Geotechnical Engineering for

Environmental Engineers
UGNA3153
Year 3 Jan Trimester
BEng (Hons) Environmental Engineering

ground

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 Geotechnical Engineering for
Environmental Engineers

Shear Strength(1)

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SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS
The shear strength of soils is a most important aspect of
geotechnical engineering.
“The ability to resist sliding along internal surfaces within a soil
mass” (Murthy, 1992). Or defined as the internal resistance per unit
area of a soil mass to resist failure and sliding along any plane
inside it.
The bearing capacity of shallow or deep foundations, slope
stability, retaining wall design are all affected by the shear strength
of the soil in a slope, behind a retaining wail, or supporting a
foundation or pavement.
Structures and slopes must be stable and secure against total
collapse when subjected to maximum applied loads.
Thus limiting equilibrium methods of analysis are
conventionally used for their design, and these methods require
determination
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 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

Shear strength of a soil mass is only

dependent on the skeleton of the soil
particles (effective normal stress is
the stress transmitted through the
soil skeleton only).

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SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

 We define the shear strength of a soil as the ultimate or

maximum shear stress the soil can withstand.

 The allowable deformation actually often controls the design of a

structure because with the large safety factors we use, the actual
shear stresses in the soil produced by the applied loads are much
less than the stresses causing collapse or failure.

 Shear strength can be determined in several different ways; then

we described some of the more common laboratory and field tests

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SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

Normal stress: Load per unit area on a plane

normal to the direction of the load.

Shear stress: Load per unit area on a plane

parallel to the direction of the shear force.

Normal stresses: compress (compression)

or elongate (tension) a material while
shear stress distorts a material.

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Stresses in Soils
 Density & Unit weight of soils

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 Geostatic stresses
Once the importance of the force transmitted through the soil skeleton
from particle to particle was recognized (Terzaghi, 1925), the
following three geostatic stresses were defined:
 Total normal stress, σ : the force per unit area
transmitted in a normal direction across a plane within
the soil mass, imagining the soil to be solid.
 Pore water pressure, u : the pressure of water filling the
void space between the solid soil particles.
 Effective stress, σ’: Stress transmitted through the soil
skeleton only (effective stress is defined only for
saturated soils – below water table)

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Effective stress at a point in soil

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Vertical Geostatic Stresses at A

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Calculation of Effective Stress

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Calculation of Effective Stress

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Example
Calculate, total stress, σ, pore-water pressure, u, and
effective stress, σ ′, at A.

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Solution
Calculate, total stress, σ, pore-water pressure, u, and
effective stress, σ ′, at A.

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Shear Strength

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SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS
 Principal stresses are
normal stresses on

planes of zero shear
stress ( = 0).
 The stress with larger
magnitude: major
principle stress, 1. 
 Stress with smaller
magnitude: minor
principle stress, 3.

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 STRESS AT A POINT

Assume that a force is

applied on a particle of
soil. It acts in a two-
dimensional plane. We
could resolve these
forces into components
on a small element at
any point within the soil
mass, such as point O in
the Figure below.
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STRESS AT A POINT

 The resolution of these forces into normal

and shear component acting passing
through point O at angle  is shown below.

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STRESS AT A POINT
Notes:
1. sign convention has compressive forces and
stresses are positive because most normal
stresses in geotechnical engineering are
compressive. This convention then requires that
a positive shear produce counterclockwise
couples on our element.
2. Positive shear stress produce clockwise
moments about a point just outside the element.
3. Clockwise angles are also taken to be positive.
4. These conventions are the opposite what
assumed in structural mechanics.
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STRESS AT A POINT
5. Compressive forces and compressive
stresses +ve
6. Tensile forces and tensile stresses –ve
7. Counterclockwise shear stresses +ve
8. Clockwise shear stresses –ve
9. Clockwise angles +ve

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 STRESS AT A POINT
 By solving all forces in equilibrium (Figure 1a), we
will obtain the equation for a circle with a radius of
 x   y  and its center at   x   y  ,0
 
2  2 

 When this circle is plotted in - space (Figure 1b),

for the element in (Figure 1a), it is known as the
 Mohr circle of stress.
 The Mohr circle of stress represents the state of
stress at a point at equilibrium, it applies to any
material not just soil only.
 The scale of  and  have to be the same to obtain
a circle from these equations.
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STRESS AT A POINT

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STRESS AT A POINT

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STRESS AT A POINT
 Principal planes are those planes where there are
no shearing stresses acting on the plane. Thus the
stresses x and y are principal stresses. Principal
stresses act on planes where =0.
 Stress with the largest magnitude is called the
major principal stress, denoted as 1.
 Smallest principal stress is called minor principal
stress, 3.
 So the equation will be

1   3 1   3 1   3
   cos 2   sin 2
2 2 2
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SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

This is a very practical issue, since:

a) Consolidation settlements in soils are strongly related to

increased stresses from applied loads.

b) Shear failure in soils can occur due to applied loads, and as

engineers, we need to be able to predict whether or not failure will
occur.

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SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS
 For example, consider the model figure shown below
which simulates a building constructed atop a soil
slope. The combined internal stresses in the soil can be
sufficiently large to cause shear failure with potentially
severe consequences

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SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS
 In situ methods such as the vane shear test or penetrometers
avoid some of the problems of disturbance associated with the
extraction of soil samples from the ground.

 These methods only determine the shear strength indirectly

through correlations with laboratory results or back-calculated
from actual failures. Laboratory tests, on the other hand, yield
the shear strength directly.

 In addition, valuable information about the stress-strain

behaviour and the development of pore pressures during shear
can often be obtained.

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 Cone Penetration Test

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 Field Vane Test

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 Field Vane Test

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 Field Vane Test

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SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS
 Mohr (1900) presented a theory for rupture in materials that
contended that a material fails because of a critical combination
of normal stresses and shearing stress and not from either
maximum normal or shear stress alone (FAILURE THEORY).

 For most soil mechanisms problems, it is sufficient to

approximate the shear
stress in the failure plane as a
linear function of the normal stress (Coulomb,1776)

 = f(σ)
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Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
(in terms of total stresses)
 Shear strength Measured by two parameters:
– c (cohesion) and φ (internal friction angle)
 Higher the values ( c and φ), higher the shear strength.

τf is the maximum shear

Stress of the soil can
take without failure,
under normal stresses

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Cohesive Soils
 Cohesive soils are clay type soils. Cohesion is the
force that holds together molecules or like particles
within a soil.

 Cohesion, c, is usually determined in the laboratory

from the Direct Shear Test.

 Unconfined Compressive Strength, Suc, can be

determined in the laboratory using the Triaxial Test or
the Unconfined Compressive Strength Test. There are
also correlations for Suc with shear strength as
estimated from the field using Vane Shear Tests.
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Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
(in terms of effective stresses)

τf is the maximum shear Stress of the soil can take without

failure, under normal effective stresses
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Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 In saturated soils – stress carried by solids is effective
stress

 = c + σ’ tan ϕ
f

σ‘ = effective stress on the plane

ϕ = drained friction angle

Sand, c = 0
Overconsolidated clay, c > 0
 Internal friction angle is a measure of the shear strength of
soils
 Cohesion is a measure of the forces that cement particles of
soil

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Inclination of the plane of failure
caused by shear

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Inclination of the plane of failure caused by shear

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Effective Stresses
 The principle of effective stress was stated by Bishop (1959)
in terms of two simple hypotheses:
 Volume change and deformation in soils depends on
difference between
 the total stress and the pressure set up in the fluid in the pore
space, not on the total stress applied. This leads to the
expression σ’ = σ – u
 Shear strength depends on the effective stress, not on the total
normal stress on the plane considered. This may be expressed
by the equation τf = c’ + tan φ’
 The principle of effective stress, as expressed above, has
proved to be vital in the solution of practical problems in soil
mechanics.
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 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
The parameters c and f are the shear strength parameters. The
Mohr-Coulomb criterion is an empirical criterion, and the
failure locus is only locally linear. Extrapolation outside
the range of normal stresses for which it has been
determined is likely to be unreliable. The parameters
depend on:

 the initial state of the soil:

 Overconsolidation ratio (OCR) for clays; and
 Relative density (Id) for sands.
 the type of test:
 Drained - slow fully drained, no excess pore water
pressures; and
 Undrained - no drainage, excess pore water pressures
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 Laboratory Tests for Determination of
Shear Strength Parameters.
 Direct Shear Test
 Triaxial Test

 Direct Simple Shear Test

 Plane Strain Traxial Test

 Torsional Ring Shear Test

Direct shear test and triaxial test are two commonly used
techniques for determining the shear strength parameters
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How to take undisturbed samples??

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Laboratory tests

 Field Conditions

Before Construction
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Direct Shear Test

 Direct shear test is the oldest and simplest form of shear

test arrangement.
 The strength of soil is usually performed on a test specimen
cut from an undisturbed sample.

 Depending on the equipment, the shear test can be either

stress controlled or strain controlled.

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Direct Shear Test

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Direct Shear Test

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Direct Shear Test

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Direct Shear Test

 In stress controlled tests, the shear force is applied in equal

increments until the specimen fails. The failure occurs along the
plane of split of the shear box. After application of each
incremental load, the shear displacement of the top half of the box
is measured by a horizontal dial gauge. The change in the height of
the specimen during the test can be obtained from the reading of a
dial gauge that measure the vertical movement of the upper loading
plate.

 In- Strain controlled tests, a constant rate of shear displacement is

applied one half of the box. The constant rate of shear
displacement is measured by a horizontal dial gauge. The resisting
shear force of the soil corresponding to any shear displacement can
be measured by a horizontal proving ring or load cell.
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Direct Shear Test
 A load normal to the plane of shearing may be applied
to a soil specimen through the lid of the box. Provision
is made for porous plates to be placed above and below
the soil specimen. These enable drainage to occur
which is necessary if a specimen is to be consolidated
under a normal load, and if a specimen is to be tested
in a fully drained state.

 The soil specimen may be submerged, by filling the

containing vessel with water, to prevent the specimens
from drying out. Undrained tests may be carried out,
but in this case solid spacer blocks rather than the
porous disks must be used.

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Direct Shear Test
 Usually only relatively slow drained tests are performed
in shear box apparatus. For clays the rate of shearing
must be chosen to prevent excess pore pressures
building up. For freely draining sands and gravels tests
can be performed quickly. Tests on sands and gravels
are usually performed dry as it is found that water does
not significantly affect the (drained) strength.
 Provided there are no excess pore pressures the pore
pressure in the soil will be approximately zero and the
total and effective stresses will be identical.
That is, n = ´n.
 The failure stresses thus define an effective stress failure
envelope from which the effective (drained) strength
parameters c´, ´ can be determined.
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Direct Shear Test

 The advantage of strain controlled tests is that in the case of dense

sand, peak shear resistance (at failure) as well as lesser shear
resistance (at point after failure called ultimate strength) can be
observed and plotted.

 Note that the peak shear resistance in stress controlled tests can be
only determined because failure occurs at a stress level somewhere
between the pre-failure load increment and the failure load
increment.

 For direct shear test, the normal stress can be calculated as.

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Direct Shear Test

Analysis of test results

Note: Cross-sectional area of the sample changes

with the horizontal displacement

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Direct Shear Test

Shear Box Schematic

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Direct
Shear
Test

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 How to determine
strength parameter
c andφ

 Direct shear tests are repeated and

the corresponding value of τf
obtained from a number of tests
are plotted on a graph from which
the shear strength parameters are
determined
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Note: In dry sand c=0

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Direct shear tests on sands
 Some important facts on strength parameters c and
φ of sand

 Sand is cohesionless hence c = 0.

 Direct shear tests are drained and pore water

pressures are dissipated, hence u = 0

 Therefore,
φ’ = φ and c’ = c = 0

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Drained Direct Shear Test on saturated Sand and
Clay
 In the direct shear test arrangement, the shear box that
contains the soil specimen is generally kept inside a
container that can be filled with water to saturate the
specimen. A drained test is made on a saturated soil
specimen by keeping the rate of loading slow enough so
that the excess pore water pressure generated in the soil is
dissipated completely by drainage.
 The hydraulic conductivity of clay is very small compared
with that of sand. When a normal load is applied to a clay
soil sample a sufficient length of time must elapse for full
consolidation.
 For this reason, the shearing load must be applied very
slowly.
 The test may last from two to five days.
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