

Centre for Power Efficiency & Environmental Protection

In preparation of this document the support and cooperation of station, regional

Salient Points of Revised Documents

• More definitions provided in section –2

• More conceptual explanations provided in section – 3

• Impact of Performance parameter deviations included in the section – 5

• Testing frequency revised and rationalized

• Instrumentations coverage increased based on experience

• Single Cell CT testing procedure included in the section – 8

• Mill Performance test updated based on the experience.

• TD BFP Test procedure included in the section – 8

• A Chapter on unaccounted loss included as section – 13

• Heat rate improvement activities discussed in length in section – 14.

• A separate section on math modeling included as section – 15.

2.0 DEFINITION 2-1

3.0 HEAT RATE ASSESSMENT

4.0 BASELINE FOR PERFORMANCE COMPARISION

5.0 METHODOLOGY OF HEAT RATE DEVIATION CALCULATION

6.0 PERIODIC TESTING WITH ONLINE INSTRUMENT

8.0 Typical Test Procedures

9.0 HEATRATE ACTION PLAN

9.3 Review the Plan 9-2

10.0 REPORTING SYSTEM AND FORMATS

11.0 EEMG STRUCTURE AND RESPONSIBILITY

13.0 UNACCOUNTABLE LOSS

14.0 HEAT RATE IMPROVEMENT ACTIVITIES

15.0 MATH MODELLING OF POWER PLANT

16.0 FAULT TREES 16-1

Efficient operation of power plants has always been important to utilities.

If a power plant is able to convert 100% of the chemical energy in the

Many factors affect the actual, operating heat rate of a plant:

i. The initial design. Some units are designed to be more efficient

ii. Ambient conditions: A plant is more efficient when the condenser

It is this last category, which is very important for a running plant to

The purpose of a heat rate monitoring and subsequent improvement is to

The amount of emissions to the environment will be reduced. Improving

Because less fuel is required to produce the same amount of electricity,

Heat rate improvement results in an increase in the generation of the

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3.0 HEAT RATE ASSESSMENT

3.1 MONITORING OF PRIMARY PROCESS INDICATORS

The personnel operating or maintaining the equipment should be aware

This pro-active approach is accomplished by identifying key “primary

A secondary purpose for monitoring primary process indicators is to assist

3.1.2 Definition of Primary Process Indicators

It is the information to be monitored, measured, or tracked that will give

Some indicators are also “parameters” used to calculate heat rate

3.1.3 Data Collection and Analysis Methods

3.1.4 List of Primary Process Indicators