Applied Hydraulics

Lecture Topic 3. Behavior of real fluids

 from Week 2
Fluid flows may be described by different equations as summarized by:
Fluid in motion
Fluid at rest
Inviscid flow Flow of viscous fluid μ ≠0
v=0 n=0
Irrotational flow Rotational flow
∇ × 𝒗 = 0, 𝝎=∇×𝒗≠0
𝒗 = ∇𝜙
Equation of motion Euler’s equations Bernoulli eq. Navier-Stokes eqs.
(Chadwick p.497) 0 = −∇𝑝 + 𝜌𝒈 𝜌 𝒗 ∙ ∇ 𝒗 𝜌 2
𝒗 + 𝑝 + ρ𝑔𝑦 (Chadwick p.499)
= −∇𝑝 + 𝜌𝒈 2
=𝐶
Continuity
eq.(incompressible) ----- ∇ ∙ 𝒗 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣 ∙ 𝒗 =0 div・v=0 div・v=0
(Chadwick p.497)
Questions
• Do these equations really represent flows we need to deal with?
• If they do not, how are they different from the way these equations describe?
 Irrotational flow (potential flow)
If the flow is irrotational, the equations of motion reduce to Bernoulli equation and
many flows can be easily solved but Bernoulli equation has no information on the
velocity components. So let us look at irrotational flows a little more.
The irrotational flow in 2-dimension means that the vorticity or the rate of rotation wz is
zero everywhere, i.e.
(1)
This relation is satisfied if
(2)
for some scalar-valued potential function f because if Eq(2) is substituted in (1)
(3)
Then velocity components u and v can be found from f if f is found.
f is defined by u and v (Eq(2)) so must satisfy the continuity equation that u, v satisfy
(4)
or
(5)
 𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙
+ =0 (5)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
This is the Laplace equation used in many mathematical physics. It is 2nd-
order partial differential equation of elliptic type which can be solved with a
unique solution if boundary conditions of Neumann type .
𝜕𝜙
𝑢𝑛 = =0
𝜕𝑛

is given. n is the direction normal to the boundary and un is velocity

normal to boundary. un =0 means that the flow does not penetrate into
boundary condition, solid surfaces.
f defined by eq (2) is called the potential. In the present case it defines
the velocity and is called ‘velocity potential’. The solution of Laplace
equation is called a harmonic function.
 An example of potential flow
Flow past a circle
We try to find the solution of
y (u,v)
U (x,y) or
(5) q
p=0 (r,q) x
with boundary condition a

(6)
and
Pressure distribution on
(7) the surface
The solution for this is
p/(1/2rU ) 2

(8) 1

From this, the velocity uq along the surface of the circle is

0
90 q
180

Then the pressure is given by the Bernoulli equation applied at

upstream point and on the circle surface as -3.0
Topic 3. Behavior of real fluids
Reference: Chadwick et al (Ref1) Ch3, Ch5
Contents
3.1 Real and ideal fluids
3.2 Examples of real fluid flows
3.3 Viscous flows
3.4 Laminar flows and its stability
3.5 Turbulent flows
3.6 Boundary layer
- drag forces, separation
only brief
3.7 Cavitation
mention
3.8 Surface tension
3.9 Free surface flows (Chadwick Ch 5)
3.9.1 Uniform flow
review from
3.9.2 Gradually-varied flow open channel
3.9.3 Rapidly varied flow flow
3.9.4 General open-channel flows
 3.1 Real and ideal fluids
➢ Fluids as opposed to solid and gas (from topic 1)
• no resistance to deformation but to the rate of change of deformation
• no volume change

➢ Ideal fluids
• theoretically idealized fluid with assumption of no viscosity, perfectly most important
incompressible
• continuum (no micro-scale molecular behavior)
• no surface tension, hydrophobic, hydrophilic behavior
• not to be confused with perfect gas

➢ Real fluids
• viscous, often very small viscosity
• turbulent, (un-deterministic fluctuations) most important
• compressible, small for liquid
• surface tension, often very small
• cavitation
➢ Real flow of Real fluids
• flows that actually occur in real life (like in hydraulic engineering)
• flow field is over or in complex geometry and facing atmosphere
3.2 Examples of real flows
 Examples of real free-surface flows

Flow over broad

crested weir

Flow past bridge

piers
Rapidly
varied
Control points
(known
flow depth)
Flow over spillway
and stilling basin
 3.3 Viscous flows
y
➢ viscosity u
viscous (shear) stress t on the surface perpendicular to y
direction is x direction (tyx to be exact)
= (coefficient of viscosity) x (rate of deformation)
m 𝜕𝑢 Τ𝜕𝑦 Flow with changing velocity
(x,y+dy)
•
• rate of deformation dy
(spatial) change (gradient) of velocity •
(x,y) u
• viscous stress t y
stress in opposite direction of velocity change u
= resistance t
Including other surfaces and normal stresses
𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗
𝜏𝑖𝑗 = 𝜇 + i, j = x,y,z Newton’s law of viscosity
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖
 3.3 Viscous flows
・ momentum equations in 3-d with Newtons viscous law substituted for
viscous stresses txx, txy etc. (Navier-Stokes equations)

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =− + 2𝜇 + 𝜇 + + 𝜇 + (1)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =− − 𝜌𝑔 + 𝜇 + + 2𝜇 + 𝜇 + (2)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕 𝜕𝑤
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =− + 𝜇 + + 𝜇 + + 2𝜇 (3)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

・ Continuity equation now reads

u v w
+ + =0 (4)
x y z
 3.3 Viscous flows
➢ Reynolds number
• Momentum equation in x-dir V

• inertia force (acceleration x mass)

L
Scale of distance over which
• viscous force
velocity changes

• ratio of (inertia force)/(viscous force)

n of water at 20℃ is 10-6m2/s

• Re=LV/n (length scale)x(velocity scale)/(kinematic If V=1m/s,L=1m, Re=106.
viscosity) Reynolds number
 3.3 Viscous flows
➢ Real fluids
• Viscous resistance
• Mixing
• Momentum exchange

➢ Real flow of Real fluids

• viscous flow in real geometry
Viscous flow past a body (external flow)
Viscous flow at large Reynolds number

boundary
layer
3.4 Laminar flow and its instability (internal flow)

Potential flow
 3.5 Turbulent Flows

Turbulence resolved Turbulence averaged

(Turbulence not resolved)
 3.9 Free-surface flows
➢ Free surface
- interface between two fluids with one negligible density such as water and air

➢ Examples of free-surface flows

- flows in open channels
- flows in rivers, lakes, estuary, coasts, offshore, ocean

➢ Characteristics of free surface

- the free surface moves freely with the flow
- the pressure is atmosspheric and the shear forces are zero on the free surface
- the free surface is the material surface consisting of the same fluid elements as
it moves
- the gravitational force plays the major role in determining interior pressure
and the surface shape
 3.9 Free-surface flows
How to describe free surface in 3-dimension
➢ Free surface may be represented by the vertical position
using ‘height function’ h or the depth
➢ Its change is related to the flow

z = h( y , z , t )
If z=h(x,y,t) is the vertical position of the
free surface at the horizontal position (x,y), free surface
and if (u,v,w) are the velocity components at z h(x,y,t)
(x,y,h), h satisfies
y
h h h ・ (x,y)
+u +v =w
t x y x

why? how?
 Free-surface flows
Equation for the depth function
Flow going out of the column bounded by 4
vertical surfaces is free surface

z
h(x,y,t)
y dx dy
x
(1)
q minus the flow coming from the bottom wdxdy should equal the volume
increase due to the rise of the free surface height

(2)
equating these and dividing by dxdy
h h h (3) Kinematic condition
+u +v =w
t x y
 Different Approaches of Free-surface flows
• Open channel flows
- flows in long passages with length much larger than depth
channels, rivers, tunnels, other waterways
- properties within cross sections and at different sections are differently analyzed
one-dimensional analysis
• Shallow water flows
- flow is in areas with large horizontal scales compared with depth
coastal currents, circulation in lakes, flooded flows
- plane two-dimensional analysis
• Deep flows
- the depth is large compared with other dimensions and bottom effect is small
surface waves, flow around ships and floating bodies in deep sea
• Three dimensional flows
- No special direction with special features
intake flows, hydro power, complex hydraulic structures
• Two-dimensional flows
- variation in one direction may be small or may be ignored
 One-dimensional approach of open-channel flows
Types of open-channel flows
Steady flow 1. Uniform flow
(no change 2. Gradually-varied ( differential equation
with distance )
with time) flow (GVF)
Open- Non-uniform
channel
Unsteady flow 3. Rapidly-varied flow ( special algebraic
flows equation)
(change with (EVF)
time)

GVF RVF GVF

RVF
GVF RVF GVF GVF

Unsteady flow
 Analysis Methods of Steady Open-channel Flows
Variables Equations
1. Uniform flow Unique values of Algebraic relations
velocity, depth, etc. of momentum balance
Gradually-varied Gradually-varying Differential equation
2. Non-uniform functions of x
flow Rapidly- Bulk quantities Relations among bulk
Varied (flow rate, energy loss, and sections
etc)
Principles for formulating equations for analysis
1. Conservation of mass (or continuity)
differential form or
bulk balance
2. Conservation of momentum
differential equation (equations of motion)
or bulk balance equation
or integrated form (Bernoulli’s equation)
 3.9.1. Uniform Flow
1. Uniform open-channel flow
no change of flow quantities in streamwise direction L A: cross sectional area
s: wetted perimeter
2. Continuity H V
flow going in and going out are Q=VA which is constant Wsinq
P
W=rgAL V average velocity
3. The momentum equation
The x dir. momentum does not change P total pressure
pressure force P=1/2(rgH)A on upstream and t force
downstream surfaces balance shear q x
component of weight in x-dir, is Wsinq =rgALsinq, stress
resistance on the bed is tLs
rVQ - rVQ = 0 = 1/2rgHA - 1/2rgHA + rgALsinq – tLs
t=rgsinq A/s=rgSR S=sin q : bed slope, R=A/s : hydraulic radius

For wide channel of width b and depth h, A=hb, R=h

t=rghS Formula for uniform-flow bed stress What about the
(result of momentum and continuity) velocity V?
 3.9.1. Uniform Flow in Channel
velocity in uniform flow
• The exact velocity distribution and its relation to the bed stresses can be obtained by
solving the equations of motion accounting for turbulent fluctuations. The bed shear
t has the dimension same as pressure and rV2 , so t is expected to be of the form

𝜏 ∝ 𝜌𝑉 2 V is the average velocity over cross section

• For uniform flow t=rgRS from the momentum equation

Then the average velocity V may be written in terms of R and S in the form

𝜏
𝑉∝ = 𝑔𝑅𝑆, 𝑉=𝐶 𝑅 𝑆 Chezy formula C: Chezy constant
𝜌
Chezy coefficient C depends on various factors including viscosity
and the quality of the bed surface roughness
 3.9.1. Uniform Flow in Channel
Manning’s equation ,

• Average Velocity in uniform flow

Expect faster velocity for steeper slope S and for
smoother surface with smaller wall surface area.
So empirically A
H
s V
Manning
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V= R S formula for
n uniform flow b
t
R = A/ s
S=sinq, q
Faster flow Faster flow for larger
flow area, smaller Faster flow for
for smaller n
surface (friction) steeper slope

For wide channel A=Hb, s=2H+b ≈ b

R=A/s ≈ Hb/b=H
Also note Larger shear for faster
S=(nV/R2/3)2=n2V2R-4/3 flow V and smaller
So hydraulic radius R
 Laminar Uniform Open-channel Flow
(very slow flow) without empirical formula
Equations for two-dimensional laminar flow y
(1)
H
u,v
(2)
(3) t
q
where
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 x
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 𝜇 + 𝜏𝑦𝑦 = 2𝜇 (4)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
For fully-developed uniform flow
from (3) since v=0 at y=0
Then in (2) v=0, so
(2)’

So pressure is hydrostatic
 Laminar Uniform Open-channel Flow (cont.)
y
With p=-rgycosq, Eq.(1) becomes
(1) H
u
Since
(1)’ t
q
Integrating and using x
(5)

Integrating one more time and using u=0 at y=0

y
H
t from the uniform flow relation t =rgHsinq
1 𝜌𝑔 2 𝜌𝑔𝐻 sin 𝜃
𝑢=− 𝑦 sin 𝜃 + 𝑦
2 𝜇 𝜇
1 𝐻 1 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 2 1 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 2 1 𝐻2
𝑉 = න 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 = − 𝐻 + 𝐻 = 𝑔 sin 𝜃 (6) u
𝐻 0 6 𝜇 2 𝜇 3 𝜇/𝜌 rgH2sinq/2m
1 𝜌𝑔 3/2.
Then 𝐶= 𝐻 sin 𝜃
3 𝜇
 3.9.2. Gradually Varied Flow
B
Consider conservation
dx
laws applied to the dA = Bdh
area shown I red box V
s: wetted A
of small length cross
perimeter rgAdxsinq
section
Continuity : Q=VA=(V+DV)(A+DA) h
V+dV
rgAdx
Momentum :
(Momentum flux out)-(Momentum flux in) t
=S(forces)=Pressure + gravity – bed shear q x

rQ(V + dV ) - rQV = Ap - ( Ap + d ( Ap )) + rgAdx sin q - t sdx

where p : average press., d ( Ap ) = rgAdh
rAVdV = - rgAdh + rgAdx sin q - t sdx
By dividing by rgAdx, we obtain
1 d (V 2 ) dh ts t
+ - sin q = - =- , R = A / s, (hydraulic radius) (A)
2 g dx dx rgA rgR
3.9.2. Gradually Varied Flow (General Cross Section)

1 d (V 2 ) dh t
+ - sin q = -
2 g dx dx rgR V
dz
sin q = - h
dx
t
2
1 d (V ) dh dz t
+ + =-
2 g dx dx dx rgR z q x

Integrate with x
x
V2 t
+ h + z = - dx Generalized Bernoulli eq.
2g rgR Or energy equation
 Friction slope
The shear stress t may be expressed by other quantity like slope since
t=rgRS and S=[(nV)/(R2/3)]2 for uniform flow
For a given non-uniform flow of Q=VA, the slope implied by this Q and R 1 2 / 3 1/ 2
2 V= R S
 Q  -4 / 3 n
S = n  R = Sf
 A 
is called the friction slope of the flow with Q, A and R, or the channel slope
necessary to have flow Q in cross section A,R. A=bh h
s=b+2h
For rectangular channel of width b A=bh , R=A/(b+2h), so
2
 Q b
S f =  n  bh /(b + 2h)- 4 / 3
 bh  2
 q
For very wide channel b>>h , q=Q/b S f =  n  h - 4 / 3 = n 2 q 2 h -10 / 3
3 / 10  h
 n2q 2 
h=  = hn
 Sf 
 
is called the normal depth ( written as hn ).
Friction slope and the normal depth are same as actual slope and depth only in uniform flow and in
varying flow different from actual slope and the actual depth
3.9.2. Gradually Varied Flow (General Cross Section)
(Cont.)
2
1 d (V ) dh t
+ - sin q = - (A)
2 g dx dx rgR

Express the right hand side by using the friction slope

t
= Sf
rgR
For left hand side, consider a fixed flow rate Q, then V=Q/A
dV 2 dV Q d (Q / A) Q 2 dA Q 2 dA dh Q 2 B dh
= 2V =2 = -2 3 = -2 3 = -2 3
dx dx A dx A dx A dh dx A dx
So Q 2 B dh dh
- + - S0 = -S f
gA3 dx dx
Now using the definition of the Froude number for general cross section

dh S 0 - S f
=
dx 1 - Fr2 (B)
Equation for general GVF
Surface slope for different bed and friction slope and
Froude number
dh S 0 - S f
S0– Sf 1 – Fr2 = Surface
dx 1 - Fr2 h

steep subcritical + + +
steep
Supercritical + - -
mild
Subcritical - + -
steep
Supercritical - - +
Cannot be gradually varied + 0 ∞
Uniform flow 0 0
 3.9.3 Equation of gradually-varied flow in
wide (or 2-d) channel
For wide channel, Manning formula is
h 2 / 3 1/ 2 h 5 / 3 1/ 2
q = Vh = R S 0 = S0
n n
So the friction slope Sf is

and the bed slope S0 is

So

Also the Froude number is

V 2 (q / h) 2 q 2 hc3
Fr = 2
= = 3= 3
gh gh gh h
Sf
1-
dh S 0 - S f S0 h 3 - h03 dh h 3 - h03
= = S0 = S0 3 = S0 3
dx 1 - Fr2 hc3 h - hc3 dx h - hc3
1- 3
h
 Gradually varied flow in wide channel
Use y instead of h, yn instead of h0
dy y 3 - y n3 dy/dx determined by S0, yn,yc, y
= S0 3
dx y - yc3
dy + -
y>yn>yc = S0  0 yn>y>yc dy
= S0  0 dy -
dx + dx + yn>yc>y = S0  0
dx -
M1 curve M2 curve M3 curve
Mild slope
S0<Sc,
yn>yc

y>yc>yn yc>y>yn yc>yn>y

?
Steep slope
S0>Sc, yn<yc
 gradually varied flow(Cont.)
dy y 3 - y n3
= S0 3
dx y - yc3

dy - dy -
y>yn>yc yn>y>yc =0 0 yn>yc>ydx = 0 0
dx + -
Horizont
al slope
S0=0
yn=∞ y>yc>yn
yc>y>yn yc>yn>y
dy ?
=- 0 dy ?
y>yc dx + =- 0
yc>y dx -

Adverse
slope
S0<0
 Energy Equation
Concept of specific energy
Assume: ②
①No variation in time (steady ③ V
flow) and in the lateral direction q (flow rate) y p
h
( 2-d flow)
②Flow velocity changes in
stream-wise direction only and Then:
is constant vertically, so The Bernoulli sum at any point in vertical section
q=yV, or V=q/y with reference elevation at the bed is
③ Pressure is hydrostatic, so V2 p
+h+ = velocity head
2g rg depth
pressure at h from bed is
p=(y-h)rg V2 ( y - h) rg V 2
+h+ = +y=E
2g rg 2g
V2
+ y = E = Const
2g
Good for both gradually and is called the specific energy.
varied and rapidly varied flow If the Bernoulli sum is constant so is E for horizontal
channel with bed shear stress t=0.
 Critical flow and critical depth
For a fixed q:
V=q/y is a function of y and the specific energy
y y=E
(q / y ) q 12 2 Sub-critical
E= +y= +y
2g 2g y 2 y1 flow
is also a function of y. critical
If E is plotted horizontally and y vertically, the graph depth Super-critical
looks like the figure. Note: for large y the first term y2 flow
E1 E
is small and is close to E=y , and for small y , E~1/y2
The minimum E is where the slope is 0 Now look at the figure as depth y as a function of E:
dE q2 1 If specific energy is E1, say, the depth is
=- +1 = 0
dy g y3 read off the graph, but may not be just one
i.e. at q2 and 3  q2 
1/ 3
3y value and can be y1 or y2.
y=3 E =   =
g 2 g  2 Also within a flow of fixed q, the depth and
This is called the critical depth yc. and E change following this y-E curve.
-1 / 2
V q/ y q q  q2 
= = y -3 / 2
=   =1 The Froude Number V/√gy is unity.
gy gy g g  g 
 Flow over varying bed elevation
V2
E+z= + y+z
For varying channel bed height: 2g
1. Considering elevation z of bed, Bernoulli ① ②
eq. can be written as q
E + z = Const ③
y2
y1
2. If z increases, E decreases. Corresponding V
y can be found from the y-E curve. Dz z2
z1

3. If Dz is large enough, there are two y=E

y
possibilities for downstream depth y1 ①
4. When viscous dissipation (or friction loss) y2 ② Dz
hl needs to be considered ③
E + z + hl = Const E
E1
hl in general depends on depth and the bed roughness
 3.9.3. Rapidly varied flow
Concept of Specific force
②
Consider a C.V. around rapidly changing flow ① or ’
upstream and downstream of this region, the ①’ ②
flow is 2d, constant vel. and hydrostatic press. V1 C.V. V
And no friction on the bed
q p p2
structure
Continuity & momentum conservation: F1 y y2 F
V1=q/y1 , V2=q/y2 1 Fe
2
x
r qV2 - rqV1 = F1 - F2 - Fex (1)
1 1
where F1 = r gy12 , F2 = r gy 22
2 1 2 1 y ① q=const1
r gy1 + r q / y1 = r gy 22 + rq 2 / y 2 + Fex
2 2
Then Eq.(1) is 2 2 y1
② conjugate
Specific force: Fs 1
Fs = r gy 2 + r q 2 / y y2 F
2 critical ex
depths
depth ①
is a function of y for fixed q. And y’1 Fs
Fs1 = Fs2+Fex Fs1 ’
 Rapidly varied flow
Hydraulic jump ② E2 (= E1+DE)
Across hydraulic jump, there Fs2 (= Fs1)
is energy loss but no change E1
in specific force V2
① Fs1 y2
q
y1
V1
Specific force
Specific energy
diagram
y y diagram
②
y2
y2 ② D
E
y1 ① y1

Fs1=Fs2
Fs E2 E1① E
y1,y2 : conjugate depths V1
Fr1 =
y2
=
1
( 1 + 8Fr - 1)
1 gy1 Note: y2/y1=1, Fr1=1
 Flow past a gate

① ②

F
G

The Bernoulli eq. or the specific Energy equation at sections ① and ②,

(q / y1 ) 2 q2 1
E= + y1 = + y2
2g 2 g y 22
So the downstream depth y2 for
2
given q and y1 can be found by solving
q
y 23 - Ey22 + =0
2g
or if the downstream depth y2 is known, the flow rate q can be found by solving
the same eq. q2  1 1  2g
 - = y1 - y 2 , q = y1 y 2
2 g  y 22 y12  y1 + y 2 How about FG?
 Flow past a gate

① ②

F
G

Specific force
diagram Specific energy
y diagram y

y1 ① y1 ①

y2 ② FG ②
y2
Fs E
F2s E1=E2
 3.9.4 Examples of general open-channel flows

Flow over
road crested
weir

Flow past
bridge piers

Rapidly varied flow

Control points
Flow over (known depth)
spillway and
stilling basin
 Summary of methods of finding free surface profile
Equation/Diagram Method Conditions/Assumptions
Equation for gradually varied flow Examine Sf, Fr gradually varied (dh/dx<∞)
dh S 0 - S f or hn, hc (for wide chan.) hydrostatic press
=
or dx 1 - Fr2 And get dh/dx (no vertical acc.)
dh h 3 - h03
= S0 3
dx h - hc3

Specific energy diagram Examine change of E=q/2y2+y Not neccessarily gradually-

varied, can have jump
y, h And get y , h graphically
yc
E
Specific force diagram Examine change of Can be sudden change
FS=rgy2/2+rq2/y
y, h
yc And get y ,h graphically
F
Control sections Examine local property
V=0, y=yc, y=yG, etc
Summary of methods of finding free surface profile
1. We have three methods

2. First calculate or know the uniform flow property S f = S0

S0>Sf, Fr<1 dh/dx>0, region 1

dh S 0 - S f
=
dx 1 - Fr2

Region 1
 Example, uniform flow

For given q

What is hc ? h0
What is hn ? Need to q=8.9m2/s
know n and S0 n=0.03 Sb=0.001

h=(nq/Sb1/2)3/5=(0.03x8.9/0.0011/2)3/5 =(8.44)3/5=3.59m

hc=(q2/g)1/3=(8.92/9.8)1/3 =10.21/3=2.16 m
 Example, more complex

1. Identify or estimate type of flow

- any region of uniform flow?
- where is gradually varied?
- where does flow abruptly change?

2. At control points
- zero velocity
- known depth (such as critical flow)
-
3. In gradually varying region
- estimate which curve by
𝑑ℎ 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓 𝑑ℎ ℎ3 − ℎ𝑐3
= , = 𝑆0 3
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝐹𝑟 2 𝑑𝑥 ℎ − ℎ𝑐3
noting it is the slope