PHYSICAL REVIEW D, VOLUME 61, 125013

Hydrodynamic transport functions from quantum kinetic field theory

E. A. Calzetta*
Department of Physics and IAFE, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina

B. L. Hu† and S. A. Ramsey‡

Department of Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742
共Received 14 October 1999; published 24 May 2000兲
Starting from the quantum kinetic field theory 关E. Calzetta and B. L. Hu, Phys. Rev. D 37, 2878 共1988兲兴
constructed from the closed-time-path 共CTP兲, two-particle-irreducible 共2PI兲 effective action we show how to
compute from first principles the shear and bulk viscosity functions in the hydrodynamic-thermodynamic
regime. For a real scalar field with ␭⌽ 4 self-interaction we need to include four-loop graphs in the equation of
motion. This work provides a microscopic field-theoretical basis to the ‘‘effective kinetic theory’’ proposed by
Jeon and Yaffe 关S. Jeon and L. G. Yaffe, Phys. Rev. D 53, 5799 共1996兲兴, while our result for the bulk viscosity
reproduces their expression derived from linear-response theory and the imaginary-time formalism of thermal
field theory. Though unavoidably involved in calculations of this sort, we feel that the approach using funda-
mental quantum kinetic field theory is conceptually clearer and methodically simpler than the effective kinetic
theory approach, as the success of the latter requires a clever rendition of diagrammatic resummations which
is neither straightforward nor fail-safe. Moreover, the method based on the CTP-2PI effective action illustrated
here for a scalar field can be formulated entirely in terms of functional integral quantization, which makes it an
appealing method for a first-principles calculation of transport functions of a thermal non-Abelian gauge
theory, e.g., QCD quark-gluon plasma produced from heavy ion collisions.

PACS number共s兲: 11.10.Wx, 03.70.⫹k, 05.20.Dd, 12.38.Mh

I. INTRODUCTION
In a recent series of papers 关1–3兴, Jeon and Yaffe 共JY兲
derived expressions for the transport functions for a real,
self-interacting scalar field in flat space, from first principles,
using the Kubo formulas 关4兴 and the imaginary-time formal-
ism of thermal field theory. A necessary step in evaluating
transport functions using the Kubo formulas is taking the
zero-frequency limit of the time-Fourier-transformed spatial
correlator of the energy momentum tensor. In order to avoid
infrared divergences which arise in taking the ␻ →0 limit, a
complicated set of resummations of ladder diagrams had to
be performed 关2兴. However, it was observed in 关3兴 that the
same integral equations for the transport functions obtained
from the Kubo formulas can be derived from an effective
kinetic theory which takes into account the one-loop finite-
temperature corrections to the mass of quasiparticles in the
scalar theory, and to the effective vertices for quasiparticle
scattering. In their treatment, the effective kinetic theory is
presented as a physically well motivated, but phenomeno-
logical, theory, whose justification is taken to be the fact that
it gives transport properties which agree with the leading-
order nonperturbative results computed using thermal field
theory.
We demonstrate in this work that, in fact, the effective
kinetic equations for ␭⌽ 4 theory proposed by Jeon and
Yaffe are derivable from a kinetic theory of quantum fields
constructed earlier by two of us 关5兴 following the work of
*Electronic address: calzetta@df.uba.ar
†
Electronic address: hub@physics.umd.edu
‡
Electronic address: sramsey@physics.umd.edu
Kadanoff and Baym 关6兴 and continued by many others 关7兴.
In particular their effective kinetic equations are derivable in
our approach from the closed-time-path 共CTP兲, two-particle-
irreducible 共2PI兲 effective action 关5兴 truncated at four loops
for the ␭⌽ 4 theory. Even though the calculation of higher
loop effects is necessarily involved technically, we feel the
quantum kinetic field theory approach is conceptually clearer
and methodically simpler than the Jeon-Yaffe approach, as
the success of the latter requires a clever rendition of dia-
grammatic resummations which is neither straightforward
nor fail safe. For example, the usual form of the Boltzmann
equation derived in, say, 关5兴 assumes 2-2 particle scattering,
which conserves particle number, but bulk viscosity arises
from particle nonconserving processes 共this was emphasized
by JY兲. When we take into account 2-4 or 4-2 processes, we
need to go to four-loop diagrams in the Boltz-
mann and the gap equations which will no longer assume the
simpler form familiar in the usual derivations based on 2-2
processes. This extra effort is expected for tackling higher-
order effects but within the same context of the same funda-
mental 共not effective兲 kinetic theory. We show that the deri-
vation of the effective kinetic equations from the CTP-2PI
effective action requires only the basic assumptions of ki-
netic theory: namely, the existence of a separation of macro-
scopic and microscopic time scales1 and the existence of
1
This means that the short wavelength quantum fluctuations of the
field are in a state of near local thermal equilibrium, whose prop-
erties vary slowly on the scale of the correlation length for the field.
We also assume a nearly Gaussian initial state, so that low-order
correlation functions are sufficient to capture the dominant physical
processes.

0556-2821/2000/61共12兲/125013共20兲/$15.00 61 125013-1 ©2000 The American Physical Society

E. A. CALZETTA, B. L. HU, AND S. A. RAMSEY
well-defined 共perhaps modified兲 ‘‘on-shell’’ asymptotic par-
ticle states 关8兴. The assumption of weak coupling is also
necessary in order to justify the neglect of yet higher-order
scattering terms which arise in the collision integral for the
derivation of a generalized Boltzmann equation.
The apparent reported ‘‘failure’’ of existing kinetic equa-
tions in the literature to account for the bulk viscosity of the
scalar quantum field is due to the fact that previous work
along this line entails perturbative expansions to insufficient
accuracy, and not to any flaw or defect of the theory. When
the calculation to a sufficient accuracy is performed, as done
here, fundamental quantum kinetic field theory produces the
‘‘effective kinetic theory’’ of Jeon and Yaffe, in particular,
the result for the bulk viscosity reproduces JY’s expression
derived from linear-response theory. More importantly per-
haps, our method based on the CTP-2PI effective action il-
lustrated here for a scalar field can be formulated entirely in
terms of functional integral quantization, which makes it an
appealing method for a first-principles calculation of trans-
port functions of a thermal non-Abelian gauge theory, e.g.,
QCD quark-gluon plasma produced from heavy ion colli-
sions. The first-principles approaches with a clear bearing on
fundamental physics, involving nonlinear and nonperturba-
tive effects, such as those employed here for this task, and
elsewhere for related problems, are, in our opinion, essential
for the successful establishment of a viable and useful quan-
tum field theory of nonequilibrium processes. 共For a sam-
pling of current activities, see, e.g., 关9兴.兲
A. Statement of the problem
Let us begin by stating in simple terms what are the trans-
port coefficients to be computed 关10–12兴. For a real scalar
field, there are no other conserved quantities than energy and
momentum. Since there is no fundamental concept of par-
ticle number 共equivalently, since the field describes both par-
ticles and antiparticles兲, chemical potential must be set to
zero identically in the grand canonical 共equilibrium兲 density
matrix. Equilibrium states are parametrized by the vector
␤ ␮ ⫽ ␤ u ␮ , where u ␮ is a timelike unit vector (u ␮ u ␮ ⫽⫺1)
and ␤ ⫽1/T is the inverse temperature.
In the semiclassical limit, we define the energy momen-
tum tensor T ␮ ␯ as the expectation value of the corresponding
Heisenberg operator. T ␮ ␯ may be decomposed with respect
to u ␮ as
T ␮ ␯ ⫽ ␳ u ␮ u ␯ ⫹p P ␮ ␯ ; P ␮ ␯ ⫽ ␩ ␮ ␯ ⫹u ␮ u ␯ ; P ␮ ␯ u ␯ ⫽0,
共1兲
where ␩ ␮ ␯ is the Minkowsky metric diag (⫺1,1,1,1) 共for
simplicity we shall work in flat spacetime, although a gener-
ally covariant formulation is readily available兲, thus defining
the energy density ␳ and pressure p. Observe that there is no
heat conduction, namely, that in the rest frame there is no
energy flux. In this case this shall be true even in nonequi-
librium states, since there are no currents other than the four
velocity to break the isotropy of space in the rest frame. In
other words, we are forced to adopt the Landau-Lifshitz for-
mulation over Eckart’s. 共See footnote below.兲
125013-2
PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013
The functional dependences ␳ ⫽ ␳ (T) and p⫽p(T) define
the equation of state in parametric form. The macroscopic
description is completed by giving a concrete expression for
the entropy flux S ␮ , which must be consistent with the first
law of thermodynamics dS ␮ ⫽⫺ ␤ ␯ dT ␮ ␯ . Moreover, in equi-
librium, vanishing entropy production S ,␮␮ ⫽0 must follow
from energy-momentum conservation T ,␮␯␯ ⫽0. If we intro-
duce the thermodynamic potential ⌽ ␮ ⫽S ␮ ⫹ ␤ ␯ T ␮ ␯ , consis-
tency requires ⌽ ␮ ⫽ p ␤ ␮ , and the identity
dp
T ⫽ p⫹ ␳ . 共2兲
dT
Energy-momentum conservation implies the identities 共recall
that u ␮ u ,␮␯ ⫽0)
␳ ,t ⫺ 共 ␳ ⫹ p 兲 u ;␯␯ ⫽0; ⫺ 共 ␳ ⫹ p 兲 u ␮,t ⫹ P ␮ ␯ p , ␯ ⫽0, 共3兲
where
X ,t ⬅⫺u ␮ X , ␮ . 共4兲
Since ␳ and p become space dependent only through their
temperature dependence, we may write ␳ ,t ⫽ ␳ ,T T ,t , and
similarly for p. Using the identity Eq. 共2兲, Eqs. 共3兲 simplify
to
1 1 ␮␯
T, ⫺c 2 u ␯ ⫽0; ⫺u ␮,t ⫹ P T , ␯ ⫽0, 共5兲
T t s ;␯ T
where c s ⫽ 冑p ,T / ␳ ,T is the speed of sound.
Let us now consider a near equilibrium state, meaning
that the properties of the actual state remain close to that of a
conveniently chosen fiducial equilibrium state. There is some
arbitrariness in this choice,2 but, following the so-called
Landau-Lifshitz prescription 关10兴, we shall choose the fidu-
cial equilibrium state as that having the same four velocity
and energy density as the actual state. More precisely, we
define the four velocity as the only timelike unit eigenvector
of the actual energy momentum tensor T ␮ ␯ 共assumed to sat-
isfy suitable energy conditions兲, and then the energy density
is defined as ␳ ⫽T ␮ ␯ u ␮ u ␯ . Knowing ␳ , we may compute the
temperature T and pressure p of the equilibrium state, and
thus the departure of the actual T ␮ ␯ from its value T 0␮ ␯ in the
fiducial equilibrium state. Observe that if we write T ␮ ␯
⫽T ␮0 ␯ ⫹ ␦ T ␮ ␯ , then by construction u ␯ ␦ T ␮ ␯ ⫽0. ␦ T ␮ ␯ is
usually parametrized in terms of the bulk ␶ and shear ␶ ␮ ␯
stresses, as ␦ T ␮ ␯ ⫽ ␶ P ␮ ␯ ⫹ ␶ ␮ ␯ , ␶ ␮␮ ⫽0.
2
There are two common choices of fiducial states. In the Eckart
prescription, one chooses an equilibrium state with the same par-
ticle current and energy density as the actual state, and reads out the
equilibrium pressure from the equation of state. Thus in the Eckart
frame there may be energy flux relative to the particle flux, which is
interpreted as heat. In the Landau-Lifshitz prescription, the fiducial
state has the same energy density, energy flux, and particle number
density as the actual state. Thus heat is read out of the particle
current.
HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSPORT FUNCTIONS FROM . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

Remaining within the so-called first-order formalism
关12,13兴, we may write the entropy production in the nonequi-
librium evolution as S ,␮␮ ⫽⫺ ␤ ␮ , ␯ ␦ T ␮ ␯ 共we refer the reader to
the literature for a thorough discussion of the hypothesis in-
volved in this formula兲. Decompose
1 1
␤ ␮ , ␯ ⫽⫺ u ␯ u ␮ c s2 u ;␯␯ ⫹ 2 关 P ␮␭ u ␯ T ,␭ ⫺ P ␯␭ T ,␭ u ␮ 兴
T T
where ␤ ␮0 ⫽u ␮ /T 0 and ␦ f is a perturbation. Since the colli-
sion integral vanishes identically for local thermal equilib-
rium, we can write the collision integral as a linear integral
operator Q̂ acting on ␦ f
I col关 f 0 ⫹ ␦ f 兴 ⫽Q̂ 关 ␦ f 兴 . 共11兲
On the other hand, if we neglect ␦ f on the left-hand side
共lhs兲 of the transport equation, we can write it as some dif-

⫺
1
u u
T ,t
T ␯ ␮ T 冋 1
T 册 1
冋
⫺c s2 u ;␯␯ ⫹ P ␮␴ u ␯ u ␴ ,t ⫺ P ␴␭ T ,␭
T 册 ferential operator acting on ␤ ␮0 , thus obtaining a linear inte-
gral equation for ␦ f

1 1 1 Q̂ 关 ␦ f 兴 ⫽Q E 关 ⳵ t , ⳵ i 兴共 ␤ ␮0 兲 . 共12兲
⫹ H̃ ␮ ␯ ⫹ H ␮ ␯ ⫹ P u␳ , 共6兲
T T 3T ␮ ␯ , ␳
The Q̂ operator satisfies four constraints, which follow from
where energy-momentum conservation, namely

1
冋 2
H ␮ ␯ ⫽ P ␮ ␭ P ␯␴ u ␭, ␴ ⫹u ␴ ,␭ ⫺ P ␭ ␴ u ␳, ␳ ;
2 3 册 冕 d4p
共 2␲ 兲4
␪ 共 p 0 兲 ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 p ␮ Q̂⫽0, 共13兲
共7兲
1 where ⍀ 0 ⫽ p 2 ⫹M 2 enforces the on-shell condition. Thus
H̃ ␮ ␯ ⫽ P ␮ ␭ P ␯␴ 关 u ␭, ␴ ⫺u ␴ ,␭ 兴 . the equation for ␦ f requires four integrability conditions
2

The condition that entropy is created rather than destroyed

leads us to parametrize 冕 d4p
共 2␲ 兲4
␪ 共 p 0 兲 ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 p ␮ Q E 关 ⳵ t , ⳵ i 兴共 ␤ ␮0 兲 ⫽0. 共14兲

␶ ␮ ␯ ⫽⫺ ␩ H ␮ ␯ ; ␶ ⫽⫺ ␨ u ,␳␳ ; ␩ , ␨ ⭓0, 共8兲 The integrability conditions reduce to a system of differ-

ential equations for ␤ ␮0 , which are in fact the conservation
where ␩ and ␨ are the shear and bulk viscosity coefficients, laws for the energy-momentum tensor T ␮ ␯ Eqs. 共5兲. These
respectively. We wish to compute these coefficients as func- equations allow us to eliminate time derivatives from the
tions of the temperature and other parameters in the theory. transport equation, which simplifies to

B. Transport coefficients from kinetic equations Q̂ 关 ␦ f 兴 ⫽Q E 关 ⳵ i 兴共 ␤ ␮0 兲 . 共15兲

Since thermodynamics alone cannot determine the depen- On solving this equation, we determine the correction ␦ f to
dence of the viscosity coefficients on temperature, to proceed the distribution function, and thereby the correction to the
we must place the macroscopic description within a more energy momentum tensor. In general, the terms containing
basic and comprehensive framework, i.e., kinetic theory, ␦ f will contribute a term ␦ ␳ to the energy density; thus we
where there is a well-known method to extract the transport
define the physical temperature T from the condition ␳ (T)
functions 关14,15兴.
⫽ ␳ (T 0 )⫹ ␦ ␳ , or equivalently T 0 ⫽T⫹ ␦ T, where ␦ T
The framework is a system described by a one-particle
⫽⫺ ␦ ␳ / ␳ ,T . Knowing the temperature T we may compute
distribution function f. There is a known prescription to com-
the energy momentum tensor T ␮0 ␯ in the fiducial state, sub-
pute the energy momentum tensor T ␮ ␯ from the moments of
tract it from the physical T ␮ ␯ to determine the nonequilib-
the distribution function. In equilibrium, f depends only on
rium part ␦ T ␮ ␯ , and then read out the viscosity coefficients
the inverse temperature four-vector field ␤ ␮ . The starting
by matching it to the form given in Eq. 共8兲.
point is the transport equation for f:

冋 p␮
⳵
⳵X ␮
1
⫺ M ,2␮
2 ⳵
⳵
p ␮
册
f ⫽I col关 f 兴 , 共9兲
C. Transport functions in quantum kinetic field theory
From the discussion above, we may identify the main
steps involved in computing the transport functions: namely,
where I col is the collision integral and M 2 is the mass of the 共1兲 find a description of the system in terms of a one-particle
particle 共with possible position dependence兲. f is assumed to distribution function f, and the corresponding transport equa-
be of the form f ⫽ f 0 ⫹ ␦ f , where f 0 is the local equilibrium tion; 共2兲 find the structure of equilibrium states, including the
distribution expression of conserved currents in terms of f, and the equi-
librium equation of state; 共3兲 solve the linearized transport
equation to obtain the response of the system to gradients in
1
f 0⫽ , 共10兲 the hydrodynamical variables, and read out the nonequilib-
兩␤ ␮ p ␮兩
0
e ⫺1 rium stresses.

125013-3
E. A. CALZETTA, B. L. HU, AND S. A. RAMSEY
Step 1 is done in detail in 关5兴, where the self-energy is
computed to two-loops accuracy, giving as a result that, for a
␭ ␾ 4 type interaction, the transport equation for f is simply
the relativistic Boltzmann equation for Bose particles, with
the only modification of allowing for a variable mass as in
Eq. 共9兲. This Vlasov-type correction takes into account the
fact that the physical mass M 2 of the particles is connected
to the temperature through the gap equation, and thereby M 2
becomes position dependent if T is. The 共only兲 conserved
current T ␮ ␯ is defined as the expectation value of the corre-
sponding Heisenberg operator, and the hydrodynamic vari-
ables are read out from it, so step 共2兲 does not present great
difficulty.
The problem arises in step 共3兲, because the Boltzmann
collision operator satisfies, besides the four conservation
laws associated to energy-momentum, a fifth constraint
冕 d4p
共 2␲ 兲4
␪ 共 p 0 兲 ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 Q̂⫽0 共16兲
associated to the conservation of the particle number in bi-
nary collisions. There is, therefore, a fifth integrability con-
dition, and the system of macroscopic equations for T 0 and
u ␮ becomes overdeterminated. One could hope that the fifth
constraint would be true just as a consequence of the other
four, but we shall show below that in an interacting theory
this is not the case.
Continuing on this route, the linearized transport equation
built out of the Boltzmann collision operator is not inte-
grable, and the calculation grinds to a halt. If we are going to
compute the bulk viscosity out of quantum kinetic theory,
then the collision operator cannot be just Boltzmann’s de-
rived from 2-2 collision processes. A generalized collision
operator including particle number changing terms besides
the usual binary scattering terms is needed. Thus the fifth
constraint has to be lifted to eliminate the inconsistency.
However, in the ‘‘effective kinetic theory’’ of Jeon and
Yaffe these new terms are not derived but rather postulated
to match an independent calculation of cross sections from
linear-response theory. We feel that it is conceptually and
methodically more gratifying if these terms can be derived
ab initio from a kinetic theory of quantum fields. This is
indeed possible, as our present work aims to demonstrate.
Since these particle number changing interactions are
higher order in the coupling constant 共for pure ␭ ␾ 4 theory
they appear at ␭ 4 th order兲, it is to be expected that they may
be retrieved by simply carrying the calculation in 关5兴 to a
higher loop order. However, there appears a matter of prin-
ciple: if we are going to work to high 共eventually, arbitrarily
high兲 order in perturbation theory, we cannot assume that the
Green functions will look anything like those of the free
theory. Thus we must first confront the need to provide a
nonperturbative definition of the one-particle distribution
function, 共which should of course reduce to the one used in
关5兴 at first order in perturbation theory兲. In equilibrium, this
problem is solved by the Kubo-Martin-Schwinger 共KMS兲
theorem 共关16兴兲, which implies the proportionality of the Fou-
rier transforms of the Hadamard and Jordan propagators 共see
below兲. Off equilibrium, following 关6兴, we shall define the
125013-4
PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013
one-particle distribution function from the ratio of the partial
Fourier transforms of these propagators. Familiarity with the
KMS theorem and the Kadanoff-Baym equations should not
blind us to the highly nontrivial nature of this definition.
With this we will then have come to a full circle of delibera-
tions for consistency.
For the specific goal laid out for this investigation, the
main technical difficulty lies in the analysis of the collision
term giving rise to the bulk viscosity, as it is due to the
particle-changing processes which even in the leading order
already involve four-loop self-energy diagrams. This is one
of the main tasks we need to overcome.
D. Summary of the paper
The outline above provides us with a step by step guide to
computing transport functions in quantum kinetic field
theory, which we shall execute in the following sections. As
noted above, the first step is the precise definition of the
one-particle distribution function, which is discussed in Sec.
II. In Sec. III we derive the transport equation. For simplic-
ity, after showing that to lowest nontrivial order the Boltz-
mann collision operator is recovered, we shall write down
only the terms related to particle number changing interac-
tions. Section IV is dedicated to studying the equilibrium
states of the field, with the aim of finding the precise equa-
tion of state. The results of Secs. III and IV amount to a
first-principles derivation of Jeon and Yaffe’s effective ki-
netic theory from quantum field theory. Finally, in Sec. V we
go through the actual calculation of the bulk viscosity, which
in the appropriate limit reproduces JY’s estimates from
linear-response theory.
II. NONPERTURBATIVE QUANTUM KINETIC THEORY
Our specific goal is to show that by consistently extending
the existing methods of quantum kinetic field theory 共see
e.g., 关5兴兲 to four-loop order, it is possible to account both for
the shear and bulk viscosity of an interacting scalar field, as
computed by Jeon and Yaffe. We consider a purely quartic
interaction, although for the application to gauge theories
cubic plus quartic would seem closer to what is needed.
Since bulk viscosity entails particle number changing scat-
tering, and these processes appear for the first time at O(␭ 4 ),
we must push the calculation through to five loops in the
closed time path 共CTP兲 two-particle irreducible 共2PI兲 effec-
tive action 共EA兲 关17,18兴, which will yield four loops in the
equations of motion for the propagators. We assume that the
background field vanishes identically, so we shall look at the
2PI-EA as a functional of the propagators alone 关19,20兴.
A. The model
Let us begin with the classical action for a quartically
self-interacting scalar field in Minkowski space. Using a
modification of DeWitt’s notation in which capital letters
denote both spacetime (x ␮ ) and time branch 共1,2兲 indices
关21兴, the action can be written
1
S⫽ ␾ A D AB ␾ B ⫹S i , 共17兲
2
HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSPORT FUNCTIONS FROM . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

FIG. 1. Two-loops contribution to the CTP effective action.

FIG. 2. Three-loops contribution to the CTP effective action.
D AB ⫽ 关 Z b 䊐⫺m 2b 兴 c AB ;
␦W关K兴
⫺1 បG AB ⬅2 , 共24兲
S i关 ␾ 兴 ⫽ ␭ c ␾ A␾ B␾ C␾ D, 共18兲 ␦ K AB
4! b ABCD
and construct a new functional ⌫ 关 G 兴 which is the Legendre
where m b is the bare ‘‘mass’’ of the field, ␭ b is the bare transform of W 关 K 兴 ,
coupling constant and ␾ A is the scalar field. With the benefit
of hindsight, we set the wave-function renormalization factor ប
⌫ 关 G 兴 ⬅W 关 K 兴 ⫺ K G AB . 共25兲
Z b ⫽1, but it should be generally included. The two- and 2 AB
four-index objects c AB and c ABCD are defined by their con-
traction into the scalar field: It follows immediately from the above definition that

冕
␦⌫关G兴 ប
c AB ␾ ␺ ⫽
A B
d x 关 ␾ ␺ ⫺ ␾ ␺ 兴共 x 兲 ,
4 1 1 2 2
共19兲 ⫽⫺ K , 共26兲
␦ G AB 2 AB

冕
and ⌫ obeys the integrodifferential equation

冋冕 再冉
c ABCD ␾ A ␾ B ␾ C ␾ D ⫽ d 4 x 关共 ␾ 1 兲 4 ⫺ 共 ␾ 2 兲 4 兴共 x 兲 . 共20兲
i 1 ␦⌫关G兴
⌫ 关 G 兴 ⫽⫺iប ln D ␾ exp S关␾兴⫺
We use c AB and its inverse c AB to raise and lower indices, ប ប ␦ G AB

冊冎册
and with the use of the Einstein convention of summing over
repeated indices, their appearance may be implicit. ⫻ 共 ␾ A ␾ B ⫺បG AB 兲 . 共27兲
We wish to derive an effective kinetic description of this
theory valid at arbitrary temperature, for sufficiently weak
coupling ␭, in the case of unbroken symmetry. This assumes By expanding ⌫ in a functional power series in ប, this
that the expectation value of the Heisenberg field operator equation can be solved 关18兴. The solution has the form
⌽ H vanishes. The two-point function 具 ⌽ H (x)⌽ H (y) 典 is the
lowest-order nonvanishing correlation function for the space iប iប
⌫ 关 G 兴 ⫽⫺ Tr ln G⫹ D AB G AB ⫹⌫ 2 关 G 兴 , 共28兲
of initial conditions with which we are presently concerned. 2 2
Therefore, let us couple an external, c-number, nonlocal
source K AB to the scalar field as follows: where the functional ⌫ 2 is ⫺iប times the sum of all two-
particle-irreducible diagrams with lines given by បG and
1 vertices given by the quartic interaction.
S 关 ␾ 兴 →S 关 ␾ 兴 ⫹ K AB ␾ A ␾ B , 共21兲 The functional ⌫ 关 G 兴 is the two-particle-irreducible 共2PI兲
2
effective action whose variation with respect to G gives the
equation of motion for the two-point function. Because we
and construct a quantum generating functional

Z关K兴⬅ 冕 D ␾ exp 冋冉
i
ប
1
S 关 ␾ 兴 ⫹ K AB ␾ A ␾ B
2 冊册 , 共22兲

whose functional power series expansion contains all the

n-point functions of the theory. The generating functional of
normalized expectation values is given by

W 关 K 兴 ⬅⫺iប ln Z 关 K 兴 . 共23兲

Now, we define FIG. 3. Four-loops contribution to the CTP effective action.

125013-5
E. A. CALZETTA, B. L. HU, AND S. A. RAMSEY
FIG. 4. Five-loops contribution to the CTP effective action.
are interested in computing transport properties of this
theory, we will need to include those terms in the perturba-
tive expansion for ⌫ 关 G 兴 which will contribute to the bulk
and shear viscosity in the weak-coupling, near-equilibrium
limit. In order to have binary scattering of quasiparticles in
the effective kinetic theory, we need to have a term with four
propagators, which appears at O(␭ 2 ). In order to have
number-changing processes such as two quasiparticles scat-
tering into four 共and vice versa兲, we need to include a term
with eight 共six asymptotic on-shell propagators and two in-
ternal lines 关2兴兲, which appears at O(␭ 4 ) in the 2PI effective
action. This means taking into account the Feynman graphs
in Figs. 1–5 关22兴. Taking the functional derivative with re-
spect to G AB yields a formal equation for the two-point func-
tion of the theory:
⫺1
1 are translation invariant, and their Fourier transform are sim-
បD AB ⫺iប 共 G 兲 AB ⫺ TAB ⫹⌸ AB ⫽0, 共29兲
2 ply proportional 关Kubo-Martin-Schwinger 共KMS兲 theorem
where we have singled out the tadpole term T, Fig. 6. The
remainder of the self-energy 共which we shall refer to as the
self-energy, for short兲 is given by the sum of the graphs in
Figs. 7–11 共Note: observe that in the graphs Figs. 1–4 all
internal lines are equivalent; in Fig. 5 we have instead two
sets of equivalent lines, marked a and b in the figure. Thus
this last graph gives rise to two different graphs upon varia-
tion, i.e., Figs. 10 and 11兲. This is just the Dyson equation
for the inverse propagator, where the self-energy is already
FIG. 5. The other five-loops contribution to the CTP effective
action. Observe the two sets of inequivalent lines, marked a and b.
125013-6
PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013
FIG. 6. One-loop contribution to the self-energy 共tadpole
graph兲.
expressed in terms of the propagators themselves. In the
sense of 关19,20兴 we say the self-energy has been slaved to
the propagators.
There are two ways we can proceed. We can either right-
multiply G BC , or left-multiply G CA into the equation, obtain-
ing the right-multiplied and left-multiplied Dyson equations,
respectively. Note that only the tadpole term is invariant un-
der simultaneous translations of the A and B spacetime indi-
ces. The higher-order terms all violate translation invariance
in the equation of motion for the two-point function as a
consequence of slaving—they describe the dissipative pro-
cesses by which the system approaches equilibrium 关5兴.
From now on we set ប⫽1.
B. Nonperturbative properties of the propagators
Our strategy is as follows. In equilibrium, the propagators
关16兴兴. Out of equilibrium, we write
G 共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ⫽ 冕 d4p
共 2␲ 兲4
e ipu G 共 X,p 兲 共30兲
with u⫽x⫺x ⬘ and X⫽(x⫹x ⬘ )/2. We assume that G(X,p)
is slowly varying with respect to the center-of-mass variable
X.
Before we start, it is useful to display the properties of the
propagators which actually follow from their definition as
path ordered products of field operators. We consider eight
different propagators.
FIG. 7. Two-loops contribution to the self-energy 共setting sun
graph兲.
HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSPORT FUNCTIONS FROM . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

FIG. 8. Three-loops contribution to the self-energy. FIG. 10. Another four-loops contribution to the self-energy.
Cutting as shown, we go across five internal lines. The symmetric
共a兲 The four basic propagators, appearing in equation cut also goes across five lines.
共24兲: Feynman G 11⬅ 具 T„⌽ H (x)⌽ H (x ⬘ )…典 , where T stands
for time ordering, Dyson G 22⬅ 具 T̃„⌽ H (x)⌽ H (x ⬘ )…典 , where G ret共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ⫽G adv共 x ⬘ ,x 兲 ⫽iG 共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ␪ 共 t⫺t ⬘ 兲
T̃ stands for antitime ordering, positive frequency
or else
G 21⬅ 具 ⌽ H (x)⌽ H (x ⬘ ) 典 and negative frequency G 12
⬅ 具 ⌽ H (x ⬘ )⌽ H (x) 典 . The Feynman and Dyson propagators G ret⫽i 共 G 11⫺G 12兲 ; G adv⫽i 共 G 22⫺G 12兲 . 共36兲
are even. We also have
Once G ret is known, we can reconstruct G as
G 11⫽G 22* ; G 12⫽G 21* ; G 12共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ⫽G 21共 x ⬘ ,x 兲 .
共31兲 G 共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ⫽ 共 ⫺i 兲关 G ret共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ⫺G ret共 x ⬘ ,x 兲兴 共37兲
11 22
As a consequence, G and G (X, p) are even functions So,
of momentum, while G 12(X, p)⫽G 21(X,⫺p). Moreover,
G 12 and G 21(X,p) are real, and G 22(X, p) * ⫽G 11. Finally, G 共 p 兲 ⫽ 共 ⫺i 兲关 G ret共 p 兲 ⫺G ret共 ⫺ p 兲兴 ⫽2 Im G ret共 p 兲 , 共38兲
we have the identity
where we have used that G ret(x,x ⬘ ) is real, so G ret(⫺p)
G 11⫹G 22⫽G 12⫹G 21, 共32兲 ⫽G ret(p) * . Also observe that G adv(p)⫽G ret(p) * .
which follows from the path-ordering constraints Since the retarded propagator is causal, it satisfies the
equation
G 11⫽ ␪ 共 t⫺t ⬘ 兲 G 21⫹ ␪ 共 t ⬘ ⫺t 兲 G 12, 共33兲
G ret⫽ ␪ 共 t⫺t ⬘ 兲 G ret . 共39兲
G 22⫽ ␪ 共 t⫺t ⬘ 兲 G 12⫹ ␪ 共 t ⬘ ⫺t 兲 G 21. 共34兲
Therefore, the real and imaginary parts of its transform are
共b兲 The Hadamard propagator G 1 ⫽G ⫹G 21 12 Hilbert transforms of each other
⬅ 具 兵 ⌽ H (x),⌽ H (x ⬘ ) 其 典 is real and even and, therefore, also is
G 1 (X, p). The Jordan propagator G⫽G 21⫺G 12⬅ 具 关 ⌽ H (x),
⌽ H (x ⬘ ) 兴 典 is imaginary and odd, and so G(X, p) is odd but
G ret共 p 兲 ⫽
i
2␲
冕 d␻
p ⫺ ␻ ⫹i␧
0
G ret共 ␻ ,pជ 兲
real.
共c兲 The advanced and retarded propagators

G adv共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ⫽⫺iG 共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ␪ 共 t ⬘ ⫺t 兲 ,

1
⫽ G ret共 p 兲 ⫹
2
i
2␲
PV 冕 d␻
p 0⫺ ␻
G ret 共 ␻ ,pជ 兲 , 共40兲

共35兲

FIG. 11. The final four-loops contribution to the self-energy.

FIG. 9. Four-loops contribution to the self-energy. Cutting as shown, we go across five internal lines.

125013-7
E. A. CALZETTA, B. L. HU, AND S. A. RAMSEY PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

冕␻ ␻
1 d it is possible to write down a nonperturbative 共in the cou-
Re G ret共 p 兲 ⫽ PV Im G ret共 ␻ , pជ 兲 . 共41兲 pling constant兲 expression for the retarded and Jordan propa-
␲ ⫺p 0
gators.
Let us obtain an equation for G ret from, say, the equations
This implies in particular that the real and imaginary parts
for G 11 and G 12, namely
are orthogonal to each other
G ret⫽i 共 G 11⫺G 12兲 ⫽i 共 G 21⫺G 22兲 共50兲
冕 d ␻ Im G ret共 ␻ , pជ 兲 Re G ret共 ␻ , pជ 兲 ⫽0. 共42兲
leading to
All other propagators can be decomposed in a similar 1
way. For example, since ⫺1⫽DG ret⫺ T11G ret⫹⌸ retG ret , 共51兲
2
1 where we have used that T12⫽0, and
G 11共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ⫽ 关 G 1 共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ⫹G 共 x,x ⬘ 兲 sgn共 t⫺t ⬘ 兲兴
2
⌸ ret⫽⌸ 11⫹⌸ 12 . 共52兲
1
⫽ 兵 G 1 共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ⫺i 关 G ret共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ⫹G ret共 x ⬘ ,x 兲兴 其 Next we perform the Fourier transform. Since we are only
2
interested in computing the transport coefficients, we only
共43兲 need to keep terms which are first order in gradients 共this
approximation which is formally invoked in the derivation of
so
kinetic theory may not be always useful when dealing with
1 realistic physical conditions, see, e.g., 关23兴兲. Therefore, in
G 11共 X, p 兲 ⫽ 关 G 1 ⫺2i Re G ret兴 ; computing the transforms, we drop all second derivative
2
terms. The free term D⫽䊐⫺m 2b transforms into
1
G 22共 X, p 兲 ⫽ 关 G 1 ⫹2i Re G ret兴 . 共44兲 ⳵ 1
2 D⫽⫺p 2 ⫹ip ⫹ 䊐 X ⫺m 2b . 共53兲
⳵X 4
To give a nonperturbative definition of the one-particle
We drop the D’Alembertian as it contains second deriva-
distribution function f, which is the focus of attention in
tives:
quantum kinetic theory, we assume that the partial Fourier
transforms of the Hadamard and Jordan propagators are pro- ⳵
portional D⬃⫺p 2 ⫹ip ⫺m 2b . 共54兲
⳵X
G 1 ⫽sgn共 p 0 兲关 1⫹2 f 兴 G. 共45兲
The tadpole 共for a generic propagator G) reads in position
Introducing a density of states function ⌬( p) space

G 共 p 兲 ⬅2 ␲ sgn共 p 0 兲 ⌬ 共 p 兲 , 共46兲 T11 G⫽␭G 11共 x,x 兲 G 共 x,x ⬘ 兲 . 共55兲

then We write

G 1 ⫽2 ␲ 关 1⫹2 f 兴 ⌬,

G ⫽2 ␲ 关 ␪ 共 p 兲 ⫹ f 兴 ⌬⫽2 ␲ F ⌬,
21 0 21
共47兲

共48兲
␭
4
G 1 共 x,x 兲 G 共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ⫽
␭
4
冕 d4p d 4q
共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4
e ipu G 1 共 x,q 兲 G 共 X,p 兲
共56兲
G ⫽2 ␲ 关 ␪ 共 ⫺p 兲 ⫹ f 兴 ⌬⫽2 ␲ F ⌬.
12 0 12
共49兲
and retain only terms linear in gradients to obtain

冕
In equilibrium, f is the Bose-Einstein distribution function
共KMS theorem兲. It can be assumed that Eq. 共45兲 serves as the ␭ ␭ d4p d 4q
G 1 共 x,x 兲 G 共 x,x ⬘ 兲 ⫽ e ipu G 共 X,p 兲
definition of the function f, valid to all orders in perturbation 4 4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4

冋 册
theory. Observe that, since the relevant Fourier transforms
are distributions 共e.g., in free theories兲, this definition may u ⳵
⫻ G 1 共 X,q 兲 ⫹ G 共 X,q 兲 .
only be applied if both Fourier transforms have the same 2 ⳵X 1
singularity structure, which in the last analysis is a restriction 共57兲
on allowed quantum states. In what follows, we assume these
restrictions are met. The contribution to the equation has the form

C. The nonperturbative retarded and Jordan propagators

In the approximation where only terms linear in the gra-
冋 ⫺ ␦ M 2共 X 兲 ⫺
i ⳵共 ␦ M 2兲 ⳵
2 ⳵X ⳵p 册
G 共 X,p 兲 , 共58兲

dients of the Fourier transforms of propagators are retained, where

125013-8
HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSPORT FUNCTIONS FROM . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

␦ M 2共 X 兲 ⫽
␭
4
冕 共2␲兲
d 4q
G 共 x,q 兲 .
4 1
共59兲 G ret⫽ 关 Z b 共 p⫹i␧ 兲 2 ⫹M 2 ⫺⌸ ret共 p 兲兴 ⫺1 ⫽
1
⍀
冏 Im p 0 →0 ⫹
,
共68兲
Let us write the remaining term collectively as
where

⌸G⫽ 冕 d 4 y ⌸ 共 x,y 兲 G 共 y,x ⬘ 兲 , 共60兲 共 p⫹i␧ 兲 2 ⫽⫺ 共 p 0 ⫹i␧ 兲 2 ⫹ pជ 2 共69兲

which transforms into 共we have displaced p 0 into the complex plane to account for
the retarded boundary conditions兲. Now we write

冕 冕 d4y
d4p d 4q
共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4
e ip(y⫺x ⬘ ) e iq(x⫺y) i
G ret⫽Re G ret⫹ G.
2
共70兲

⫻⌸ 冉 x⫹y
2
,q G 冊冉
x ⬘ ⫹y
2
,p . 冊 共61兲 Then

⫺2 Im ⍀ ⫺sgn共 p 0 兲 Im ⍀
Keeping only first terms in gradients, this transforms into G⫽ ; ⌬⫽ . 共71兲
兩⍀兩2 ␲兩⍀兩2

冕 冕 d4y
d4p d 4q
共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4
e ip(y⫺x ⬘ ) e iq(x⫺y) D. Equation for the negative frequency propagator

再
The equation for the negative frequency propagator is
y⫺x ⬘
⫻ ⌸ 共 X,q 兲 G 共 X, p 兲 ⫹ 共 ⳵ X ⌸ 兲共 q 兲 G 共 p 兲 1
2
DG 12⫺ T1B G B2 ⫹⌸ 1B G B2 ⫽0. 共72兲

冎
2
y⫺x
⫹ ⌸共 q 兲⳵ XG共 p 兲 共62兲
2 Recall that

and then into 1 ⍀

G 22⫽G 12⫹iG adv , *⫽
G ret ⫽ . 共73兲
⍀* 兩⍀兩2
冕 冕
4 4
d p d q
d4y e ip(y⫺x ⬘ ) e iq(x⫺y)
共 2␲ 兲 共 2␲ 兲4
4 After Fourier transforming, we obtain

再 i
⫻ ⌸ 共 X,q 兲 G 共 X, p 兲 ⫹ 共 ⳵ X ⌸ 兲共 q 兲 ⳵ p G 共 p 兲
2 冋
0⫽⫺⍀ G 12⫺
i⌸ 12
兩⍀兩
i
册
⫹ 兵 ⍀,G 12其 ⫹
22
1
2⍀ * 2
兵 ⍀ * ,⌸ 12其 .

i
⫺ ⳵ q⌸共 q 兲⳵ XG共 p 兲 ,
2 冎 共63兲
共74兲

In keeping with the stipulation to consider only first-order

corrections to local thermal equilibrium, we shall neglect all
which contributes a term terms containing both derivatives and radiative corrections.

冋 册
So the equation is equivalent to
i

冋 册
关共 ⳵ X ⌸ ret兲 ⳵ p ⫺ 共 ⳵ p ⌸ ret兲 ⳵ X 兴 ⫹⌸ ret共 p 兲 G ret 共64兲
2 i⌸ 12i
0⫽⫺⍀ G 12⫺ ⫹ 兵 ⍀,G 12其 . 共75兲
to the equation of motion. 兩⍀兩2 2
Introducing the Poisson bracket
To separate this equation into real and imaginary parts, we
兵 f ,g 其 ⫽ ⳵ p f ⳵ X g⫺ ⳵ X f ⳵ p g, 共65兲 must notice that the combination i⌸ 12 is actually real 共see
Appendix A兲.
we may write the equation for G ret as
E. The unperturbed theory
i
⫺1⫽⫺⍀G ret⫹ 兵 ⍀,G ret其 , 共66兲 The unperturbed theory is obtained by neglecting the
2 O(␭ 2 ) terms in our equations. The unperturbed equations are
where ⍀ 0 ⫽ p 2 ⫹M 2 共76兲

⍀⫽ p 2 ⫹M 2 ⫺⌸ ret共 p 兲 , M 2 ⫽m 2b ⫹ ␦ M 2 , 共67兲 and

and we get the exact 共formal兲 solution ⌬ 共 p 兲 ⫽ ␦ 共 p 2 ⫹M 2 兲 ⫹O 共 ␭ 2 兲 . 共77兲

125013-9
E. A. CALZETTA, B. L. HU, AND S. A. RAMSEY PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

These are exact solutions of the above equations. In momentum space, dealing with the propagators as if they
Concerning the distribution function, the real part of Eq. were translation invariant,
共75兲 above shows that G 12 is concentrated on the zeroes of
⍀, as required by Eq. 共45兲, and, since 兵 ⍀ 0 ,⌬ 其 ⫽0, the
imaginary part becomes the unperturbed transport equation ⌺ 12共 p 兲 ⫽ 共 2 ␲ 兲 4 冕 d 4r d 4s
共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4
d 4t
␦ 共 p⫺r⫺s⫺t 兲

0⫽⌬ p 冋 ⳵ 1
⫺ ⳵ M 2 ⳵ p F 12,
⳵X 2 X 册 ⫻G 12共 r 兲 G 12共 s 兲 G 12共 t 兲 ,

and, using the definition Eq. 共49兲, we get

共83兲

which is in the form of a Vlasov equation.

III. THE TRANSPORT EQUATION

⌺ 12共 p 兲 ⫽ 共 2 ␲ 兲 4 冕 d 4 r⌬ 共 r 兲 d 4 s⌬ 共 s 兲 d 4 t⌬ 共 t 兲
共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3
The nonperturbative 共in the coupling constant兲 equation ⫻ ␦ 共 p⫺r⫺s⫺t 兲 F 12共 r 兲 F 12共 s 兲 F 12共 t 兲 . 共84兲
we have derived for G 12, plus the decomposition Eq. 共49兲
lead in a straightforward way to the transport equation. Ne- If we substitute ⌬ by its lowest order value ⌬ 0 ⫽ ␦ (p 2
glecting 兵 ⍀,⌬ 其 as before, we write Eq. 共75兲 as ⫹M 2 ), this yields the collision term given earlier in 关5兴. This

冋 册
represents binary collisions, which conserves the particle
i⌸ 12 number. For the reasons discussed in the Introduction, it
0⫽⫺⍀ G 12⫺ ⫹i ␲ ⌬ 兵 Re ⍀,F 12其 . 共78兲 leads to an inconsistency when one tries to compute the bulk
兩⍀兩2
viscosity coefficient.
Since Im ⍀⫽⫺ 兩 ⍀ 兩 2 G/2, its imaginary part reduces to The first correction to Eq. 共84兲, within the two-loop
theory, comes from the radiative corrections to the density of

冋 i
2
1
0⫽⌬ ⫺F 12 Im ⍀⫺ ⌸ 12 sgn共 p 0 兲 ⫹ 兵 Re ⍀,F 12其 ,
2 册 states, as given by Eqs. 共71兲 and 共80兲. We write

0 ⫹␦⌺ ,
⌺ 12⫽⌺ 12 12
共85兲
共79兲

which is the Boltzmann equation. To simplify it even further, where ⌺ 12

0 is the lowest order result just discussed, and 共writ-
we observe that since sgn(p 0 )⫽F 21⫺F 12, ing ⍀ 0s ⫽s 2 ⫹M 2 for short兲

Im ⍀⫽⫺Im ⌸ ret⫽⫺Im ⌸ 11⫹i⌸ 12⫽ 共 i/2兲共 ⌸ 12⫺⌸ 21兲

共80兲 ␦ ⌺ 12共 p 兲 ⫽3i 共 2 ␲ 兲 3 冕 d 4 r sgn共 r 0 兲 d 4 s ␦ 共 ⍀ 0s 兲
共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3
共see the Appendix兲, so d 4 t ␦ 共 ⍀ 0t 兲
␦ 共 p⫺r⫺s⫺t 兲
冋 册
⫻
1 i 共 2␲ 兲3
0⫽⌬ 兵 Re ⍀,F 12其 ⫺ 共 ⌸ 12F 21⫺⌸ 21F 12兲 . 共81兲
2 2 ⫻G ret共 r 兲 G adv共 r 兲 F 12共 r 兲 F 12共 s 兲 F 12共 t 兲
This equation is formally valid to all orders in the cou- ⫻ 关 ⌸ 21⫺⌸ 12兴共 r 兲 . 共86兲
pling constant. However, it is convenient to consider the loop
expansion of ⌸ to reduce this equation to a more familiar We use again Eq. 共82兲 to get
form.

A. The collision term

␦ ⌺ 12共 p 兲 ⫽
⫺␭ 2 共 2 ␲ 兲 4
2
冕 d 4 s ␦ 共 ⍀ 0s 兲 d 4 t ␦ 共 ⍀ 0t 兲
共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3
In this subsection we consider the expansion of the self-
energy ⌸ in terms of Feynman graphs of increasing loop d 4 u ␦ 共 ⍀ 0u 兲 d 4 v ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 v 兲 d 4 w ␦ 共 ⍀ 0w 兲
⫻
order, as a means to obtain a definite expression for the col- 共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3
lision term in the kinetic equation 共81兲. Since we have the
relationship ⌸ 21(p)⫽⌸ 12(⫺p) 共see Appendix兲 it is enough ⫻ ␦ 共 p⫹u⫹ v ⫹w⫹s⫹t 兲 ␴ 共 u⫹ v ⫹w 兲
to analyze only the expansion of ⌸ 12 . Physically this means
considering only the gain processes, which produce a particle ⫻F 21共 s 兲 F 21共 t 兲关 F 12共 u 兲 F 12共 v 兲 F 12共 w 兲
within a given phase-space cell. The collision term is then
⫺F 21共 u 兲 F 21共 v 兲 F 21共 w 兲兴 , 共87兲
obtained by subtracting the loss processes, which remove a
particle therein. where
The first term in the expansion is the single two-loop
graph Fig. 7. To this order, ␴ 共 r 兲 ⫽sgn共 r 0 兲 G ret共 r 兲 G adv共 r 兲 F 21共 r 兲 .
⫺i 2 12 ⫺i 2 12 A successful contribution to the gain part of the collision
⌸ 12共 x,y 兲 ⫽ ␭ ⌺ 共 x,y 兲 ⫽ ␭ 关 G 共 x,y 兲兴 3 . 共82兲
6 6 term describing scattering of two into four particles 共this be-

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HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSPORT FUNCTIONS FROM . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

ing the simplest particle number nonconserving process in
this theory兲 must involve, besides the factor (1⫹ f p ) already
explicit in Eq. 共81兲, five other factors f or 1⫹ f evaluated on
on-shell momenta adding up to p. But Eq. 共87兲 cannot con-
tain a term like this, because of the interference between the
two terms in brackets. After all cancellations, we are left
with radiative corrections to the already known binary colli-
sion term. We conclude that to order ␭ 4 there are no contri-
butions to a particle number nonconserving collision term
arising from the setting sun graph. We must consider instead
the higher loop graphs, Figs. 8–11.
B. Higher loops
Generally speaking, we expect the collision term to de-
scribe both particle number conserving (2→2) and changing
(2→4) scattering. Because of parity, we do not expect tran-
sitions between an even and odd number of particles. The
2→2 scattering is already present in the two-loop theory,
and any further correction to it will not contribute to the
transport functions. So from the three and four loop contri-
butions we seek only terms related to 2→4 scattering.
Since we only seek the lowest order contribution to the
bulk viscosity, we may substitute the density of states ⌬ by a
delta function concentrated on mass shell, so the notions of
on and off shell recover their usual meaning. It is then pos-
sible to ascertain from the momentum flow in the graph
whether the condition of five on-shell momenta adding to p
may be fulfilled: this is just the question of whether it is
possible to cut the graph by going across five internal lines
关24兴. The three-loop contribution cannot satisfy this crite-
rium, and we shall not analyze it further 共it only renormalizes
the binary scattering amplitude兲. For the same reason, we
discard the graph in Fig. 9, and concentrate on the graphs in
Figs. 10 and 11, which a priori pass the test.
The complete contribution to ⌸ 12 from the graph in Fig.
10 reads

⫺i␭ 4
4
共 2 ␲ 兲 12 冕 d 4q d 4r d 4s d 4t d 4u d 4v
共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4
d 4w
␦ 共 q⫹r⫹s⫺ p 兲 ␦ 共 t⫹u⫹ v ⫺q 兲 ␦ 共 u⫹t⫹r⫺w 兲

⫻兵 2G 11共 q 兲 G 12共 r 兲 G 12共 s 兲 G 12共 t 兲 G 12共 u 兲 G 12共 v 兲 G 22共 w 兲 ⫺G 11共 q 兲 G 11共 r 兲 G 12共 s 兲 G 11共 t 兲 G 11共 u 兲 G 12共 v 兲 G 12共 w 兲
⫺G 12共 q 兲 G 12共 r 兲 G 12共 s 兲 G 22共 t 兲 G 22共 u 兲 G 22共 v 兲 G 22共 w 兲 其 . 共88兲

In a true contribution to 2→4 scattering, the six on-shell momenta involved 共including p) are irreducible, in the sense that
there are no other linear relations among them than overall momentum conservation. If we look at the three terms in curly
brackets in Eq. 共88兲, we see that in the second term the three momenta s, v , and w are on shell, but they satisfy the linear
relation s⫹ v ⫹w⫺ p⫽0, irrespective of the other momenta. Thus this term is not irreducible, and does not contribute to 2
→4 scattering; it is another radiative correction to the binary collision term. The same analysis disposes of the third term, since
here the on-shell momenta q, r, and s are constrained to satisfy q⫹r⫹s⫺p⫽0. We will disregard these two terms.
The graph in Fig. 11 contributes

⫺i␭ 4
4
共 2 ␲ 兲 12 冕 d 4q d 4r d 4s d 4t d 4u d 4v
共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4
d 4w
␦ 共 q⫹r⫹s⫺ p 兲 ␦ 共 t⫹u⫹ v ⫺q 兲 ␦ 共 t⫹r⫹s⫺w 兲

⫻兵 G 11共 q 兲 G 12共 r 兲 G 12共 s 兲 G 12共 t 兲 G 12共 u 兲 G 12共 v 兲 G 22共 w 兲 ⫹G 12共 q 兲 G 11共 r 兲 G 11共 s 兲 G 21共 t 兲 G 22共 u 兲 G 22共 v 兲 G 12共 w 兲
⫺G 11共 q 兲 G 11共 r 兲 G 11共 s 兲 G 11共 t 兲 G 12共 u 兲 G 12共 v 兲 G 12共 w 兲 ⫺G 12共 q 兲 G 12共 r 兲 G 12共 s 兲 G 22共 t 兲 G 22共 u 兲 G 22共 v 兲 G 22共 w 兲 其 . 共89兲

Only the first term in curly brackets is irreducible. Retaining only the irreducible contributions from both graphs, we get the
prospective particle number nonconserving collision term as

⫺i␭ 4
4
共 2␲ 兲4 冕 d 4r d 4s d 4t d 4u
共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4 共 2␲ 兲4
d 4v
␦ 共 r⫹s⫹t⫹u⫹ v ⫺ p 兲 ␴ 2 共 ⫺ p,r,s,t,u, v 兲

⫻G 12共 r 兲 G 12共 s 兲 G 12共 t 兲 G 12共 u 兲 G 12共 v 兲 ,

共90兲
␴ 2 ⫽G 11共 p⫹r⫹s 兲关 2G 22共 p⫹ v ⫹s 兲 ⫹G 22共 p⫹u⫹ v 兲兴 .

It is clear that only the totally symmetric 共as a function of r, s, t, u, and v ) part ␴ s2 of ␴ 2 contributes to the integral, so we shall
assume that ␴ 2 has been symmetrized.
To reduce Eq. 共90兲 to a more familiar form, let us assume that p 0 ⬎0, and restrict the integral to future oriented momenta
共that is, when a momentum is past oriented, we reverse its sign兲. Because of momentum conservation, some momenta must be
future oriented, but because they are all on mass shell, they cannot be all future oriented at the same time; the number of future

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E. A. CALZETTA, B. L. HU, AND S. A. RAMSEY PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

oriented momenta can only be 4, 3 or 2. The terms with three future oriented momenta describe 3→3 scattering, which
conserves particle number, so they are not related to the bulk viscosity. With these considerations we finally get the particle
number nonconserving collision term as

I 2→4 ⫽ 冕 d 4r ␪共 r 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 d 4s ␪共 s 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 d 4t ␪共 t 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 d 4u ␪共 u 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 d 4v ␪共 v 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲

共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3
⫻ 兵 R 1 ␦ 1 关共 1⫹ f p 兲共 1⫹ f r 兲共 1⫹ f s 兲共 1⫹ f t 兲 f u f v ⫺ 共 1⫹ f u 兲共 1⫹ f v 兲 f p f r f s f t 兴
⫹R 2 ␦ 2 关共 1⫹ f p 兲共 1⫹ f r 兲 f s f t f u f v ⫺ 共 1⫹ f s 兲共 1⫹ f t 兲共 1⫹ f u 兲共 1⫹ f v 兲 f p f r 兴 其 , 共91兲

where A. The gap equation

Let us write the gap equation as
5␭ 4
R 1⬅ 共 2 ␲ 兲 4 ␴ s2 共 ⫺p,⫺r,⫺s,⫺t,u, v 兲 ; ␭b 2
4
M 2 ⫽m 2b ⫹m V2 ⫹ M , 共97兲
共92兲 2 T
5␭ 4
R 2⬅ 共 2 ␲ 兲 4 ␴ s2 共 ⫺p,⫺r,s,t,u, v 兲 , where
8

␦ 1 ⬅ ␦ 共 p⫹r⫹s⫹t⫺u⫺ v 兲 ;
共93兲
M T2 ⫽ 冕 d4p
共 2␲ 兲3
␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 f 共 X,p 兲 , 共98兲

␦ 2 ⬅ ␦ 共 p⫹r⫺s⫺t⫺u⫺ v 兲 .

IV. THERMODYNAMICS FROM QUANTUM

m V2 ⫽
␭b
4
冕 d4p
共 2␲ 兲3
␦共 ⍀0兲. 共99兲

KINETIC THEORY
This second quantity is actually divergent, so to evaluate
Our goal in this section is to investigate the thermody- it we need to regularize it first. We shall use dimensional
namic and hydrodynamic properties of a quantum field, par- regularization, writing
ticularly the equation of state and the speed of sound. Our
starting point is the on-shell Boltzmann equation 共79兲. To
render the Poisson bracket manageable, we keep only the
unperturbed ⍀, equation 共76兲, where M 2 is given self-
m V2 ⫽
␭b ␧
2
␮ 冕 ddp 共 ⫺i 兲
共 2 ␲ 兲 d p 2 ⫹M 2 ⫺i␧
, 共100兲

consistently by Eqs. 共59兲 and 共67兲, namely

where the dimensionality d⫽4⫺␧. We also go to Euclidean
momenta, p 0 →ip 0 , so
M 2
⫽m 2b ⫹ ␦ M 2 ;

冕
共94兲
␭b ␧ ddp
冋 册
1
␭b
冕 m V2 ⫽ ␮ 共101兲
4 .
d p 1
␦ M 2共 X 兲 ⫽ ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 ⫹ f 共 X,p 兲 . 2 共 2 ␲ 兲 p ⫹M 2
d 2
2 共2␲兲 3 2
We obtain

冋 册
The kinetic equation can be written as
␧
1
2
兵 ⍀ 0 , f 其 ⫽I col共 X, p 兲 , 共95兲 m V2 ⫽⫺
␭bM
16␲ 2
2

冉 冊 冋 册
4␲␮2
M 2 ⫺␧/2 ⌫

␧ 1⫺
1⫹
2
␧
.

2
where I satisfies the constraint
Then, we write

冕 d4p
共 2␲ 兲4
␪ 共 p 0 兲 ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 p ␮ I col共 X, p 兲 ⫽0, 共96兲
冋 册
⌫ 1⫹
␧
2 1 1

冋 册
⫽ ⫹ 共 1⫺ ␥ 兲 ⫹•••⬅z 共102兲
which expresses energy-momentum conservation. Our con- ␧ ␧ 2
␧ 1⫺
cern is to investigate this 共only兲 conservation law, but first, 2
we need to express the gap equation 共94兲 in terms of finite
quantities. ( ␥ ⫽.5772 . . . ). We get

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HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSPORT FUNCTIONS FROM . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

m V2 ⫽⫺
␭BM 2
16␲ 2
冋 冉 冊册
1
z⫺ ln
2
M2
4␲␮2
. 共103兲
In the third term, the metric appears through the 冑⫺g
factors multiplying the coupling constants. Therefore, the
contribution to T ␮ ␯ takes the form
We go back to the gap equation and write it as ␦ ␭ b ␮ ␯ 11
␩ ␮␯␭ B ␩ 关 G 共 x,x 兲兴 2 ⫹⌳ b ␩ ␮ ␯ ,

冋 冉 冊 册
⌫ 2 ⫽⫺
␭b M 2 M2
␦ ␭ 1111 8
ZM 2 ⫽m 2b ⫹ ln ⫹M T2 , 共104兲 共113兲
2 16␲ 2 4␲␮2
where ⌳ b contains all the higher-order contributions. To the
where accuracy desired, ⌳ b is position independent, and we shall
not analyze it further. Adding the two nontrivial contribu-
z␭ b tions we get
Z⫽1⫹ . 共105兲

We now renormalize the bare couplings

16␲ 2
冋 1
册
T ␮ ␯ 共 X 兲 ⫽⫺ ⳵ ␮ ⳵ ␯ ⫺ ␩ ␮ ␯ 䊐 x G 11共 x,x ⬘ 兲 兩 x ⬘ ⫽x
2

m 2b ⫽Zm 2 ; ␭ b ⫽Z␭ 共106兲

1 ␭b
冋 册
⫺ ␩ ␮ ␯ m 2b ⫹ G 11 G 11⫹⌳ b ␩ ␮ ␯ . 共114兲
2 4
共the actual coupling in d dimensions being ␮ ␧ ␭ b ) to obtain
the physical gap equation To write the first term in terms of the distribution func-
tion, observe that ⳵ x →ip⫹ 21 ⳵ X . We must neglect second
␭ 2 derivative terms, and observe that terms involving p ⳵ X even-
M 2 ⫽m 2 ⫹ M , 共107兲 tually vanish because G 11(X,p) is even in p. So
2 f

where T ␮␯共 X 兲 ⫽ 冕 d4p

冋 1
册
p ␮ p ␯ ⫺ ␩ ␮ ␯ p 2 G 11共 X,p 兲

冉 冊
共2␲兲 4 2

冋 册
M2 M2
M 2f ⫽ ln ⫹M T2 . 共108兲 1 ␭b
16␲ 2
4␲␮2 ⫺ ␩ ␮ ␯ m 2b ⫹ G 11 G 11⫹⌳ b ␩ ␮ ␯ . 共115兲
2 4
With these we turn our attention to the energy-momentum
We are entitled to use the unperturbed approximation for
tensor.
G 11:
B. Energy-momentum tensor 共 ⫺i 兲
G 11⫽ ⫹2 ␲ ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 f 共 X,p 兲 . 共116兲
To define the energy-momentum tensor, we write the ef- p ⫹M 2 ⫺i␧
2
fective action in a general curved background, and then use
the customary definition 关25兴 The expressions that appear in T ␮ ␯ are divergent and we
must regularize them. Let us consider
␦⌫
冋 册
2
T ␮␯⫽ , 共109兲 1
冑⫺g ␦ g ␮(1)␯ p ␮ p ␯⫺ ␩ ␮␯ p 2
冕
d
d p 2
T V␮ ␯ ⫽⫺i
where only the derivative with respect to the metric in the 共 2␲ 兲d p 2 ⫹M 2 ⫺i␧
first time branch is taken. The effective action itself is given
by Eq. 共28兲. The first term Tr ln G does not depend on the
metric. Written in full, the second term reads ⫽ 冉 i 共 d⫺2 兲 ␮ ␯
2d
␩ 冊 冕 d4p p2
共 2 ␲ 兲 4 p 2 ⫹M 2 ⫺i␧
. 共117兲

1
2
冕 d 4 x 兵 冑⫺g (1) 共 䊐 (1)
x ⫺m b 兲 G 共 x,x ⬘ 兲 兩 x ⬘ ⫽x ⫺ 共 1→2 兲 其 .
2 11 We rotate the integral into the Euclidean domain and com-
pute the integral in d⫽4⫺␧ dimensions, so finally
共110兲

As usual T V␮ ␯ ⫽⫺
M 4␩ ␮␯
32␲ 2
冋 1 1
z⫺ ⫺ ln
4 2
M2
4␲␮2
冉 冊册 . 共118兲
␦ 冑⫺g 1 ␦ g ␮␯
⫽ 冑⫺gg ␮ ␯ ; ⫽⫺g ␮ ␳ g ␯␴ , 共111兲 We also need
␦ g ␮␯ 2 ␦ g ␳␴

and so the contribution from this term to T ␮ ␯ is

G 11共 x,x 兲 ⫽
2
␭B
zm 2
␦ M 2 ⫽Z ⫺1 M 2f ⫺Z 2 .冋 册
冋 册
8␲
1
⫺ ⳵ ␮ ⳵ ␯ ⫹ ␩ ␮ ␯ 共 䊐 x ⫺m 2b 兲 G 11共 x,x ⬘ 兲 兩 x ⬘ ⫽x . 共112兲
2 Therefore,

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E. A. CALZETTA, B. L. HU, AND S. A. RAMSEY PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

m 2b ⫹
␭ b 11
4
G 共 x,x 兲 ⫽Z m 2 ⫹
␭
4Z 冋 冉
M 2f ⫺Z
zm 2
8␲2
冊册 Here, T ␮0 ␯ is infinite, but state independent and conserved.
It belongs to the theory of the renormalization of the gravi-
tational action 共see 关25,26兴 and references therein兲, and we

⫽Z m 2 ⫹冋 冉 ␭
4
M 2f ⫺
zm 2
8␲2
冊册 ⫹O 共 ␭ 2 兲
shall not consider it further.
Consistency requires that we actually neglect the O(␭ 2 )
terms in ⌳ f , or at least that we consider them as a true
共temperature independent兲 constant. Then we can establish
共119兲
the following identity, which will be useful later on. First, we
and write

冋 m 2b ⫹
␭ b 11 11
4 册
G G ⫽⫺m 2
zm 2
8␲2
⫺M 2f 冉 冊 M T2 ⫽
2
␭
共 M 2 ⫺m 2 兲 ⫺
M2
16␲ 2
ln
M2
4␲␮2
, 冉 冊
⫺
␭
4 冋冉 冊zm 2
8␲2
2

⫹
zm 2 M 2f
4␲2
⫺M 4f 册 ⌳f⫽
M 2m 2
⫺
M4
⫺
M4
⫹
M4
ln
M2
⫹const. 冉 冊
␭ 128␲ 2 2␭ 64␲ 2 4␲␮2
⫹O 共 ␭ 2 兲 .
共126兲
So far, we get

冋 册
Then observe that
1 ␮ ␯ 2 ␭ B 11 11
T V␮ ␯ ⫹ ␩ m B⫹ G G 共a兲 ⌳ f depends on temperature only through the physical
2 4 mass M 2 , and

⫽⫺ ␩ ␮␯
再 冉 冊
⫺
␭ zm 2
2

⫺
zm 4
⫺
m4
共b兲

冉 冊
8 8␲2 32␲ 2 2␭
⫺1 2

冎
d⌳ f m2 M 2 M4 M2
2 2 4 2
M T2 ⫽ ⫺ ⫹ ln ⫽ MT .
M m M M dM 2 ␭ ␭ 32␲ 2
4␲␮ 2 2
⫹ ⫺ ⫹ ⫹O 共 ␭ 2 兲 .
2␭ 128␲ 2 4 共127兲
共120兲
This is the identity we need below. This expression for
Next, we call the energy momentum tensor is equivalent to that given by
Jeon and Yaffe. In particular, Eq. 共127兲 implies that energy
T T␮ ␯ ⫽ 冕 d4p
共 2␲ 兲4
p ␮ p ␯ 2 ␲ ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 f 共 X, p 兲 , 共121兲
momentum conservation follows from the transport equation.

C. Entropy flux and the H theorem

and observe that
Let us mention also the entropy flux

冕
4
d p
共2␲兲 4 冋 1
册
p ␮ p ␯ ⫺ ␩ ␮ ␯ p 2 2 ␲ ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 f 共 X, p 兲
2 S ␮ ⫽2 冕 d4p
␪ 共 p 0 兲 p ␮ 2 ␲ ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 兵 共 1⫹ f 兲 ln共 1⫹ f 兲 ⫺ f ln f 其 .
共 2␲ 兲4
1 共128兲
⫽T T␮ ␯ ⫹ ␩ ␮ ␯ M 2 M T2 , 共122兲
2
Associated with this, entropy generation is given by
so

where
T ␮ ␯ ⫽T ␮0 ␯ ⫹T ␮f ␯ ⫹T T␮ ␯ , 共123兲
S ;␮␮ ⫽2 冕 d4p
共2␲兲 4 冋 共 1⫹ f 兲
␪ 共 p 0 兲 2 ␲ ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 ln
f 册
I col .
共129兲

T 0␮ ␯ ⫽ ␩ ␮ ␯ 再冉 冊␭ zm
8 8␲2
2 2

⫹
32␲
zm 4

2
⫹
m4

2␭
, 冎 共124兲 The positivity of this integral expresses the H theorem. Let
us write
T ␮f ␯ ⫽⫺⌳ f ␩ ␮ ␯ ;
共125兲 I col⫽I 2→2 ⫹I 2→4 , 共130兲
M 2m 2 M4 M 2 M T2
⌳f⫽ ⫺ ⫺ ⫹O 共 ␭ 2 兲 .
2␭ 128␲ 2 4 where the first term is the usual binary collision term

125013-14
HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSPORT FUNCTIONS FROM . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

冕 d 4r ␪共 r 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 d 4s ␪共 s 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 and the second term involves the number changing interac-
I 2→2 ⫽ ␴ tions, already given in Eq. 共91兲.
共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3 When inserted in Eq. 共129兲, we find
d 4t ␪共 t 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲
⫻ ␦ 共 p⫹r⫺s⫺t 兲
共 2␲ 兲3 S ;␮␮ ⫽H 2→2 ⫹H 2→4 , 共132兲
⫻ 兵 共 1⫹ f p 兲共 1⫹ f r 兲 f s f t ⫺ 共 1⫹ f s 兲共 1⫹ f t 兲 f p f r 其
共131兲 where H 2→2 is the usual result 关14兴

H 2→2 ⫽
1
2
冕 d 4 p ␪共 p 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 d 4r ␪共 r 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 d 4s ␪共 s 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 d 4t ␪共 t 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲
共2␲兲 3
共2␲兲 3
共2␲兲 3
共2␲兲 3 冋 ln
共 1⫹ f p 兲共 1⫹ f r 兲 f s f t
共 1⫹ f s 兲共 1⫹ f t 兲 f p f r
册
⫻ ␦ 共 p⫹r⫺s⫺t 兲 兵 共 1⫹ f p 兲共 1⫹ f r 兲 f s f t ⫺ 共 1⫹ f s 兲共 1⫹ f t 兲 f p f r 其 , 共133兲

whereas 关from I 2→4 in Eq. 共91兲兴

H 2→4 ⫽
1
3
冕 d 4 p ␪共 p 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 d 4r ␪共 r 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 d 4s ␪共 s 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 d 4t ␪共 t 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 d 4u ␪共 u 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲 d 4v ␪共 v 0 兲␦共 ⍀ 兲
共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3 共 2␲ 兲3

⫻ 共 R 1 ⫺R 2 兲 ln 冋
共 1⫹ f p 兲共 1⫹ f r 兲共 1⫹ f s 兲共 1⫹ f t 兲 f u f v
共 1⫹ f u 兲共 1⫹ f v 兲 f p f r f s f t
册
␦ 共 p⫹r⫹s⫹t⫺u⫺ v 兲

⫻ 关共 1⫹ f p 兲共 1⫹ f r 兲共 1⫹ f s 兲共 1⫹ f t 兲 f u f v ⫺ 共 1⫹ f u 兲共 1⫹ f v 兲 f p f r f s f t 兴 共134兲

冕
is new. Thus the H theorem demands the inequality 1 ⬁ ␻2
␳ T⫽ d␻ 冑␻ 2 ⫺M 2 ,
R 1 ⭓R 2 . 共135兲 ␲ 2 M e ␤ ␻ ⫺1
共138兲
We expect that the integral will be dominated by grazing
collisions, where one of the reactants and one of the products M T2 ⫽
1
␲2
冕
M
⬁
d␻
1
e ␤ ␻ ⫺1
冑␻ 2 ⫺M 2 .
carry essentially all the momentum. In this limit, R 1 ⬃2R 2
关see Eq. 共92兲兴, so the H theorem is satisfied.
For the thermal pressure, we find 3p T ⫺ ␳ T ⫽⫺M 2 M T2 , so
D. „Local… thermal equilibrium states
1
Our next concern is to investigate the equation of state, p T ⫽ 共 ␳ T ⫺M 2 M T2 兲 . 共139兲
3
for a local equilibrium state described by a Planckian distri-
bution function f 0 as in Eq. 共10兲. The energy momentum The total energy density and pressure are then
tensor is decomposed as in Eq. 共1兲. The thermal component
T T␮ ␯ admits a similar decomposition: ␳ ⫽ ␳ T ⫹⌳ f ; p⫽p T ⫺⌳ f . 共140兲

冕
4
d p
␮␯
T 0T ⫽ p ␮ p ␯ 2 ␲ ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 f 0 共 X, p 兲 ⫽ ␳ T u ␮ u ␯ ⫹p T P ␮ ␯ , The equilibrium entropy flux takes the form S ␮0 ⫽p ␤ ␮
共 2␲ 兲4 ⫺T ␮0 ␯ ␤ ␯ ⫽( ␳ ⫹ p) ␤ ␮ ⫽( ␳ T ⫹ p T ) ␤ ␮ . On the other hand, Eq.
共136兲 共128兲 yields S ␮0 ⫽⌽ 0T ␮
⫺T 0T␮␯
␤ ␯ , where

冕
where
␮
d4p ␮
⌽ 0T ⫽⫺2 ␪ 共 p 0 兲 p ␮ 2 ␲ ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 ln关 1⫺e ⫺ 兩 ␤ ␮ p 兩 兴 .

冕 共2␲兲 4
d4p
␳ T⫽ 共 up 兲 2 2 ␲ ␦ 共 ⍀ 0 兲 f 0 共 X, p 兲 . 共137兲 共141兲
共2␲兲 4

This form of the thermodynamic potential brings to our

Since ␳ T and M 2 are scalars, we may compute them in the attention other equivalent expressions for the thermal pres-
rest frame: sure

125013-15
E. A. CALZETTA, B. L. HU, AND S. A. RAMSEY PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

p T ⫺1
T
⫽ 2
␲
冕 M
⬁
d ␻ ␻ 冑␻ 2 ⫺M 2 ln关 1⫺e ⫺ ␤ ␻ 兴 共142兲
f ⫽ f 0 ⫹ f 0 共 1⫹ f 0 兲 ␹ .

Since I col关 f 0 兴 ⬅0, only the deviation contributes to the col-

共148兲

lision integral. We keep only linear terms, and write, by anal-

and
ogy with Eq. 共147兲

p T⫽
3
1
␲
冕 2
⬁

M
d ␻ 关 ␻ 2 ⫺M 2 兴 3/2 f 0 . 共143兲 ␦ I col⫽ f 0p 共 1⫹ f 0p 兲关 ␦ I 2→2 ⫹ ␦ I 2→4 兴 , 共149兲

where, upon introducing the momentum space volume ele-

Observe that Eqs. 共127兲 and 共142兲 imply the thermody- ment
namic relationship Eq. 共2兲 共here and henceforth, we shall use
d/dT to denote a total temperature derivative, that is with d4p␪共 p0兲␦共 ⍀ 兲
respect to the explicit temperature dependence through f 0 as Dp⫽ f 0p 共 1⫹ f 0p 兲 , 共150兲
well as the implicit dependence through M 2 . We shall use 共 2␲ 兲3
⳵ / ⳵ T when we mean only the former兲. Indeed, Eq. 共142兲
implies we have

T
dp T
dT
⫽ p T⫹ ␳ T⫺
M T2 dM 2
2
T
dT
. 共144兲 ␦ I 2→2 ⫽ ␴ 冕 DrDsDt ␦ 共 p⫹r⫺s⫺t 兲

兵 ⫺ ␹ p ⫺ ␹ r ⫹2 ␹ s 其
But p T ⫹ ␳ T ⫽ ␳ ⫹p, and ⫻ , 共151兲
关共 1⫹ f 0p 兲共 1⫹ f 0r 兲 f 0s f 0t 兴
dp dp T d⌳ f
T ⫽T ⫺T . 共145兲 and similarly
dT dT dT

So Eq. 共2兲 follows from Eq. 共127兲. This concludes our study
of the local equilibrium states.
␦ I 2→4 ⫽ 冕 DrDsDtDuD v

V. LINEARIZED TRANSPORT EQUATION 再

⫻ R 1␦ 1
关共 1⫹ f
关 ⫺ ␹ p ⫺3 ␹ r ⫹2 ␹ u 兴
p 兲共 1⫹ f r 兲共 1⫹ f s 兲共 1⫹ f t 兲 f u f v 兴
Under local thermal equilibrium, the transport equation is
violated. We have I col⫽0, while the transport part 共for p 0
⬎0)
⫹R 2 ␦ 2
关 ⫺ ␹ p ⫺ ␹ r ⫹4 ␹ s 兴
冎
关共 1⫹ f p 兲共 1⫹ f r 兲 f s f t f u f v 兴
, 共152兲

冋 p␮
⳵X
⳵
␮
1
⫺ M ,2␮
2
⳵
f
⳵p␮ 0 册 where R 1,2 and ␦ 1,2 were defined in Eqs. 共92兲 and 共93兲.

B. The method of moments

冋 1
⫽ f 0 共 1⫹ f 0 兲 p ␮ p ␯ ␤ ␮ , ␯ ⫺ M ,2␮ ␤ ␮ .
2 册
共146兲
Given Eqs. 共147兲 and 共149兲, the linearized transport equa-
tion can be rewritten as

Recalling the decomposition Eq. 共6兲 and assuming the

macroscopic equations Eq. 共5兲, the lhs of the transport equa-
1
T
p ␮ p ␯H ␮␯⫺
T
␭
u ,␭
再 1
共 p•u 兲 2 c s2 ⫺ ⫹
3 冋 册
M 2 c s2
3
⫺ TM ,T
2
2
冎
tion becomes
⫽K 关 ␹ 兴 , 共153兲

冋
1 1
f 0 共 1⫹ f 0 兲 p ␮ p ␯ H ␮ ␯ ⫺ 共 p•u 兲 2 c s2 ⫺
T T 再1
3 冋 册 where K is a Hermitian operator in the space of functions
defined on the positive energy mass shell. We further intro-

⫹
M 2 c s2
⫺ TM ,T
2 ␭
u ,␭ . 冎 册 共147兲
duce an inner product in this space by defining

冕
3 2
具 ␵, ␹ 典 ⫽ Dp ␵ * 共 p 兲 ␹ 共 p 兲 ; 具 ␹ 典 ⬅ 具 1,␹ 典 . 共154兲
This plays the role of the Q E differential operator in Eq. 共15兲.
For our purposes, it will be enough to forfeit a rigorous so-
A. The linearized collision term
lution, and to seek instead a solution using the method of
At this point we need to shift our attention to the right- moments. This entails first writing Eq. 共153兲 in the orthogo-
hand side of the transport equation, Eqs. 共130兲, 共131兲, and nal basis built out of the monomials 1, p ␮ , p ␮ p ␯ , etc. 关al-
共91兲. The collision term vanishes identically under local ther- ways with respect to the inner product Eq. 共154兲, with Dp
mal equilibrium, so we need to consider a distribution func- defined as in Eq. 共150兲兴, and then truncating it to only the
tion deviating from it. Write first few moments.

125013-16
HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSPORT FUNCTIONS FROM . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

To simplify our notation, let us adopt the local rest frame, When we expand the operator K 关 ␹ 兴 we notice that, when
and write ␻ ⫽p 0 ⫽⫺u• p. Let ␹ 0 ⫽1 be the first element of truncated to the subspace spanned by the functions Eq. 共155兲,
our basis. The remaining functions are (i⫽1,2,3兲: the operator matrix acquires a block form, with one block
corresponding to the ␹ a functions (a⫽0, 1 or 2兲, another to
具␻典 the q ia , and yet another to the Y m functions. Since there are
␹ 1⫽ ␻ ⫺ ;
具1典 no q ia functions in the left-hand side of Eq. 共160兲, we may as
well write
具 ␻ 2 典具 ␻ 典 ⫺ 具 ␻ 3 典具 1 典 具 ␻ 3 典具 ␻ 典 ⫺ 具 ␻ 2 典 2
␹ 2⫽ ␻ 2⫹ ␻ ⫹ , ⫺1
具 1 典具 ␻ 2 典 ⫺ 具 ␻ 典 2 具 1 典具 ␻ 2 典 ⫺ 具 ␻ 典 2 ␹⫽ b Y m ⫺⌫ 关 A⫹B ␹ 1 ⫹C ␹ 2 兴 . 共162兲
T m

q i1 ⫽p i ; 冋
q i2 ⫽p i ␻ ⫺
具 ␻ pជ 2 典
具 pជ 2 典
册 . 共155兲
Since K 关 ␻ 兴 ⫽0, the B coefficient will remain undetermined
关the left-hand side of Eq. 共160兲 is orthogonal to ␻ , so the
system is integrable兴. We will set B⫽0 for the time being,
To this we must add five independent functions built out and postpone further discussion until we enforce the Landau-
of the binary products p i p j 共there are only five independent Lifshitz conditions.
To determine the b m coefficients, we must solve the linear
functions, because pជ 2 ⫽ ␻ 2 ⫺M 2 is not independent of the
system
above兲. The simplest procedure is to think of these monomi-
als as the composition of two spin 1 objects; the spin zero
i j H ⫽X b n ,
⌫m ij mn
共163兲
component of the composition is precisely pជ 2 , and the spin 1
part, being antisymmetric, will vanish, so our functions are where
the five l⫽2 spherical harmonics. For example, calling p ⫾
⫽p x ⫾ip y , we may choose 具 Y m ,K 关 Y n 兴 典
X mn ⫽⫺ . 共164兲
具 Y m ,Y m 典
Y m⫽共 p ⫹
2
,p ⫹ p z , p z2 ⫺p ⫹ p ⫺ , p ⫺ p z , p ⫺
2
兲; 2⭓m⭓⫺2.
共156兲 By symmetry, the X matrix must be diagonal
We also have the relationships 共see Appendix B兲 X mn ⫽b ␦ mn ; b⭓0 共165兲
d␳ 关 1⫺3c s2 兴 共for the positivity of b, see Israel 关15兴兲 leading to

冋 册
具 ␻ 典 ⫽T 2 , 共157兲
dT 1
M 2 ⫺ TM ,T
2
1
2 b m⫽ ⌫ m Hi j. 共166兲
b ij

d ␳
3
2 冋
M 2 ⫺ TM ,T
2 2
cs 册 To find the A and C coefficients let us expand

冋 册
具 ␻ 典 ⫽T
3 2
共158兲
冋 册
,
dT 1 具K关1兴典 具␻典␹1 ␹2
M 2 ⫺ TM ,T
2
K关1兴⫽ 1⫺ ⫹␤ 2 ,
2 具1典 具 ␻ , ␹ 1典 具 ␹ 2典
d␳
具 ␻ pជ 2 典 ⫽3c s2 T 2
dT
. 共159兲
K关 ␹2兴⫽
␤
具1典 冋
1⫺
具␻典␹1
具 ␻ , ␹ 1典
␹2
⫹␥ 2 , 册
具 ␹ 2典
共167兲
In terms of the new functions, Eq. 共153兲 reads
where we have used 具 ␻ ,K 关 ␹ 兴 典 ⫽0. If only binary scattering
1 m
再
⌫ Y H i j ⫹⌫ 具 ␻ 典 ␹ 2 ⫹c
T ij m
具␻典␹1
具 ␻ , ␹ 1典
⫺1 冋 册冎 ⫽K 关 ␹ 兴 ,
is considered, then also 具 K 关 ␹ 兴 典 ⫽0 and 具 K 关 1 兴 典 ⫽ ␤ ⫽0. In
general, then, 具 K 关 1 兴 典 ⬃ ␤ Ⰶ ␥ . Therefore, these equations ad-
共160兲 mit an approximate solution with C⫽0, yielding

where ⫺1 m 兵 具 ␻ 3 典具 1 典 ⫺ 具 ␻ 2 典具 ␻ 典 其
␹⫽ ⌫ H Y ⫹c ; c 0 ⫽⌫ ,
兩具K关 1 兴典兩
冋 册 冓 冔
bT i j i j m 0
1 1 共168兲
␭
u ,␭ M 2 ⫺ TM ,T
2
Y m , p i p j ⫺ pជ 2
2 3
⌫⫽ ; ⌫m
i j⫽ ; where we have used 具 K 关 1 兴 典 ⭐0, as follows from the inequal-
3
d␳ 具 Y m ,Y m 典 ity Eq. 共135兲 and the identity
3T
dT

c⫽
具 ␻ 3 典具 1 典 ⫺ 具 ␻ 2 典具 ␻ 典
. 共161兲
具 K 关 1 兴 典 ⫽4␭ 4 冕 关共
D pDrDsDtDuD v共 R 2 ⫺R 1 兲 ␦ 1
1⫹ f p 兲共 1⫹ f r 兲共 1⫹ f s 兲共 1⫹ f t 兲 f u f v 兴
.
具1典 共169兲

125013-17
E. A. CALZETTA, B. L. HU, AND S. A. RAMSEY PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

C. The temperature shift and the bulk stress Actually,

It can be seen from Eq. 共168兲 that the correction to the
distribution function has two components. The one associ- ⳵␳ T
1 具␻典
⫽ M T2 ⫺ , 共177兲
ated with the H ␮ ␯ tensor contributes to shear stress, but it ⳵M 2 2 2T
does not induce a change in the energy density, and therefore
it is compatible with the Landau-Lifshitz matching condi- so
tions. The constant shift of ␹ by c 0 , on the other hand, af-
fects in principle both the energy density and the thermal
mass M T . So, to enforce the Landau-Lifshitz conditions, it 冋
␦ ␳ ⫽ ␳ ,T ␦ T⫹ 具 ␻ 2 典 ⫺
具1典
2
2
TM ,T 册
c0 . 共178兲
must be partially compensated by a temperature shift. Con-
cretely, if we call T the temperature of the fiducial equilib- And since the total energy remains the same,
rium state, such that ␳ (T) is equal to the energy density in
the nonequilibrium state, then the temperature appearing in
the local equilibrium distribution function f 0 must be T 0
␳ ,T ␦ T⫽⫺c 0 具 ␻ 2 典 ⫺ 冋 具1典
2
2
TM ,T . 册 共179兲
⫽T⫹ ␦ T. The effect of this temperature shift is the same as
that in the coefficient B in Eq. 共162兲. Let us apply the same reasoning to the bulk stress, which
The distribution function and temperature shifts in turn results from both the departure of the pressure from p(T)
produce a shift ␦ M 2 in the physical mass, which likewise and the direct contribution from the new terms in the distri-
does not affect the transport equation. However, both ␦ T and bution function

冋 册
␦ M 2 are relevant to the bulk stress. Observe that there is no
shift in the four velocity u ␮ . ⳵pT 1 1
The three displacements c 0 , ␦ T, and ␦ M 2 are related by ␶ ⫽c s2 ␳ ,T ␦ T⫹ ⫹ M T2 M ,c
2
c 0 ⫹ 关 具 ␻ 2 典 ⫺M 2 具 1 典 兴 c 0 .
⳵M 2
2 3
the constraints that the gap equation must hold, and the total 共180兲
energy density in the nonequilibrium state must be the same
as in the equilibrium state. We write the gap equation as Now,
␭ 2
M 2⫺ ␸共 M 2, ␮ 2 兲⫽ M . 共170兲 ⳵pT ⫺1 2
2 T ⫽ MT , 共181兲
⳵M 2 2
The linearized equation then reads
so

冋 1⫺ ␸ ⬘ ⫺
␭ ⳵ M T2
2 ⳵M 2 册
␦ M 2⫽
␭
2
冋 ⳵ M T2
⳵T
册
␦ T⫹c 0 具 1 典 . 共171兲
␶ ⫽⫺c 0 再冋 册 冋
c s2 ⫺
1
3
具 ␻ 2典 ⫹
M 2 c s2
3
⫺ TM ,T
2
2
具1典 . 册 冎
共182兲
As a matter of fact,
Using Eqs. 共168兲, 共157兲, and 共158兲, we get
⳵ M T2 具 ␻ 典

冋 册
⫽ 2 . 共172兲
⳵T T ␭
1 2
u ,␭ M 2 ⫺ TM ,T
2
2 兵 具 ␻ 3 典具 1 典 ⫺ 具 ␻ 2 典具 ␻ 典 其 2

冉 冊
So, finally, ␶ ⫽⫺ .
d␳ 2 兩具K关 1 兴典兩
3T 5
␦ M 2 ⫽M ,T
2
␦ T⫹M ,c
2
c0 , 共173兲 dT
共183兲
where
D. Shear stress and viscosity
具1典
2
M ,c ⫽T 2 M ,T
2
. 共174兲 The shear stress can be read directly out of the new terms
具␻典
in T T␮ ␯ . In the rest frame, we get
Since the gap equation is enforced, we can look at the
⫺1 m kl i j
共cosmological兲 constant ⌳ as a function of M 2 , and ␶i j⫽ ⌫ H 具 p p ,Y m 典
bT kl

冓 冔
⫺1 2
␦⌳ f⫽ M T␦ M 2, 共175兲 ⫺1 1 1
2 ⫽ H p i p j ⫺ ␦ i j pជ 2 ,p k p l ⫺ ␦ kl pជ 2
bT kl 3 3
then ⫺R i j

冋 册
⫽ H 共184兲
bT
⳵␳ T
1
␦ ␳ ⫽ ␳ ,T ␦ T⫹ ⫺ M T2 M ,c
2
c 0 ⫹ 具 ␻ 2 典 c 0 . 共176兲
⳵M 2 2 from which we can read out the shear viscosity

125013-18
HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSPORT FUNCTIONS FROM . . . PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

R APPENDIX A: ⌸ 12 IS PURELY IMAGINARY

␩⫽ . 共185兲
bT
To estimate ␩ , it is enough to keep only the leading 共bi-
nary scattering兲 contributions, so ␩ ⬃␭ ⫺2 . On dimensional
grounds, b⬃T 2 and R⬃T 6 , so we recover the usual result,
To show this, observe that ⌸ 12 is the sum of all 1PI Feyn-
man graphs with two external vertices, one carrying a 1 in-
dex and the other a 2 index 共this follows from it being the
result of opening one 12 leg in each 2PI vacuum bubble兲. It
can also be represented as

冏
␩ ⬃T 3 /␭ 2 .
⳵⌫1
⌸ 12⫽ , 共A1兲
E. Bulk viscosity ⳵ ␾ 1⳵ ␾ 2 ␾ ⫽0

As expected, things are not so simple with the bulk vis- where ⌫ 1 is the usual 共1PI兲 effective action, and ␾ a is the
cosity. We can read it out from Eq. 共183兲 as background field. The effective action has the structure

冋 1
M 2 ⫺ TM ,T
2
2
册 2

兵 具 ␻ 3 典具 1 典 ⫺ 具 ␻ 2 典具 ␻ 典 其 2 ⌫ 1⫽
1
2
冕 dxdy 兵 关 ␾ 兴共 x 兲 D 共 x,y 兲 兵 ␾ 其 共 y 兲

冉 冊
␨⫽ . 共186兲
d␳ 2 兩具K关 1 兴典兩
3T 5 ⫹i 关 ␾ 兴共 x 兲 N 共 x,y 兲关 ␾ 兴共 y 兲 其 ⫹O 共 ␾ 3 兲 , 共A2兲
dT
where 兵 ␾ 其 ⫽ ␾ 1 ⫹ ␾ 2 , 关 ␾ 兴 ⫽ ␾ 1 ⫺ ␾ 2 ; both D and N are real,
However, in evaluating it we must consider that 具 1 典 is loga- N is even, and D is causal. Therefore,
rithmically divergent in the massless limit, so we must cor-
rect the sheer dimensional estimate to 具 1 典 ⬃T 2 ln(M/T). As
for the size of 兩 具 K 关 1 兴 典 兩 , observe that the integral is domi-
⳵⌫1
⳵␾ 共x兲
1
⫽
1
2
冕 dy 兵 D 共 x,y 兲 兵 ␾ 其 共 y 兲 ⫹ 关 ␾ 兴共 y 兲 D 共 y,x 兲
nated by the Rayleigh-Jeans tail, where f 0 ⬃T/ ␻ Ⰷ1. Thus
兩 具 K 关 1 兴 典 兩 ⬃␭ 4 T 6 F(M 2 ). Since the overall units are Mass4 , it ⫹2iN 共 x,y 兲关 ␾ 兴共 y 兲 其 ⫹O 共 ␾ 2 兲 , 共A3兲
must be 兩 具 K 关 1 兴 典 兩 ⬃T 6 /M 2 . For the remaining elements we
may use the conventional estimates 具 ␻ 3 典 ⬃T 5 , ␳ ⬃T 4 , and and
thus obtain
1
⌸ 12⫽⫺iN 共 x,y 兲 ⫹ 关 D 共 x,y 兲 ⫺D 共 y,x 兲兴 . 共A4兲

冋 册
2 2
2
M 1
␨⬃ M 2 ⫺ TM ,T
2
ln2 共 M /T 兲 , 共187兲 The real part of ⌸ 12 is odd, and its imaginary part even,
␭ T
4 3 2
which shows that its Fourier transform is purely imaginary.
Then we write
which reproduces JY’s Eq. 共5.6兲 关3兴.
In the limit in which the bare mass vanishes, or equiva-
lently in the T→⬁ limit, we may write on dimensional
grounds
⌸ 12共 x,y 兲 ⫽ 冕 d4p
共 2␲ 兲4
e ip(x⫺y) ⌸ 12共 p 兲 , 共A5兲

then the identity ⌸ 12

* (x,y)⫽⫺⌸ 12(y,x) becomes indeed
1 1 ⌸ 12(p)⫽⫺⌸ 12(p).
*
M 2 ⫺ TM ,T
2
⬅ ␮ M ,2␮ ⬃␭M 2 共188兲
2 2 We may use the same argument to find that ⌸ 21(x,y)
⫽⌸ 12(y,x), so ⌸ 21(p)⫽⌸ 12(⫺p) is also imaginary. We
and since M 2 ⬃␭T 2 itself, Eq. 共187兲 reduces to ␨ also find
⬃␭T 3 ln2(␭), again in agreement with JY 关3兴. 1
⌸ 11⫽iN 共 x,y 兲 ⫹ 关 D 共 x,y 兲 ⫹D 共 y,x 兲兴 共A6兲
2
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
from where Im ⌸ 11(p)⫽(i/2)(⌸ 12⫹⌸ 21).
This work was reported at the program on Quantum Field
Theory of Non-Equilibrium Processes at INT- University of APPENDIX B: Š ␻ ‹ AND Š ␻ 3 ‹
Washington. We thank the organizers, J-P. Blaizot, R. Pisar-
sky, and L. Yaffe for their invitation, the INT staff for their Our objective is to compute
hospitality, and colleagues with whom we overlapped during
our stay, P. Danielewicz, E. Iancu, D. Litim, G. Moore, E.
Mottola, S. Mrowczinsky, D. Son, and L. Yaffe, for interest- 具 ␻ 3典 ⫽
2
1
␲
冕 2 M
⬁
d ␻ ␻ 3 关 ␻ 2 ⫺M 2 兴 1/2 f 0 共 1⫹ f 0 兲 ,
ing discussions. E.C. is supported in part by CONICET,

冕
UBA, and Fundación Antorchas. B.L.H. is supported in part ⬁
1
by NSF grant PHY98-00967 and their collaboration is sup- 具␻典⫽ d ␻ ␻ 关 ␻ 2 ⫺M 2 兴 1/2 f 0 共 1⫹ f 0 兲 .
ported in part by NSF grant INT95-09847. 2 ␲ 2 M

125013-19
E. A. CALZETTA, B. L. HU, AND S. A. RAMSEY PHYSICAL REVIEW D 61 125013

Recall the identity So

⳵f0

冋 册
␻ f 0 共 1⫹ f 0 兲 ⫽T 2 . 共B1兲
⳵T 3
M 2 ⫺ TM ,T
2 2
cs
d␳ 2
This and Eq. 共2兲 may be used to establish the identity
冋 册
具 ␻ 3 典 ⫽T 2 ;
dT 1
d␳ 2 M ⫺ TM ,T
2 2
2
具 ␻ 3 典 ⫺M 2 具 ␻ 典 ⫽3T 共 p⫹ ␳ 兲 ⫽3T 2 c . 共B2兲
dT s

Similarly,
d␳ 关 1⫺3c s2 兴

冋 册
具 ␻ 典 ⫽T 2 . 共B4兲
1 d␳ dT 1
具 ␻ 典 ⫺ TM ,T
3 2
具 ␻ 典 ⫽T 2 . 共B3兲 M ⫺ TM ,T
2 2
2 dT 2

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